Proto-Celtic religion was the beliefs of the speakers ofProto-Celtic and includes topics such as themythology,legendry,folk tales, andfolk beliefs of early Celtic culture. By way of thecomparative method,Celtic philologists, a variety ofhistorical linguists, have proposed reconstructions of entities, locations, and concepts with various levels of security in early Celtic folklore and mythology (reconstructions areindicated by the presence of an asterisk). The present article includes both reconstructed forms and proposedmotifs from the early Celtic period.
| Proto-Celtic reconstruction | Ancient | Goidelic | Brittonic | Etymology | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| *Belenos[1] | Gaul.Belenus[2] | – | WBelyn[2] | Traditionally derived from PIE*bʰelH- ('white, shining'), although this has come under criticism in recent scholarship.[1][3] | The river nameBienne and the place nameBienne attest of a feminine form *Belenā.[1] SeeBelenos for further discussion. |
| *Bodwos[4][5] | – | OIr.Bodb[4][5] | – | From Celtic–Germanic *bhodhwo- ('battle, fight').[6][5] | Name of a war divinity. Also attested as a personal name in GaulishBoduos. A term common to Celtic and Germanic, where a war-goddess is known asBadu-henna. The meaning 'crow', a bird symbolizing the carnage in battle, emerged later in Celtic languages.[4][6] Middle Irishbodb must be understood as the 'bird on the battlefield and manifestation of the war-goddess'.[5] SeeBodb Derg andBadb for further discussion. |
| *Brigantī ~ Brigantia[7] | Gaul.*Brigantia[8] | OIr.Brigit[7] | OBritt.Brigantia[7] | FromPIE *bherǵh- ('be high, hill').[7] | The stemBrigant- is attested in numerous river names (which are typically deified in ancient Celtic cultures), such asBriande [fr],Briance,Bregenzer, orBrent, and in toponyms such asBragança (< *Brigantia).[8] SeeBrigid andBrigantia (goddess) for further discussion. |
| *Flitawī[9] | Gaul.Litaui[9] | OIr.Letha[10] | OWLitau,OBret.Letau[9] | FromPIE *plth2wih2 ('the Broad One, i.e. Earth').[9] | SeeLitavis andDʰéǵʰōm (The Broad One) for further discussion. |
| *Gobann-[11] | Gaul.Cobanno[12][11] | OIr.Goibniu[11] | MWGovannon[11] | FromPCelt. *goban- ('smith').[12] | The Gaulish, Irish and Welsh forms diverge and are reconstructed as *Gobannos, asGobeniū ~ *Gobanniō, and asGobannonos, respectively.[12][11] SeeGobannus,Goibniu andGofannon for further discussion. |
| *Lugus[13] | Gaul.Lugus,CIb.Luguei[13] | OIr.Lug[13] | MWLlew[13] | Unclear etymology.[13] | At the origin of thePCelt.compound*Lugu-deks ('serving Lugus'; cf.Gaul.Lugudeca,OIr.Lugaid).[13] SeeLugus for further discussion. |
| *Makwonos | Gaul.Mapono[14] | OIr.Macán < *Maccan Oc[15][16] | MWMabon[14] | An n-stem ofPCelt.*makwo- ('son').[17] | SeeMaponos for further discussion. |
| *Mātronā | Gaul.Matrona[18] | – | MWModron[14] | An n-stem ofPCelt. *mātīr,gen. *mātros ('mother').[18] | SeeMatronae for further discussion. |
| *Nowdont-[19] | Nodonti, Nodenti[19][20] | MIr.Nuadu[19][20] | MWNudd[19][20] | Unclear etymology.[19] | Nodenti is the dative singular of *Nodens.[19] SeeNodens for further discussion. |
| *Ogmiyos[21] | Gaul.Ogmios[21] | MIr.Ogma[21] | – | Ayo-derivate ofPCelt. *ogmos (perhaps 'path, orbit').[22] | A mythological name |
| *Olo-(p)atīr[23] | – | MIr.Ollathair[23] | – | Identical toPGmc *Ala-fader (cf. Old NorseAlföðr).[23] | An epithet meaning 'all-father', used as a byname of theDagda. It can be compared with the Old NorseAlföðr, commonly used forOdin.[24] |
| *Tonaros > *Toranos[25][26] | Gaul.Tanarus,Taranis[26] | – | OBritt.Tanaro,Pict.Taran[26][27] | Identical to theProto-Germanic Thunder-god*Þun(a)raz (Thor). FromPIE *(s)tenh₂- ('thunder').[25][26] | SeeTaranis for further discussion. |
| *Windos[28][29][30] | Gaul.Vindo(nnus)[31][32][33][34]
| OIr.Find (mac Cumhaill) | WGwyn (ap Nudd) | 'The White One'. FromPCelt. *windo- ('white').[29] | The male names are considered to be cognates.[36][37][38][39][40] SeeGwyn ap Nudd andFionn mac Cumhaill for further discussion.Vindonnus appears as an epithet attached to Greek godApollo in continental Celtic inscriptions.[41][42][43] CompareVindelici andVindobona. |
| *Windo-sēbrā[44] | – | OIr.Findabair[44] | MWGwenhwyfar[44] | A compound ofwindo- ('white') attached to a feminine form of *sēbro- ('demon, spectre').[44] | A mythological name. SeeGuinevere for further discussion. |
| Note: Gaul. =Gaulish; Gall. =Gallaecian; Lep. =Lepontic; CIb. =Celtiberian; OIr. =Old Irish; MIr. =Middle Irish; OBritt. =Old Brittonic; OW =Old Welsh; MW =Middle Welsh; Pict. =Pictish; OBret. =Old Breton; MBret. =Middle Breton; OCo. =Old Cornish | |||||
| Proto-Celtic reconstruction | Meaning | Ancient | Goidelic | Brittonic | Etymology | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| *dēwos[45] | 'deity' | Gaul.deuo-,CIb.teuio-[45] | OIr.día[45] | OWduiu,MBret.doe,OCo.duy[45] | FromPIE *deywos ('god, deity').[45] | SeeDyēus#Etymology and"Celestial" derivations for further discussion. |
| *dwosyos[46] | 'incubus, daemon' | Gaul.dusios[47] | – | Bret.Diz,Co.Dus[47] | Cognate withLith.dvasià ('breath, spirit, soul') andMHGgetwās ('spirit, ghost').[47][46] | Source of Romanschdischöl, Wallondûhon, and Basquetusuri.[47][48] |
| *morā[49][46] | 'female demon' | – | MIr.mor-[49] | – | FromPIE *moreh2 ('nightly spirit, bad dream').[49] | SeeMare (folklore) andThe Morrígan#Etymology for further discussion. |
| *sēbro-[44] | 'demon, spectre' | – | OIr.síabar[44] | MW -hwyfar[44] | Unclear etymology.[44] | |
| *skāhslo-[50][51] | 'demon, supernatural being' | – | OIr.scál[50] | MWyscwal[50] | Perhaps related to*skek- ('move, stir').[50] Cognate toGothicskōhsl ('demon, evil spirit') < *skōhsla-.[51] | |
| Note: Gaul. =Gaulish; Gall. =Gallaecian; Lep. =Lepontic; CIb. =Celtiberian; OIr. =Old Irish; MIr. =Middle Irish; OBritt. =Old Brittonic; OW =Old Welsh; MW =Middle Welsh; Pict. =Pictish; OBret. =Old Breton; MBret. =Middle Breton; OCo. =Old Cornish | ||||||
| Proto-Celtic reconstruction | Meaning | Ancient | Goidelic | Brittonic | Etymology | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| *albiyos[52][53] | 'upper world' | Gaul.albio-[52][53] | – | OWelbid[52][53] | FromPIE *h2elbho- ('white').[53] | |
| *ande-dubnos[54] | 'other world, world of the dead' | Gaul.antumnos[54] | – | MWannw(f)n[54] | FromPCelt.ande- ('below') attached to*dubnos.[54] | See alsoGaul.anderon, genetive plural of *anderos, interpreted as meaning 'infernal', perhaps 'gods of the underworld', and cognate withLat.īnferus and Sktádhara-.[55] SeeAnnwn for further discussion. |
| *bitus[53] | 'world (of the living)' | Gaul.bitu-[56] | OIr.bith[56] | OWbid,OBret.bit,OCo.bit[56] | FromPIE *gwiH-tu- ('life').[56] | SeeBituitus andBith. |
| *dubnos[57] | 'lower world' | Gaul.dumno-[57] | OIr.domun[57] | MWdwfn,MBret.doun,Co.down[57] | FromPIE *dhewb(h)- ('deep').[57] | SeeDumnonii andDamnonii (tribes),Dumnonia (kingdom) andFir Domnann. |
| Note: Gaul. =Gaulish; Gall. =Gallaecian; Lep. =Lepontic; CIb. =Celtiberian; OIr. =Old Irish; MIr. =Middle Irish; OBritt. =Old Brittonic; OW =Old Welsh; MW =Middle Welsh; Pict. =Pictish; OBret. =Old Breton; MBret. =Middle Breton; OCo. =Old Cornish | ||||||
| Proto-Celtic reconstruction | Meaning | Ancient | Goidelic | Brittonic | Etymology | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| *adbertā[58] | 'offering, victim' | – | OIr.edbart[58] | OWaperth[58] | FromPCelt. *ad- ('to') attached to *ber-tā < *ber-o- ('carry, bring, bear').[59] | TheOIr. word is the verbal noun ofad-opair < *ad-uss-ber-o ('sacrifices, offers').[58] |
| *adgaryos[60][61] | 'summoner' (? of the deities) | Gaul.adgarion[60] | OIr.accrae[60] | – | FromPCelt. *ad- ('to') attached to *gar-yo- ('call, cry').[61] | See alsoOIr.ad-gair ('summon, subpoena') < *ad-gar(i)et. TheOIr.accrae ('complaint') <*ad-garion is also only used in legal contexts, although the originalPCelt. meaning may have been 'to summon the deities [as witnesses]' (cf.OIr.deogaire 'seer' < *dewo-garios 'who summons the deity').[60] |
| *anamon-[62] | 'soul' | – | OIr.anim[62] | MBret.eneff;[62]Anaffoun (pl.)[63] | FromPIE *h2enh1-mon- ('breath').[62] | The Insular Celtic forms were influenced by theLat. cognateanima.[62] See alsoanaon ('souls of the dead' inBreton mythology)[64] and Gaulishanatia 'souls'.[65] |
| *awe-[66] | 'poetic inspiration' | – | OIr.aui[66] | MWawen[66] | Related toPCelt. *awelā ('breeze, wind'), itself fromPIE*h2uh1-el- (id.).[66] | ThePCelt. reconstruction is difficult because theOIr. andMW forms do not agree.MoBret.awen ('inspiration') is a loanword from Welsh.[66] |
| *bardos[67][68] | 'bard, poet' | Gaul.bardo-[67][68] | MIr.bard[67][68] | MWbardd,MBret.barz,OCo.barth[67][68] | FromPIE*gʷrH-dʰh₁-o-s ('praise-maker').[67][68] | SeeBard for further discussion |
| *brihtu-[69] | 'magical formula, incantation' | Gaul.brixta[69] | OIr.bricht[69] | MW -brith,OBret.brith[69] | Perhaps fromPIE *bherg̍h- ('enlighten'), or related toPCelt. *berxto- ('bright, beautiful').[69] | SeeBrixta for further discussion. |
| *dawnā[70] | 'poem' | – | MIr.dúan[70] | – | FromPIE *dh2p-no- ('offering').[70] | SeeAois-dàna, 'people of the arts; poet'. |
| *dedm-[71] | 'rite, ceremony' | – | OIr.deidmea[71] | MWdeuawt,OBret.domot[71] | FromPIE *dhedh(h1)m- ('custom').[71] | The reconstruction of the vowel inPCelt. *dedmV- is difficult:OBret.domot points to *dedmāto- whileOIr.deidmea points to *dedmi-.[71] |
| *druwid(e)s[57][72] | 'priest, druid' | Gaul.druides[57] | OIr.druí[57] | – | Presumably fromPIE*dru- ('oak') attached to *weyd- ('see, know').[57] | The Brittonic formsMWderwydd andOBret.dorguid come from *do-are-wid- ('who sees beyond').[72] SeeDruid for further discussion. |
| *ferissā[73] | 'religion, belief' | – | OIr.iress[73] | – | Probably fromPIE *peri-dh1-teh2.[73] | |
| *frato-[74] | 'good fortune, grace' | Gaul.ratus[74] | OIr.rath[74] | OWrat,OBret.rad-,Co.ras[74] | Probably related toPCel.far-na- ('bestow').[74] | |
| *kwritus[75] | 'magical transformation, shape' | Gaul.prittus[75] | OIr.cruth[75] | MWpryd,MBret.pred,OCo.prit[75] | FromPIE *kwer- ('make, cause').[75] | SeeBritain (place name),Prydain and tribeCruthin. |
| *kwrityos[76] | 'poet' | Gaul.pritios[76] | OIr.Crithe[76] | MWprydydd,OCo.pridit[76] | Ayo-derivate of*kwritus.[76] | |
| *karnom[51] | 'ancient stone, funerary monument' | – | OIr.carn[51] | OWcarn[51] | Probably borrowed from the same non-Indo-European source asPGmc*har(u)gaz.[51] | Cf. alsoCarnac < *Karnākon (‘place with pagan stone monuments’).[51] Seecairn for further discussion. |
| *kaylo-[77] | 'omen' | Gaul.caelo-,CIb. caeilo-[77][47] | – | OWcoil(i)ou,OBret.coel,OCo.chuillioc[77] | FromPIE*keh2ilo- ('whole, wealthy').[77] | Source ofPCelt.*dus-kaylo- (bad omen'; cf.Gaul.dus-celi-,OIr.do-chél) and *su-kaylo- ('good omen'; cf.Gaul.su-caelo,MWhy-goel).[47]OIr.cél is a loanword from Welsh.[77] |
| *kentu-samonyo-[78] | 'May' | – | OIr.cétamain[78] | MWkintevin[78] | Acompound of *kentu ('first') and *samon- ('summer').[78] | Meaning 'first summer'.[78] |
| *krābri-[79] | 'devotion, religious practice' | – | OIr.crábud[79] | MWcrefydd[79] | Unclear etymology.[79] | MWcrefydd is built on ayo-suffix andOIr.crábud on aitu-suffix.[79] |
| *kreddī-[80] | 'believe' | – | OIr.creitid[80] | MWcredu,MBret.crediff,OCo.cresy[80] | FromPIE *ḱred-dheh1- ('believe, trust').[80] | The geminate must be recent sincePIE *dd would have yieldedPCelt. *ss.[80] |
| *kreddīmā[80] | 'faith, believing' | – | OIr.cretem[80] | MBret.critim[80] | Verbal noun of*kreddī-.[80] | |
| *kredro/i[81] | 'relic, sacred object' | – | OIr.cretair[81] | OWcreirriou,MBret.kreir,Co.crêr[81] | Related to*kreddī- ('believe').[81] | |
| *(f)litu-[82] | 'festival, celebration' | Gaul.litu-[82][10] | OIr.líth[82] | OBret.lit[82] | Unclear etymology.[82] | The absence of cognates in other Indo-European languages makes thePCelt. reconstruction (*flitu- or *litu-) uncertain.[82] |
| *marwo-natu-[83] | 'funerary poem, eulogy' | – | OIr.marbnad[83] | MWmarwnad[83] | A compound ofPCelt.*marwo- ('dead') and *natu- ('poem').[83] | The compound, pertaining to poetic language, can probably be projected back to Proto-Celtic.[83] |
| *meldo-[84] | 'lightning, hammer of the thunder-god' | Gaul.Meldio[84] | – | MWMellt[84] | Cognate withPGmc *meldunjaz andPBalt-Slav.mild-n-.[84] | SeePerkwunos#Thunder-god's_weapon |
| *natu-[85] | 'poem, song, incantation' | Gaul.natia, nato-[85] | OIr.nath[85] | MWnad[85] | Probably from PIE*(s)neh1- ('sew').[85] | The semantic development could be explained in terms of poetic metaphors, whereby a poem is identified with a thread.[85] |
| *nemetom[86][87] | 'sacred grove, sanctuary' | Gaul.nemēton,CIb.nemeto-[86][87] | OIr.nemed[86] | OBritt.Nemetona,OW-nivet,OBret.-nimet[86][87] | At-stem derived fromPIE *némos ('sacrifice'), itself from *nem- ('distribute'),[87] or possibly related toPCelt. *nemos ('heaven').[86][88] | Related to or borrowed intoPGmc *nemedaz ('holy grove'). Greek (némos) and Latin (nemus) share the meaning 'forest, (holy) clearance', which evolved from thePIE sense 'what is distributed, sacrifice' (cf.Sktnámas- 'worship, honour',Alb.nëmë 'curse, imprecation').[87] SeeNemeton, goddessesNemetona andArnemetia, tribeNemetes. |
| *nemos[86] | 'heaven, sky' | – | OIr.nem[86] | OWnem,OBret.nem,OCo.nef[86] | FromPIE *nebhos ('cloud, cloudy sky').[86] | The irregular *-m- of the Celtic forms is best explained as the result of assimilation (n ...bh >n ...m).[86] |
| *noybo-[89] | 'holy' | Gaul.noibo-[89][90] | OIr.noíb[90][90] | – | FromPIE *noybhos.[90] | |
| *rūnā[91] | 'secret, magic' | Gaul.-runus(?), Lep.Runatis(?)[91] | OIr.rún[91] | MWrin,MBret.rin,Co.rin-[91] | Related toPGmc *rūnō ('secret, mystery').[91] | Gaul.Cobrunus (<*com-rūnos 'confident') is probably cognate withMWcyfrin,MBret.queffrin andMIr.comrún ('shared secret, confidence');Lep.Runatis may be derived from *runo-ātis ('belonging to the secret').[92] SeeRunes#Etymology. |
| *samoni-[93] | 'assembly, (feast of the) first month of the year' | Gaul.Samon-[93] | MIr.Samain[93] | – | FromPIE *smHon- ('reunion, assembly').[93] | Name of a month or feast. The original meaning is best explained as 'assembly (of the living and the dead)' (cf.OIr. -samain 'swarm'). Links toPCelt. *samon- ('summer') appear to befolk etymologies.[94][93] SeeSamhain for further discussion. |
| *sakro-[95] | 'consecrated, cursed' | Gaul.sacro-[96][95] | – | MWhagr,MBret.hagr,Co.hager[95] | FromPIE *sh2k-ro- ('sacred').[95] | The Brittonic cognates mean 'ugly', i.e. 'cursed' < 'consecrated to infernal, malevolent deities'. The original meaning was probably close to that of Latinsācer, meaning 'consecrated', but also 'worthy to be sacrificed', 'cursed'.[96][95] Cognate to Latinsacerdos, 'priest'. |
| *sedo- ~ *sīdos[97] | 'tumulus (inhabited by supernatural beings), peace' | Gaul.sedum, sidum[97] | OIr.síd[97] | MWhedd,OBret.hed[97] | FromPIEsēdsgen.sedos ('seat').[97] | Seesidhe. |
| *soyto-[98] | 'magic' | – | – | MWhud,MBret.hud,Co.hus[97] | Probably originally identical toPIE *soito- ('string, rope'), from*seh2i- ('to bind').[97][46] Cognate withPGmc *saidaz ('magic, charm') andLith.saitas ('soothsaying, talisman').[46] | Source ofPCelt.*soyto-lo- ('charming, illusory')[97] |
| *to-fare-ufo-kan-o-[99] | 'prophesise' | – | OIr.do-aurchain[99] | MWdarogan[99] | FromPCelt.to-fare- ('towards'), attached to *ufo- ('under') and*kan-o- ('sing').[99] | |
| *wātis[100] | 'seer, sooth-sayer' | Gaul.wáteis[100] | OIr.fáith[100] | – | FromPIE *weh2-ti- ('prophet'). Related toPGmc*wōðaz ('possessed, inspired, delirious, raging') >ONÓðr.[23][100] | Seevates. |
| *wātus[101] | 'poetic inspiration, prophesy' | – | OIr.fáth[101] | MWgwawd[101] | FromPIE *weh2-tu- ('prophesy').[23][100] | The stem is also found in the Celtic theonym from BelgicaVatumar-.[102] |
| *weletos[103][104] | 'seer' | Gaul.uelets[104] | OIr.filed[104] | MWgwelet,MBret.guelet[104] | FromPIE *wel-o- ('to see').[103] | OIr.filed is the genitive form offilí ('poet, seer'). The ancient GermanicWeleda, the name of a seeress, is most likely a borrowing from Gaulish *ueletā ('seeress'), with regular Germanic sound shift-t- >-d-.[104] |
| *widlmā[105] | 'seeress, sorceress' | Gaul.uidluas[105] | Fedelm[105] | Wgwyddon[105] | FromPCelt. *wēdo- ('sight, presence').[106] | Gaul.uidluas may be a genitive form of *uildua, in which case it may be derived from*widlmā withlenition (like inanuana < *anman- 'name').[105] |
| *yālo-[107] | 'praise, worship' | – | OIr.áil[107] | MWiawl,OBret.iolent[107] | FromPIE *(H)yeh2lo- ('zeal').[107] | |
| Note: Gaul. =Gaulish; Gall. =Gallaecian; Lep. =Lepontic; CIb. =Celtiberian; OIr. =Old Irish; MIr. =Middle Irish; OBritt. =Old Brittonic; OW =Old Welsh; MW =Middle Welsh; Pict. =Pictish; OBret. =Old Breton; MBret. =Middle Breton; OCo. =Old Cornish | ||||||
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With both Welsh and Irish evidence leading us to believe that there was a Celtic god known as Fionn in Ireland, and as Gwynn in Wales, we turn to the Gallic evidence. In Gaul we have already found the elementVind, from which both Fionn and Gwynn derive through a form*Vindos, appearing in a god-nameVindonnus.
Le sens du cognomen [Vindonnus] ressort sans difficulté du simple examen. Il se rattache àVindos «blanc», irl.find, gall.gwyn, bret.gwenn ...[The meaning of the cognomen ["Vindonnus"] is easily gleamed. It is connected toVindos "white", Irishfind, Welshgwyn, Brythonicgwenn ...]
... Götternamen ...Uindieinos (zu keltischvindo- 《weiss》 oder 《hell》).[... Divine names...Uindieinos (from Celticvindo- 'white' or 'bright'.)]
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)Linguistically cognate with Irish Finn is WelshGwynn, a figure who appears in Welsh tradition as a supernatural hunter ...
An epithet [of Apollo] which might also be quoted in this regard isVindonnus 'the white, brilliant one' at Essarois (Côte d'Or).