Queensland has a population of over 5.5 million,[7] concentrated inSouth East Queensland, where nearly three in four reside. The capital and largest city in the state isBrisbane, Australia'sthird-largest city and comprising fully half of the state’s population. Ten of Australia's thirty largest cities are located in Queensland, the largest outside Brisbane being theGold Coast, theSunshine Coast,Townsville,Cairns,Ipswich, andToowoomba. 24.2% of the state's population wereborn overseas.[8] The state has the highest inter-state net migration in Australia.[9]
Queensland was among the six colonies which became the founding states of Australia withFederation on 1 January 1901. Since theBjelke-Petersen era of the late 20th century, Queensland has received a high level of internal migration from the other states and territories of Australia and remains a popular destination for interstate migration.
Queensland has thethird-largest economy among Australian states, with strengths in mining, agriculture, transportation,international education, insurance, and banking. Nicknamed theSunshine State for its tropical and sub-tropical climates,Great Barrier Reef, and numerous beaches, tourism is also important to the state's economy.
Queensland was one of the largest regions of pre-colonial Aboriginal population in Australia.[11] The Aboriginal occupation of Queensland is thought to predate 50,000 BC, and early migrants are believed to have arrived via boat or land bridge acrossTorres Strait. Through time, their descendants developed into more than 90 different language and cultural groups.
During the lastice age, Queensland's landscape became more arid and largely desolate, making food and other supplies scarce. The people developed the world's first seed-grinding technology.[12] The end of theglacial period brought about a warming climate, making the land more hospitable. It brought high rainfall along the eastern coast, stimulating the growth of the state's tropical rainforests.[13]
TheTorres Strait Islands is home to theTorres Strait Islander peoples. Torres Strait Islanders are ethnically and culturally distinct from mainland Aboriginal peoples. They have a long history of interaction with both Aboriginal peoples of what is now Australia and the peoples ofNew Guinea.
The Aboriginal population declined significantly after asmallpox epidemic during the late 18th century and massacres by the European settlers.[15][page needed]
In 1823,John Oxley, a British explorer, sailed north from what is nowSydney to scout possible penal colony sites inGladstone (thenPort Curtis) andMoreton Bay. At Moreton Bay, he found theBrisbane River. He returned in 1824 and established a penal settlement at what is nowRedcliffe. The settlement, initially known asEdenglassie, was then transferred to the current location of theBrisbane city centre.Edmund Lockyer discovered outcrops of coal along the banks of the upper Brisbane River in 1825.[16] In 1839 transportation of convicts was ceased, culminating in the closure of the Brisbane penal settlement. In 1842 free settlement, which had already commenced, was officially permitted. In 1847, thePort of Maryborough was opened as a wool port. While most early immigrants came from New South Wales, the first free immigrant ship to arrive in Moreton Bay from Europe was theArtemisia, in 1848.
Earlier than this immigrant ship was the arrival of the Irish famine orphan girls to Queensland. Devised by the then British Secretary of State for the Colonies, The Earl Grey Scheme established a special emigration scheme which was designed to resettle destitute girls from the workhouses of Ireland during the Great Famine. The first ship, the "Earl Grey", departed Ireland for a 124-day sail to Sydney. After controversy developed upon their arrival in Australia, a small group of 37 young orphans, sometimes referred to as The Belfast Girls or the Feisty Colleens, never set foot on Sydney soil, and instead sailed up to Brisbane (then Moreton Bay) on 21 October 1848 on board theAnn Mary. This scheme continued until 1852.[17]
In 1857, Queensland's first lighthouse was built atCape Moreton.[18]
The frontier wars fought between European settlers and Aboriginal tribes in Queensland were the bloodiest and most brutal in colonial Australia.[19] Many of these conflicts are now seen as acts of genocide.[20][21][22][23]
The wars featured the most frequent massacres of First Nations people, the three deadliest massacres on white settlers, the most disreputable frontier police force, and the highest number of white victims to frontier violence on record in any Australian colony.[24] Across at least 644 collisions at least 66,680 were killed — with Aboriginal fatalities alone comprising no less than 65,180.[25] Of these deaths, around 24,000 Aboriginal men, women and children were killed by the Native Police between 1859 and 1897.[26]
The military force of the Queensland Government in this war was theNative Police, who operated from 1849 to the 1920s. The Native Police was a body of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander troopers that operated under the command of white officers. The Native Police were often recruited forcefully from far-away communities.[27][28]
Aftermath of the 1861Cullin-La-Ringo massacre in which 19 settlers were killed by Aboriginal people, the deadliest attack on settlers in the frontier wars
Conflict spread quickly with free settlement in 1838, with settlement rapidly expanding in a great rush to take up the surrounding land in theDarling Downs, Logan and Brisbane Valley and South Burnett onwards from 1840, in many cases leading to widespread fighting and heavy loss of life. The conflict later spread north to theWide Bay andBurnett River andHervey Bay region, and at one stage the settlement ofMaryborough was virtually under siege.[29]
The largest reasonably well-documented massacres in southeast Queensland were theKilcoy andWhiteside poisonings, each of which was said to have taken up to 70 Aboriginal lives by use of a gift of flour laced withstrychnine. At theBattle of One Tree Hill in September 1843,Multuggerah and his group of warriors ambushed one group of settlers, routing them and subsequently others in the skirmishes which followed, starting in retaliation for the Kilcoy poisoning.[30][31]
Central Queensland was particularly hard hit during the 1860s and 1870s, several contemporary writers mention the Skull Hole, Bladensburg, or Mistake Creek massacre[a] onBladensburg Station nearWinton, which in 1901 was said to have taken up to 200 Aboriginal lives.[32] First Nations warriors killed 19 settlers during theCullin-La-Ringo massacre on 17 October 1861.[33] In the weeks afterwards, police, native police and civilians killed up to 370 members of theGayiri Aboriginal people in response.[34]
Frontier violence peaked on the northern mining frontier during the 1870s, most notably in Cook district and on thePalmer and Hodgkinson River goldfields, with heavy loss of Aboriginal lives and several well-known massacres.[35] Raids conducted by theKalkadoon held settlers out of Western Queensland for ten years until September 1884 when they attacked a force of settlers and native police at Battle Mountain near modernCloncurry. The subsequent battle of Battle Mountain ended in disaster for the Kalkadoon, who suffered heavy losses.[36] Fighting continued inNorth Queensland, however, with First Nations raiders attacking sheep and cattle while Native Police mounted heavy retaliatory massacres.[37][38]
Tens of thousands ofSouth Sea Islanders were forced, deceived or coerced intoindentured servitude and slavery on Australia's agricultural plantations. This process was known as blackbirding.[39][40][41] This trade in what were then known asKanakas was in operation from 1863 to 1908, a period of 45 years. Some 55,000 to 62,500 were brought to Australia, most being recruited or blackbirded from islands inMelanesia, such as theNew Hebrides (nowVanuatu), theSolomon Islands and the islands aroundNew Guinea.[42]
Blackbirded South Sea Islanders on aSugarcane plantation in Queensland.
The majority of those taken were male and around one quarter were under the age of sixteen.[43] In total, approximately 15,000 South Sea Islanders (30%) died while labouring in Queensland – excluding those who died in transit or were killed in the recruitment process – mostly during three-year contracts.[44] This is similar to the estimated 33% death rate among enslaved Africans in the first three years of arriving in America,[45] Brazil, and the Caribbean; the conditions were often comparable to those of theAtlantic slave trade.[40][39]
The trade was legally sanctioned and regulated under Queensland law, and prominent men such as Robert Towns made massive fortunes through blackbirding, helping to establish some of the major cities in Queensland today.[46] Towns' agent claimed that blackbirded labourers were "savages who did not know the use of money" and therefore did not deserve cash wages.[47]
Following Federation in 1901, theWhite Australia policy came into effect, which saw most foreign workers in Australia deported under thePacific Island Labourers Act 1901, which saw the Pacific Islander population of the state decrease rapidly.[48]
In 1865, the first rail line in the state opened betweenIpswich andGrandchester. Queensland's economy expanded rapidly in 1867 after James Nash discovered gold on theMary River near the town ofGympie, sparking a gold rush and saving the Colony of Queensland from near economic collapse. While still significant, they were on a much smaller scale than the gold rushes of Victoria and New South Wales.
Immigration to Australia and Queensland, in particular, began in the 1850s to support the state economy. During the period from the 1860s until the early 20th century, many labourers, known at the time asKanakas, were brought to Queensland from neighbouring Pacific Island nations to work in the state's sugar cane fields. Some of these people had been kidnapped under a process known asblackbirding or press-ganging, and their employment conditions constituted an allegedly exploitative form of indentured labour.Italian immigrants entered the sugar cane industry from the 1890s.[51]
During the 1890s, the six Australian colonies, including Queensland, held a series of referendums which culminated in theFederation of Australia on 1 January 1901. During this time, Queensland had a population of half a million people. Since then, Queensland has remained afederated state within Australia, and its population has significantly grown.
Returned World War II soldiers march in Queen Street, Brisbane, 1944
In 1905 women voted in state elections for the first time. The state's first university, theUniversity of Queensland, was established in Brisbane in 1909. In 1911, the first alternative treatments for polio were pioneered in Queensland and remain in use across the world today.[52]
Australia's first major airline,Qantas (originally standing for "Queensland and Northern Territory Aerial Services"), was founded inWinton in 1920 to serve outback Queensland.
In 1935cane toads were deliberately introduced to Queensland from Hawaii in an unsuccessful attempt to reduce the number of French's cane and greybackcane beetles that were destroying the roots of sugar cane plants, which are integral to Queensland's economy. The toads have remained an environmental pest since that time. In 1962, the first commercial production of oil in Queensland and Australia began atMoonie.
DuringWorld War II Brisbane became central to theAllied campaign when the AMP Building (now calledMacArthur Central) was used as theSouth West Pacific headquarters forGeneral Douglas MacArthur, chief of the Allied Pacific forces, until his headquarters were moved toHollandia in August 1944.[54] In 1942, during the war, Brisbane was the site of a violent clash between visiting US military personnel and Australian servicemen and civilians, which resulted in one death and hundreds of injuries. This incident became known colloquially as theBattle of Brisbane.[55]
The end of World War II saw awave of immigration from across Europe, with many more immigrants coming fromsouthern andeastern Europe than in previous decades.
In the later decades of the 20th century, thehumid subtropical climate—regulated by the availability of air conditioning—saw Queensland become a popular destination for migrants from interstate.[56] Since that time, Queensland has continuously seen high levels of migration from the other states and territories of Australia.
The end of theWhite Australia policy in 1973 saw the beginning of a wave of immigration from around the world, and most prominently from Asia, which continues to the present.
In 2003 Queensland adoptedmaroon as the state's official colour. The announcement was made as a result of an informal tradition to use maroon to represent the state in association with sporting events.[57]
With a total area of 1,729,742 square kilometres (715,309 square miles), Queensland is an expansive state with a highly diverse range of climates and geographical features. If Queensland were an independent nation, it would be the world's 16th largest.
The state is divided into severalunofficial regions which are commonly used to refer to large areas of the state's vast geography. These include:
South East Queensland in the state's coastal extreme south-eastern corner, an urban region which includes the state's three largest cities: capital city Brisbane and popular coastal tourist destinations theGold Coast andSunshine Coast. In some definitions, it also includes the city ofToowoomba. South East Queensland accounts for more than 70% of the state's population.
TheDarling Downs in the state's inland southeast, which consists of fertile agricultural (particularly cattle grazing) land and in some definitions includes the city of Toowoomba. The region also includes the mountainousGranite Belt, the state's coldest region which occasionally experiences snow.
Because of its size, there is significant variation in climate across the state. There is ample rainfall along the coastline, with amonsoonal wet season in thetropical north, andhumid sub-tropical conditions along the southern coastline. Low rainfall and hot humid summers are typical for the inland and west. Elevated areas in the south-eastern inland can experience temperatures well below freezing in mid-winter providingfrost and, rarely,snowfall. The climate of the coastal regions is influenced by warm ocean waters, keeping the region free from extremes of temperature and providing moisture for rainfall.[60]
There are six predominant climatic zones in Queensland,[61] based on temperature and humidity:
Hot humid summer, warm humid winter (far north and coastal):Cairns,Innisfail
Hot humid summer, warm dry winter (north and coastal):Townsville,Mackay
Hot humid summer, mild dry winter (coastal elevated areas and coastal south-east):Brisbane,Bundaberg,Rockhampton
Hot dry summer, mild dry winter (central inland and north-west):Mt Isa,Emerald,Longreach
The coastal far north of the state is the wettest region in Australia, withMount Bellenden Ker, south of Cairns, holding many Australian rainfall records with its annual average rainfall of over 8 metres (26 ft).[67] Snow is rare in Queensland, although it does fall with some regularity along the far southern border with New South Wales, predominantly in the Stanthorpe district although on rare occasions further north and west. The most northerly snow ever recorded in Australia occurred nearMackay; however, this was exceptional.[68]
Natural disasters are often a threat in Queensland: severetropical cyclones can impact the central and northern coastlines and cause severe damage,[69] with recent examples includingLarry,Yasi,Ita andDebbie. Flooding from rain-bearing systems can also be severe and can occur anywhere in Queensland. One of the deadliest and most damaging floods in the history of the state occurred inearly 2011.[70] Severe springtimethunderstorms generally affect the south-east and inland of the state and can bring damaging winds, torrential rain, largehail and eventornadoes.[71] Thestrongest tornado ever recorded in Australia occurred in Queensland nearBundaberg in November 1992.[72] Droughts andbushfires can also occur; however, the latter are generally less severe than those that occur in southern states.
The highest official maximum temperature recorded in the state was 49.5 °C (121.1 °F) at Birdsville Police Station on 24 December 1972.[73] The lowest recorded minimum temperature is −10.6 °C (12.9 °F) at Stanthorpe on 23 June 1961 and at The Hermitage (nearWarwick) on 12 July 1965.[74]
Graphs are unavailable due to technical issues. Updates on reimplementing the Graph extension, which will be known as the Chart extension, can be found onPhabricator and onMediaWiki.org.
In December 2021, Queensland had an estimated population of 5,265,043.[7] Approximately half of the state's population lives in Brisbane, and over 70% live inSouth East Queensland. Nonetheless, Queensland is the second most decentralised state in Australia afterTasmania. Since the 1980s, Queensland has consistently been the fastest-growing state in Australia, as it receives high levels of both international immigration and migration from interstate. There have however been short periods whereVictoria andWestern Australia have grown faster.
Early settlers during the 19th century were largelyEnglish,Irish,Scottish andGerman, while there was a wave of immigration fromsouthern and eastern Europe (most notablyItaly) in the decades following thesecond world war. In the 21st century,Asia (most notablyChina andIndia) has been the primary source of immigration.
At the 2016 census, the most commonly nominated ancestries were:[N 3][82][83]
The 2016 census showed that 28.9% of Queensland's inhabitants wereborn overseas. Only 54.8% of inhabitants had both parents born in Australia, with the next most common birthplaces being New Zealand, England,India,Mainland China and South Africa.[82][83] Brisbane has the26th largest immigrant population among world metropolitan areas.
At the2016 census, 81.2% of inhabitants spoke only English at home, with the next most common languages beingMandarin (1.5%),Vietnamese (0.6%),Cantonese (0.5%), Spanish (0.4%) and Italian (0.4%).[85][86]
At the2021 census, 80.5% of inhabitants spoke only English at home, with the next most common languages beingMandarin (1.6%),Vietnamese (0.6%),Punjabi (0.6%) and Spanish (0.6%).[87]
At the2016 census, the most commonly cited religious affiliations were'No religion' (29.2%),Catholicism (21.7%) andAnglicanism (15.3%).[88] In the 2016 Census the majority of Queenslanders were identified as Christian, most of which were of various Protestant denominations.[89]
According to the2021 census, 45.7% of the population follows Christianity, and 41.2% identified as havingNo religion[87][90] About 5% of people are affiliated with a non-Christian religion, mainlyBuddhism (1.4%),Hinduism (1.3%) andIslam (1.2%).[87] The 2021 census found that Protestants of various denominations outnumbered Catholics in Queensland.[91]
In 2019, Queensland had agross state product of A$357,044 million, thethird-highest in the nation after New South Wales andVictoria.[97] The construction ofsea ports and railways along Queensland's coast in the 19th century set up the foundations for the state's export-oriented mining and agricultural sectors. Since the 1980s, a sizeable influx of interstate and overseas migrants, large amounts of federal government investment, increased mining of vast mineral deposits and an expanding aerospace sector have contributed to the state's economic growth.[98]
Primary industries include bananas,pineapples, peanuts, a wide variety of other tropical and temperate fruit and vegetables, grain crops,wineries, cattle raising, cotton,sugarcane, andwool. The mining industry includesbauxite, coal, silver, lead,zinc, gold and copper.[99][100]
Secondary industries are mostly further processing of the above-mentioned primary produce. For example, bauxite is shipped by sea fromWeipa and converted to alumina atGladstone.[101] There is also copper refining and the refining of sugar cane to sugar at a number of mills along the eastern coastline.
As a result of its varied landscapes, warm climate, and abundant natural environment, tourism is Queensland's leading tertiary industry with millions of interstate and international visitors visiting the state each year. The industry generates $8.8 billion annually, accounting for 4.5% of Queensland's Gross State Product. It has an annual export of $4.0 billion annually. The sector directly employs about 5.7% of Queensland citizens.[104] Accommodation in Queensland caters for nearly 22% of the total expenditure, followed by restaurants/meals (15%), airfares (11%), fuel (11%) and shopping/gifts (11%).[105]
Legislative authority is exercised by theQueensland Parliament which uniquely for Australian states isunicameral, containing only one house, the Legislative Assembly. The Parliament wasbicameral until 1922 when theLegislative Council was abolished by the Labor "suicide squad", so called because they were appointed for the purpose of voting to abolish their own offices.[115]Bills receiveroyal assent from theGovernor before being passed into law. The Parliament's seat is atParliament House atGardens Point in Brisbane's CBD. Members of the Legislative Assembly represent93 electoral districts. Elections in Queensland are held at the end of each fixed four-year parliamentary term and are determined by fullpreferential voting.
The state's politics are traditionally regarded as beingconservative relative to other states.[116][117][118][119][120] Historically, the lack of anupper house, the "Bjelkemander" (amalapportion favouring rural electoral districts) has meant that Queensland had a long tradition of domination by strong-willed,populist premiers, often accused of authoritarian tendencies, holding office for long periods. This tendency was exemplified by the government of the state's longest-serving PremierJoh Bjelke-Petersen.
Local government is the mechanism by whichlocal government areas can manage their own affairs to the extent permitted by the Local Government Act 2009. Queensland is divided into 77 local government areas, which are created by the state government under the legislation.[121] Each local government area has a council responsible for providing a range of local services and utilities. Local councils derive their income from both rates and charges on resident ratepayers, and grants and subsidies from the state and federal governments.[122]
Major annual cultural events include theRoyal Queensland Exhibition (known locally as the Ekka), an agricultural exhibition held each August at theBrisbane Showgrounds as well as theBrisbane Festival, which includes one of the nation's largest annual fireworks displays called 'Riverfire', and which is held each September.
The state of Queensland is represented in all of Australia's national sporting competitions and it is also host to a number of domestic and international sporting events. The most popular winter and summer team sports arerugby league andcricket, respectively.
The official state emblems of Queensland are prescribed in the Emblems of Queensland Act 2005.
Queen Victoria granted the Queensland Coat of Arms to the Colony of Queensland in 1893, making it the oldest State Arms in Australia.[125] It depicts Queensland's primary industries in the 19th century with a sheaf of wheat, the heads of a bull and a ram, and a column of gold rising from a heap of quartz. Two stalks of sugar cane which surround the state badge at the top, and below is Queensland's state motto,Audax at Fidelis, which means "Bold but Faithful". In 1977,Queen Elizabeth II granted the supporting animals, thebrolga and thered deer.[125][126]
In November 2003maroon was officially named Queensland's state colour, after many years of association with Queensland sporting teams.
Thekoala was officially named the animal or faunal, emblem of Queensland in 1971 after a newspaper poll showed strong public support. The Queensland Government introduced the poll due to a proposal by state tourism ministers for all states to adopt a faunal emblem.[125] In January 1986, the brolga was announced as the official bird emblem of Queensland, after many years on the Coat of Arms.[126]
TheCooktown orchid became known as Queensland's floral emblem in 1959, during celebrations to mark the state's centenary,[127][128] and theBarrier Reef Anemone Fish was officially named as Queensland's aquatic emblem in March 2005.[129]
Thesapphire was named the official state gem for Queensland in August 1985.[130][131]
Queensland is served by severalNational Highways and, particularly in South East Queensland, a network of freeways such as theM1. TheDepartment of Transport & Main Roads oversees the development and operation of main roads and public transport, including taxis and local aviation.
^Pre-1971 figures may not include the Indigenous population.
^In accordance with the Australian Bureau of Statistics source, England,Scotland,Mainland China and the Special Administrative Regions of Hong Kong andMacau are listed separately
^As a percentage of 4,348,289 persons who nominated their ancestry at the 2016 census.
^The Australian Bureau of Statistics has stated that most who nominate "Australian" as their ancestry are part of theAnglo-Celtic group.[84]
^Of any ancestry. Includes those identifying asAboriginal Australians orTorres Strait Islanders. Indigenous identification is separate from the ancestry question on the Australian Census and persons identifying as Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander may identify any ancestry.
^Of any ancestry. Includes those identifying asAboriginal Australians orTorres Strait Islanders. Indigenous identification is separate from the ancestry question on the Australian Census and persons identifying as Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander may identify any ancestry.
^Harrison, Jennifer (4 July 2014),The Forty-Niners: Brisbane : schemes and dreams nineteenth century arrivals, Brisbane History Group; Salisbury Qld. : Boolarong Press (published 2014), p. 47,ISBN978-1-925046-99-1
^Tatz, Colin (2006). Maaka, Roger; Andersen, Chris (eds.)."Confronting Australian Genocide"(PDF).The Indigenous Experience: Global Perspectives.25. Canadian Scholars Press:16–36.ISBN978-1551303000.PMID19514155.Archived(PDF) from the original on 14 November 2023. Retrieved9 February 2024.
^Evans, Raymond & Ørsted–Jensen, Robert: 'I Cannot Say the Numbers that Were Killed': Assessing Violent Mortality on the Queensland Frontier" (paper at AHA 9 July 2014 at University of Queensland) publisher Social Science Research Network
^R Evans, quoted in T Bottoms (2013)Conspiracy of Silence: Queensland's Frontier Killing Times, Allen & Unwin, p.181
^"Episode Three".Frontier. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Archived fromthe original on 18 July 2006. Retrieved4 August 2010.
^"Frontier wars".Queensland Government. 29 May 2023.Archived from the original on 27 August 2023. Retrieved27 August 2023.
^Queensland State Archives A/49714 no 6449 of 1884 (report); QPG re 13 July 1884, Vol 21:213; 21 July 1884 – COL/A395/84/5070; Q 16 August 1884, p253; 20 August 1884 Inquest JUS/N108/84/415; POL/?/84/6449; 15 Queensland Figaro November 1884 and Queensland State Archives A/49714, letter 9436 of 1889.
^abMortensen, Reid, 2000. "Slaving in Australian courts: Blackbirding cases, 1869-1871."Journal of South Pacific Law, 4, pp.7-37: "Between 1863 and 1904, over 62,000 people from the Melanesian archipelagos provided the colony of Queensland with indentured labour for its emerging agricultural industries. [...] Although by the latter nineteenth century, abolitionism had ended both the transatlantic slave trade and slavery in European colonies, indentured labourers (orlibres engagés) were sought as an alternative: working under limited term contracts and wages but otherwise, on occasion, similar conditions to the slaves."
^abMcDonald, Willa, 2023. "Blackbirding, Subjectivity and the Unseeing 'I'."Literary Journalism in Colonial Australia, pp. 189-216. Cham: Springer International Publishing: "Whether or not the Pacific Island labour trade was a form of slavery is still being debated in Australia. On the one hand, unlike slavery, the indenture contracts were of limited duration, the Islanders were paid, and the rights of the plantation owners over the labourers were extensive but not absolute. [...] As Brooke Kroeger says, the blackbirding trade, if not slavery itself, was at least slavery's 'just-as-evil twin'."
^"Q150 Timeline". Queensland Treasury.Archived from the original on 3 September 2011. Retrieved28 October 2011.
^Rickard, John (2017).Australia: A Cultural History. Monash University. p. 173.ISBN978-1-921867-60-6.
^Patrick, Ross. "Elizabeth Kenny (1880–1952)".Kenny, Elizabeth (1880–1952).Australian Dictionary of Biography. National Centre of Biography, Australian National University.Archived from the original on 17 January 2022. Retrieved1 January 2023.
^TravelTreks (8 September 2016)."Australia's Top 50 Small Towns". Stapylton, Queensland, Australia: DiscountMyFlights.com.au. Archived fromthe original on 27 October 2016. Retrieved20 October 2016.
^"Glass House Mountains National Park".Parks and forests | Department of Environment and Science, Queensland. 2 September 2022.Archived from the original on 23 December 2022. Retrieved23 December 2022.
^Wanna, John (2003)."Queensland". In Moon, Campbell; Sharman, Jeremy (eds.).Australian Politics and Government: The Commonwealth, the States, and Territories. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. p. 47.ISBN978-0-521-82507-8.Archived from the original on 2 January 2016. Retrieved15 November 2011.
^Daly, Margo (2003).The Rough Guide To Australia. Rough Guides Ltd. p. 397.ISBN978-1-84353-090-9.
^Penrith, Deborah (2008).Live & Work in Australia. Crimson Publishing. p. 478.ISBN978-1-85458-418-2.
^"Rates and valuations". Queensland: Department of Local Government, Sport and Recreation. 26 July 2007. Archived fromthe original on 19 March 2008. Retrieved5 April 2008.
Broome, Richard (1988). "The Struggle for Australia : Aboriginal-European Warfare, 1770–1930". In McKernan, Michael; Browne, Margaret; Australian War Memorial (eds.).Australia Two Centuries of War & Peace. Canberra, A.C.T.: Australian War Memorial in association with Allen and Unwin, Australia. pp. 92–120.ISBN0-642-99502-8.
Connor, John (2008). "Frontier Wars". In Dennis, Peter; et al. (eds.).The Oxford Companion to Australian Military History (Second ed.). Melbourne:Oxford University Press Australia & New Zealand.ISBN978-0-19-551784-2.
Coulthard-Clark, Chris D. (2001).The Encyclopedia of Australia's Battles (Second ed.). Crows Nest, New South Wales: Allen & Unwin.ISBN1865086347.
Ørsted-Jensen, Robert (2011).Frontier History Revisited – Queensland and the 'History War'. Cooparoo, Brisbane, Qld: Lux Mundi Publishing.ISBN9781466386822.
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