| Qaitbay | |
|---|---|
 Mamluk Sultan Qaytbay ("Mag Caitbeivs Cairi Svltan") by Florentine painterCristofano dell'Altissimo (16th century), Galleria degli Uffizi | |
| Sultan of Egypt and Syria | |
| Reign | 31 January 1468 – 7 August 1496 |
| Predecessor | Timurbugha |
| Successor | an-Nasir Muhammad |
| Born | c. 1416/1418 Circassia |
| Died | 7 August 1496 (aged 77–80) |
| Spouse |
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| Issue |
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| Religion | Sunni Islam |
Sultan Abu Al-Nasr Sayf ad-Din Al-Ashraf Qaitbay (Arabic:السلطان أبو النصر سيف الدين الأشرف قايتباي;c. 1416/1418 – 7 August 1496)[a] was the eighteenthBurjiMamlukSultan of Egypt from 872 to 901A.H. (1468–1496C.E.). He wasCircassian by birth, and was purchased by the ninth sultanBarsbay (1422 to 1438 C.E.) before being freed by the eleventh SultanJaqmaq (1438 to 1453 C.E.). A pious Sultan, he stabilized the Mamluk state and economy, consolidated the northern boundaries of the Sultanate with theOttoman Empire, engaged in trade with other contemporaneous polities. Founding numerous religious buildings and endowing them with hundreds ofwaqfs, Qaitbay emerged as a great patron of art and architecture.[2] In fact, although Qaitbay fought sixteen military campaigns, he is best remembered for the spectacular building projects that he sponsored, leaving his mark as an architectural patron onMecca,Medina,Jerusalem,Damascus,Aleppo,Alexandria, and every quarter ofCairo.
Qaitbay was born between 1416 and 1418 inCircassia, located in theCaucasus. His skill in archery and horsemanship attracted the attention of a slave merchant who purchased him (Black Sea slave trade) and brought him to Cairo when he was already over twenty years of age. He was quickly purchased by the reigning sultanBarsbay and became a member of the palace guard. He was freed by Barsbay's successor, Jaqmaq, after learning that Qaitbay was a descendant of the Ayyubid Emir of DamascusAl-Ashraf Musa (d. 1237), and appointed the third executive secretary; under the reigns ofSayf ad-Din Inal, Khushqadam and Yilbay, he was further promoted through the Mamluk military hierarchy, eventually becomingtaqaddimat alf, commander of a thousand Mamluks. Under the SultanTimurbugha, finally, Qaitbay was appointedatabak, or field marshal of the entire Mamluk army.[3] During this period, Qaitbay amassed a considerable personal fortune which would enable him to exercise substantial acts of beneficence as sultan without draining the royal treasury.[4]
The reign of Timurbugha lasted less than two months, as he was dethroned in a palace coup on 30 January 1468.[5] Qaitbay was proposed as a compromise candidate acceptable to the various court factions. Despite some apparent reluctance, he was enthroned on 31 January. Qaitbay insisted that Timurburgha be granted an honorable retirement, instead of the enforced exile usually imposed on dethroned sovereigns. He did, however, exile the leaders of the coup, and created a new ruling council composed of his own followers and more veteran courtiers who had fallen into disgrace under his predecessors.[6]Yashbak min Mahdi was appointeddawadar, or executive secretary, and Azbak min Tutkh was namedatabak; the two men would remain Qaitbay's closest advisors until the ends of their careers, despite their profound dislike for each other. In general Qaitbay seems to have pursued a policy of appointing rivals to posts of equal authority, thus preventing any single subordinate from acquiring too much power and maintaining the ability to settle all disputes via his own autocratic authority.[7]
Qaitbay's first major challenge was the insurrection of Shah Suwar, leader of a smallTurkmen dynasty, the Dhu'l-Qadrids, in eastern Anatolia. A first expedition against the upstart was soundly defeated, and Suwar threatened to invade Syria. A second Mamluk army was sent in 1469 under the leadership of Azbak, but was likewise defeated. Not until 1471 did a third expedition, this time commanded by Yashbak, succeed in routing Suwar's army. In 1473, Suwar was captured and led back to Cairo, together with his brothers; the prisoners were drawn and quartered and their remains were hung fromBab Zuwayla.[8]
Qaitbay's reign was also marked by trade with other contemporaneous polities. Excavations in the late 1800s and early 1900s at over fourteen sites in the vicinity ofBorama in modern-day northwesternSomalia unearthed, among other things, coins identified as having been derived from Qaitbay.[9] Most of these finds are associated with the medievalSultanate of Adal,[10] and were sent to theBritish Museum inLondon for preservation shortly after their discovery.[9]
Following the defeat of Suwar, Qaitbay set about purging his court of the remaining factions and installing his own purchased Mamluks in all positions of power. He frequently went on excursions, ostentatiously leaving theCitadel with limited guards to display his trust of his subordinates and of the populace. He traveled throughout his reign, visitingAlexandria,Damascus, andAleppo, among other cities, and personally inspecting his many building projects. In 1472 he performed theHajj toMecca. He was struck by the poverty of the citizens ofMedina and devoted a substantial portion of his private fortune to the alleviation of their plight. Through such measures Qaitbay gained a reputation for piety, charity, and royal self-confidence.[11]
In 1480 Yashbak led an army against theAq Qoyunlu dynasty in Northern Mesopotamia, but was soundly defeated while attackingUrfa, taken prisoner, and executed.[12] These events foreshadowed a longer military engagement with the far more powerfulOttoman Empire inAnatolia. In 1485 Ottoman armies began to campaign on the Mamluk frontier, and an expedition was dispatched fromCairo to confront them. These Mamluk troops won a surprising victory in 1486 nearAdana. A temporary truce ensued, but in 1487 the Ottomans reoccupied Adana, only to be defeated once more by a massive Mamluk army. As the concomitant Ottoman expansion in the western Mediterranean represented an increased threat to theCatholic Monarchs of Spain,Ferdinand II of Aragon made a temporary alliance with the Mamluks against the Ottomans from 1488 until 1491, shipping wheat and offering a fleet of 50 caravels against the Ottomans.[13]
In 1491 a final truce was signed that would last through the remaining reigns of Qaitbay and the Ottoman SultanBayezid II. Qaitbay's ability to enforce a peace with the greatest military power in theMuslim world further enhanced his prestige at home and abroad.[14]
The end of Qaitbay's reign was marred by increasing unrest among his troops and a decline in his personal health, including a riding accident that left him comatose for days. Many of his most trusted officials died, and were replaced by far less scrupulous upstarts; a long period of palace intrigue ensued. In 1492 theplague returned to Cairo, and was reported to have claimed 200,000 lives. Qaitbay's health became markedly poor in 1494, and his court, now lacking a figure of central authority, was wracked by infighting, factionalism, and purges.
He died on 8 August 1496 and was interred in the spectacularmausoleum attached to his mosque in Cairo's Northern Cemetery which he had built during his lifetime. He was succeeded by his son, an-Nasir Muhammad (not to be confused with the famed 14th-century sultan of the same name.)[15]
One of his wives was the daughter of SultanSayf ad-Din Inal.[16] Another consort was KhawandAṣalbāy, a Circassian,[17] who was his slaveconcubine rather than his wife,[18] and sister of SultanAbu Sa'id Qansuh. She was the mother of his son, SultanSultan An-Nasir Muhammad. After Qaitbay's death, she married SultanAl-Ashraf Janbalat.[16] Another wife was Khawand Fatima, the daughter of Ala al-Din Ali bin Ali bin Al-Khassbak.[17] She was the mother of Ahmed (1462 – 1468) and Sitt al-Jarakisa (1464 – 1468).[19][20] After Qaitbay's death, she married SultansTuman bay I[16] andAl-Ashraf Qansuh al-Ghuri.[21] She died on 6 June 1504.[17] Another wife was Khawand Zaynab.[22]
Qaitbay's reign has traditionally been seen as the "happy culmination" of the Burji Mamluk dynasty.[23] It was a period of unparalleled political stability, military success, and prosperity, and Qaitbay's contemporaries admired him as a defender of traditional Mamluk values. At the same time, he may be criticized for his conservatism, and for his failure to innovate in the face of new challenges.[24] Following Qaitbay's death, the Mamluk state descended into a prolonged succession crisis lasting for five years until the accession ofAl-Ashraf Qansuh al-Ghawri.[25]
Today Qaitbay is perhaps best known for his wide-ranging architectural patronage, which was second only toal-Nasir Muhammad ibn Qalawun.[26] At least 230 monuments, either surviving or mentioned in contemporary sources, are associated with his reign. In Egypt, Qaitbay's buildings are found throughoutCairo, as well as inAlexandria andRosetta; in Syria he sponsored projects inAleppo andDamascus; in addition, he was responsible for the construction of madrasas and fountains inJerusalem andGaza, which still stand – most notably theFountain (sabil) of Qayt Bay andal-Ashrafiyya Madrasa. On the Arabian peninsula, Qaitbay sponsored the restoration of mosques and the construction of madrasas, fountains and hostels inMecca andMedina. After a serious fire struck theMosque of the Prophet in Medina in 1481, the building, including the Tomb of the Prophet, was extensively renewed through Qaitbay's patronage.[27]
One of Qaytbay's largest building projects in Cairo washis funerary complex in theNorthern Cemetery, which included his mausoleum, a mosque/madrasa, amaq'ad (reception hall), and various auxiliary structures and functions attached to it. It is considered a masterpiece of lateMamluk architecture and is featured today onEgypt's 1 pound note. His other contributions in Cairo include aWikala at Bab al-Nasr, aWikala-Sabil-Kuttab near al-Azhar Mosque, a Sabil-Kuttab onSaliba street, amadrasa-mosque at Qal'at al-Kabsh, a mosque onRhoda Island, and a palace that is now incorporated into theBayt Al-Razzaz palace.[26] Other amirs and patrons also built notable projects under his reign, such as theMosque of Amir Qijmas al-Ishaqi, which feature the same refined architectural style of his time. In Alexandria he notably built a fortress on the site of the ruined Pharos, now known as theCitadel (or Fort) of Qaitbay.
Qaitbay In Ethiopic Sources
Qaitbay is mentioned inEthiopic sources as አሽሪፍ (Ashrif) and እልአሽሪፍ (El-Ashrif) a cruel ruler who destroyed the famous church of Dayr al-Magtas (ደብረ ምጥማቅ). Hearing the news of the church's destruction the Ethiopian rulerZara Yaqob built another church in Ethiopia to console the sorrow of the Egyptian bishop Michael who served in the church before he was sent to Ethiopia by the Coptic Patriarchate. The Ethiopic source accurately describes the political instability of Qaitbay's rule in the final days.[28]
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