In modernCanadian constitutional theory, the provinces are considered to beco-sovereign within certain areas based on the divisions of responsibility between the provincial and federal government within theConstitution Act, 1867, and each province thus has its own representative of the CanadianCrown, thelieutenant governor. The territories are not sovereign, but instead their authorities and responsibilities aredevolved directly from the federal level, and as a result, have acommissioner who represents the federal government.
There are three territories in Canada. Unlike the provinces, the territories of Canada have no inherentsovereignty and have only those powers delegated to them by the federal government.[11][12][13] They include all of mainland Canada north oflatitude 60° north and west ofHudson Bay and all islands north of the Canadian mainland (from those inJames Bay to theQueen Elizabeth Islands). They cover 40% of Canada's land but represent only 0.3% of the population.[f]Another territory, theDistrict of Keewatin, existed from October 7, 1876, until September 1, 1905, when it rejoined the Northwest Territories and became theKeewatin Region. It occupied the area that is now theKenora District of Ontario, northern Manitoba, and mainland Nunavut.[15] The government of Keewatin was based in Winnipeg, Manitoba. The territory did not have any representation in federal parliament.
Breakdown of Canada's population from the 2016 census by province/territory
The vast majority of Canada's population is concentrated in areas close to theCanada–US border. Its four largest provinces by area (Quebec,Ontario,British Columbia andAlberta) are also (with Quebec and Ontario switched in order) its most populous; together they account for 86% of the country's population. The territories (theNorthwest Territories,Nunavut andYukon) account for over a third of Canada's area but are only home to 0.3% of its population, which skews the nationalpopulation density value.[19]
Canada's population grew by 5.0% between the2006 and2011 censuses. Except forNew Brunswick, all territories and provinces increased in population during this time. In terms of percent change, the fastest-growing province or territory wasNunavut with an increase of 12.7% between 2011 and 2016, followed byAlberta with 11.6% growth, while New Brunswick's population decreased by 0.5%.[20]
Generally, Canadian provinces have steadily grown in population along with Canada. However, some provinces such as Saskatchewan, Prince Edward Island and Newfoundland and Labrador have experienced long periods of stagnation or population decline. Ontario and Quebec have always been the two biggest provinces in Canada, with together over 60% of the population at any given time. The population ofthe West relative to Canada as a whole has steadily grown over time, while that ofAtlantic Canada has declined.[19]
Territorial evolution of the borders and the names of Canada's provinces and territories"O Canada we stand on guard for thee"; stained glass, Yeo Hall,Royal Military College of Canada; featuring arms of the Canadian provinces and territories as of 1965.
Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia were the original provinces, formed when several British North American colonies federated on July 1, 1867, into the Dominion of Canada and by stages began accruing the indicia of sovereignty from the United Kingdom.[21] Prior to this, Ontario and Quebec were united as the Province of Canada. Over the following years, Manitoba (1870), British Columbia (1871), and Prince Edward Island (1873) were added as provinces.[21]
The British Crown had claimed two large areas north-west of the Canadian colony, known asRupert's Land and theNorth-Western Territory, and assigned them to theHudson's Bay Company. In 1870, the company relinquished its claims for £300,000 (CND$1.5 million), assigning the vast territory to the government of Canada.[22] Subsequently, the area was re-organized into the province of Manitoba and the North-West Territories.[22] The North-West Territories encompassed all of currentnorthern and western Canada, except for the British holdings in theArctic islands and theColony of British Columbia. NWT included the northern two-thirds of Ontario and Quebec. After the province of Manitoba was established in 1870, in a small area in the south of today's province, almost all of present-day Manitoba was still contained in the NWT. (Manitoba expanded to its present size in 1912.)[23]
The British claims to the Arctic islands were transferred to Canada in 1880, adding to the size of the North-West Territories. In 1898 the Yukon Territory, later renamed "Yukon" in 2003, was carved from the area surrounding theKlondike gold fields. On September 1, 1905, a portion of the North-West Territories south of the 60th parallel north became the provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan.[23] In 1912, the boundaries of Quebec, Ontario, and Manitoba were expanded northward: Manitoba's to the 60° parallel, Ontario's to Hudson Bay and Quebec's to encompass theDistrict of Ungava.[24]
In 1869, the people of Newfoundland voted to remain aBritish colony over fears that taxes would increase with Confederation, and that the economic policy of the Canadian government would favour mainland industries.[25] In 1907, Newfoundland acquired dominion status.[26] In the middle of theGreat Depression in Canada, Newfoundland underwent a prolongedeconomic crisis, and the legislature turned over political control to theNewfoundland Commission of Government in 1933.[27] FollowingCanada's participation in the Second World War, in a1948 referendum, a narrow majority of Newfoundland citizens voted to join the Confederation, and on March 31, 1949, Newfoundland became Canada's tenth province.[28] The province was officially renamed Newfoundland and Labrador in 2001.[29]
Bermuda, the last British North American colony,[30][31][32][33] which had been somewhat subordinated to Nova Scotia, was one of twoImperial fortress colonies in British North America – the other being Nova Scotia, and more particularly the city of Halifax.[34][35] Halifax and Bermuda were the sites of the Royal Navy'sNorth America Station (or, depending on the time period and the extent of the Western Hemisphere it included, theRiver St. Lawrence and Coast of America and North America and West Indies Station, theNorth America and Newfoundland Station, theNorth America and West Indies Station, and finally theAmerica and West Indies Station) main bases, dockyards, and Admiralty Houses. The squadron of the station was based atRoyal Naval Dockyard, Halifax, during the summers andRoyal Naval Dockyard, Bermuda, in the winters until the 1820s, when Bermuda (which was better located to control the Atlantic Seaboard of the United States, impossible to attack over land, and almost impregnable against attack over water) became the main base year round.[36][37][38][39] A largeBritish Army garrison in Bermuda, which fell under thecommander-in-chief in Nova Scotia, existed to defend the colony as a naval base (and to prevent it becoming as useful a base to the navy of an adversary), as well as to support amphibious operations throughout the region (such as theChesapeake campaign during theAmerican War of 1812).[40][41] Bermuda was consequently the most important British naval and military base in the Americas.[42][43] Canadian confederation resulted in the Canadian Militia becoming responsible for the defence of the Maritimes, the abolition of the British Army's commander-in-chief there, and the reduction of British military forces in the Maritimes to a small garrison for the protection of the Halifax dockyard, which would be withdrawn when that dockyard was handed over to the Dominion government in 1905 for use by the new Canadian naval service. Britain retained control of Bermuda as an imperial fortress, with the governor and commander-in-chief of Bermuda (a military officer previously ranking between lieutenant-colonel and major-general) becoming a lieutenant-general termed ageneral officer commanding and the Bermuda garrison becoming a command in its own right.[44][45][46][47] Bermuda was consequently left out of the confederation of Canada, though it retained naval links with Halifax and thestate church (orestablished church), theChurch of England, continued to place Bermuda under thebishop of Newfoundland until 1919 (Bermuda also remained linked to the Maritimes under the Methodist and Roman Catholic churches).[48][49][50][51]
In 1903, resolution of theAlaska Panhandle Dispute fixed British Columbia's northwestern boundary.[52] This was one of only two provinces in Canadian history to have its size reduced. The second reduction, in 1927, occurred when aboundary dispute between Canada and the Dominion of Newfoundland saw Labrador enlarged at Quebec's expense; this land returned to Canada, as part of the province of Newfoundland, in 1949.[53] In 1999, Nunavut was created from the eastern portion of the Northwest Territories.[54] Yukon lies in the western portion of Northern Canada, while Nunavut is in the east.[55]
All three territories combined are the most sparsely populated region in Canada, covering 3,921,739 km2 (1,514,192 sq mi) in land area.[4] They are often referred to as a single region, the North, for organizational and economic purposes.[56] For much of the Northwest Territories' early history it was divided intoseveral districts for ease of administration.[57] The District of Keewatin was created as a separate territory from 1876 to 1905, after which, as the Keewatin Region, it became an administrative district of the Northwest Territories.[58] In 1999, it was dissolved when it became part of Nunavut.
Theoretically, provinces have a great deal of power relative to the federal government, with jurisdiction over manypublic goods such as health care, education, welfare, and intra-provincial transportation.[59] They receive "transfer payments" from the federal government to pay for these, as well as exacting their own taxes.[60] In practice, however, the federal government can use these transfer payments to influence these provincial areas. For instance, in order to receive healthcare funding underMedicare, provinces must agree to meet certain federal mandates, such as universal access to required medical treatment.[60]
Provincial and territorial legislatures have no second chamber like theCanadian Senate. Originally, most provinces had such bodies, known aslegislative councils, with members titled councillors. These upper houses were abolished one by one, Quebec's being the last in 1968.[61] In most provinces, the single house of the legislature is known as the Legislative Assembly; the exceptions are Nova Scotia and Newfoundland and Labrador, where the chamber is called theHouse of Assembly, and Quebec where it is called theNational Assembly.[62] Ontario has a legislative assembly but its members are called members of the Provincial Parliament or MPPs.[63] The legislative assemblies use a procedure similar to that of theHouse of Commons of Canada. The head of government of each province, called thepremier, is generally the head of the party with the most seats.[64] This is also the case in Yukon, but the Northwest Territories and Nunavut have no political parties at the territorial level.[65] The King's representative in each province is thelieutenant governor.[66] In each of the territories there is an analogouscommissioner, but they represent the federal government rather than the monarch.[67]
Federal, provincial, and territorial terminology compared
Most provinces have rough provincial counterparts to major federal parties. However, these provincial parties are not usually formally linked to the federal parties that share the same name.[68] For example, no provincial Conservative or Progressive Conservative Party shares an organizational link to the federalConservative Party of Canada, and neither do provincial Green Parties to theGreen Party of Canada.
Provincial New Democratic Parties, on the other hand, are fully integrated with the federalNew Democratic Party—meaning that provincial parties effectively operate as sections, with common membership, of the federal party.
TheCanadian National Vimy Memorial, nearVimy, Pas-de-Calais, and theBeaumont-Hamel Newfoundland Memorial, nearBeaumont-Hamel, both in France, are ceremonially considered Canadian territory.[72] In 1922, the French government donated the land used for the Vimy Memorial "freely, and for all time, to the Government of Canada the free use of the land exempt from all taxes".[73] The site of the Somme battlefield near Beaumont-Hamel site was purchased in 1921 by the people of theDominion of Newfoundland.[72] These sites do not, however, enjoyextraterritorial status and are thus subject to French law.
Since Confederation in 1867, there have been several proposals for new Canadian provinces and territories. The Constitution of Canada requires anamendment for the creation of a new province[74] but the creation of a new territory requires only anact of Parliament, alegislatively simpler process.[75]
In late 2004, Prime MinisterPaul Martin surprised some observers by expressing his personal support for all three territories gaining provincial status "eventually". He cited their importance to the country as a whole and the ongoing need to assertsovereignty in the Arctic, particularly asglobal warming could make that region more open to exploitation leading to more complexinternational waters disputes.[76]
^ Members were previously titled "Member of the Legislative Assembly".
^ Quebec's lower house was previously called the "Legislative Assembly" with members titled "Member of the Legislative Assembly". The name was changed at the same time Quebec's upper house was abolished.
^ Prince Edward Island's lower house was previously called the "House of Assembly" and its members were titled "Assemblyman". After the abolition of its upper house, assemblymen and councillors both sat in the renamed "Legislative Assembly". Later, this practice was abolished so that all members would be titled "Member of the Legislative Assembly".
^ In Northwest Territories and Yukon the head of government was previously titled "Government Leader".
^"Civil List of the Province of Lower-Canada 1828: Governor".The Quebec Almanack and British American Royal Kalendar For The Year 1828. Quebec: Neilson and Cowan, No. 3 Mountain Street. 1812.
^"STAFF of the ARMY in the Provinces of Nova-Scotia, New-Brunswick, and their Dependencies, including the Island of Newfoundland, Cape Breton, Prince Edward and Bermuda".The Quebec Almanack and British American Royal Kalendar For The Year 1828. Quebec: Neilson and Cowan, No. 3 Mountain Street. 1812.
^Meteorological Observations at the Foreign and Colonial Stations of the Royal Engineers and the Army Medical Department 1852—1886. London: Meteorological Council. HMSO. 1890.
^Young, Douglas MacMurray (1961).The Colonial Office in The Early Nineteenth Century. London: Published for the Royal Commonwealth Society by Longmans. p. 55.
^Keith, Arthur Berriedale (1909).Responsible Government in The Dominions. London: Stevens and Sons Ltd. p. 5.
^May, Lieutenant-Colonel Sir Edward Sinclair (1903).Principles and Problems of Imperial Defence. London: Swan Sonnenschein & Co. p. 145.
^Stranack, Royal Navy, Lieutenant-Commander B. Ian D (1977).The Andrew and The Onions: The Story of The Royal Navy in Bermuda, 1795–1975. Bermuda: Island Press Ltd.ISBN9780921560036.
^Grove, Tim (January 22, 2021)."Fighting The Power".Chesapeake Bay Magazine. Annapolis: Chesapeake Bay Media, LLC. RetrievedAugust 8, 2021.
^WillockUSMC, Lieutenant-Colonel Roger (1988).Bulwark Of Empire: Bermuda's Fortified Naval Base 1860–1920. Bermuda: The Bermuda Maritime Museum Press.ISBN9780921560005.
^Gordon, Donald Craigie (1965).The Dominion Partnership in Imperial Defense, 1870-1914. Baltimore, Maryland, US: Johns Hopkins Press. p. 14.
^MacFarlane, Thomas (1891).Within the Empire; An Essay on Imperial Federation. Ottawa: James Hope & Co. p. 29.
^Kennedy, R.N., Captain W. R. (July 1, 1885). "An Unknown Colony: Sport, Travel and Adventure in Newfoundland and the West Indies".Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine. William Blackwood & Sons. p. 111.
^VERAX, (anonymous) (May 1, 1889). "The Defense of Canada. (From Colburn's United Service Magazine)".The United Service: A Quarterly Review of Military and Naval Affairs. LR Hamersly & Co. p. 552.
^Dawson, George M.; Sutherland, Alexander (1898).MacMillan's Geographical Series: Elementary Geography of the British Colonies. London: MacMillan and Co. p. 184.
^"Our History".Anglican East NL. Anglican Diocese of Eastern Newfoundland and Labrador. RetrievedAugust 17, 2021.
^Piper, Liza (2000)."The Church of England".Heritage Newfoundland and Labrador. Newfoundland and Labrador Heritage Web Site. RetrievedAugust 17, 2021.
^"A History Of Our Church".Roman Catholic Diocese of Hamilton in Bermuda. The Diocese of Hamilton in Bermuda. RetrievedAugust 28, 2021.The Diocese of Hamilton in Bermuda was established in 12th June 1967. Bermuda was served by the Diocesan clergy of Halifax until 1953, after which pastoral responsibility transferred to the Congregation of the Resurrection.
^An amendment to the Constitution of Canada in relation to the following matters may be made only in accordance with subsection 38(1)...notwithstanding any other law or practice, the establishment of new provinces.
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