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Province of Angola Província de Angola | |||||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1575–1975 | |||||||||||||||||||
| Anthem: "Hymno Patriótico" (1808–34) Patriotic Anthem "Hino da Carta" (1834–1910) Hymn of the Charter "A Portuguesa" (1910–75) The Portuguese | |||||||||||||||||||
 Portuguese West Africa in 1905–1975 | |||||||||||||||||||
| Status | Colony of thePortuguese Empire (1575–1951) Overseas province ofPortugal (1951–1972) State of the Portuguese Empire (1972–1975) | ||||||||||||||||||
| Capital | Luanda | ||||||||||||||||||
| Common languages | Portuguese (official) Umbundu,Kimbundu,Kikongo,Chokwe | ||||||||||||||||||
| Religion | Roman Catholicism[1] Protestantism Traditional religions | ||||||||||||||||||
| Head of State | |||||||||||||||||||
• 1575–78 | KingSebastian I of Portugal | ||||||||||||||||||
• 1974–75 | PresidentFrancisco da Costa Gomes | ||||||||||||||||||
| Governor General | |||||||||||||||||||
• 1575–1589 | Paulo Dias de Novais[2] | ||||||||||||||||||
• 1975 | Leonel Alexandre Gomes Cardoso | ||||||||||||||||||
| Historical era | Imperialism | ||||||||||||||||||
• Establishment ofLuanda | 1575 | ||||||||||||||||||
• Independence ofAngola | 11 November 1975 | ||||||||||||||||||
| Population | |||||||||||||||||||
• 1975[3] estimate | 7,033,000 | ||||||||||||||||||
| Currency | Portuguese real (1575–1911) Portuguese escudo (1911–14) Angolan escudo (1914–28; 1958–77) Angolan angolar (1926–58) | ||||||||||||||||||
| ISO 3166 code | AO | ||||||||||||||||||
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| Today part of | Angola | ||||||||||||||||||
Part ofa series on the | ||||||||||||||||
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| History ofAngola | ||||||||||||||||
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| Post-war Angola | ||||||||||||||||
| See also | ||||||||||||||||
| Years in Angola | ||||||||||||||||
In southwesternAfrica,Portuguese Angola was a historicalcolony of thePortuguese Empire (1575–1951), theoverseas provincePortuguese West Africa[a] ofEstado Novo Portugal (1951–1972), and theState of Angola of the Portuguese Empire (1972–1975). It became the independentPeople's Republic of Angola in 1975.
In the 16th and 17th century Portugal ruled along the coast and engaged in military conflicts with theKingdom of Kongo, but in the 18th century Portugal gradually managed to colonise the interior highlands. Other polities in the region included theKingdom of Ndongo,Kingdom of Lunda, andMbunda Kingdom. Full control of the entire territory was not achieved until the beginning of the 20th century, when agreements with other European powers during theScramble for Africa fixed the colony's interior borders.
The history of Portuguese presence on the territory of contemporary Angola lasted from the arrival of theexplorerDiogo Cão in 1484[4] until thedecolonization of the territory in November 1975. Over these five centuries, several different situations existed.
When in 1484Diogo Cão and other explorers reached theKongo Kingdom at the end of the 15th century, its present territory comprised a number of separate peoples, some organized as kingdoms or tribal federations of varying sizes. The Portuguese were interested in trade, principally inslave trade. They therefore maintained a peaceful and mutually profitable relationship with the rulers and nobles of the Kongo Kingdom. Kings such asJoão I andAfonso I studied Christianity and learnedPortuguese, in turnChristianising their nation and sharing the benefits from the slave trade. The Portuguese established small trading posts on the lowerCongo, in the area of the presentDemocratic Republic. A more important trading settlement on the Atlantic coast was erected atSoyo in the territory of the Kongo Kingdom. It is now Angola's northernmost town, apart from theCabinda exclave.[citation needed]
In 1575, the Portuguese established the settlement ofLuanda on the coast south of the Kongo Kingdom. In the 17th century came the settlement ofBenguela even farther to the south. Between 1580 and the 1820s, well over a million people from present-day Angola were exported as slaves to theNew World, mainly toBrazil, but also to North America.[5] According to Oliver and Atmore, "for 200 years, the colony of Angola developed essentially as a gigantic slave-trading enterprise".[6]Portuguese sailors, explorers, soldiers and merchants had a long-standing policy of conquest and establishment of military and trading outposts in Africa withthe conquest of Muslim-ruled Ceuta in 1415 and the establishment of bases in present-dayMorocco and theGulf of Guinea. The Portuguese hadCatholic beliefs and their military expeditions included from the very beginning theconversion of foreign peoples.
In the 17th century, conflicting economic interests led to a military confrontation with the Kongo Kingdom. Portugal defeated the Kongo Kingdom in theBattle of Mbwila on 29 October, 1665, but suffered a disastrous defeat at theBattle of Kitombo when they tried to invade Kongo in 1670. Control of most of the central highlands was achieved in the 18th century. Further reaching attempts at conquering the interior were undertaken in the 19th century.[7] However, full Portuguese administrative control of the entire territory was not achieved until the beginning of the 20th century.
Due to the colony stretching into the interior, there was substantial admixture between Africans and Portuguese settlers, creatingAfro-Portuguese communities called "Ambaquista" (or "Mbakista"), named after the town ofMbaka founded in 1618.[8]
In 1884, theUnited Kingdom, which up to that time refused to acknowledge that Portugal possessed territorial rights north ofAmbriz, concluded a treaty recognising Portuguese sovereignty over both banks of the lower Congo. However, the treaty, meeting with opposition there and inGermany, was not ratified. Agreements concluded with theCongo Free State, the German Empire andFrance in 1885–1886 fixed the limits of the province, except in the south-east, where the frontier betweenBarotseland (north-west Rhodesia) and Angola was determined by theAnglo-Portuguese Treaty of 1891 and the arbitration award of KingVictor Emmanuel III of Italy in 1905.[4]
During the period of Portuguese colonial rule of Angola, cities, towns and trading posts were founded, railways were opened (notably theBenguela Railway), ports were built, and aWesternised society was being gradually developed. The Portuguese pointed to the Ambaquista to justify their colonial claims in line with their "civilising mission".[8] In 1908 the "native tax" was introduced to coerce Angolans into the capitalist money economy and raise government revenue. Various forms of forced labour were employed, the most severe seeing Africans shipped toSao Tome orPrincipe to work on plantations which few returned from. Local administrators forced people to work on constructing railways and buildings. As late as 1954, it is estimated over 300,000 Angolans worked under forced labour. It was not abolished until 1962.[8]
In the 1930s, the Portuguese estimated that there were around 5,000Mucubal, occupying an area two-thirds the size of Portugal. Between 1939 and 1943, Portuguese army operations against the Mucubal, who they accused of rebellion and cattle-thieving, resulted in hundreds of Mucubal killed. During the campaign, 3,529 were taken prisoner, 20% of whom were women and children, and imprisoned inconcentration camps. Many died in captivity from undernourishment, violence andforced labor. Around 600 were sent toSao Tome and Principe. Hundreds were also sent to a camp inDamba, where 26% died.[9]
In 1951, the Portuguese Colony of Angola became anoverseas province of Portugal. In the late 1950s theNational Front for the Liberation of Angola (FNLA) and the People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA) began to organize strategies and action plans to fight Portuguese rule and the remunerated system which affected many of the native African people from the countryside, who were relocated from their homes and made to perform compulsory work, almost always unskilled hard labour, in an environment ofeconomic boom.
Organisedguerrilla warfare began in 1961, the same year that a law was passed to improve the working conditions of the largely unskilled native workforce, which was demanding more rights. In 1961, the Portuguese government indeed abolished a number of basic legal provisions which discriminated against black people, like theEstatuto do Indigenato (Decree-Law 43: 893 of 6 September 1961). However, the conflict, conversely known as theColonial War or the War of Liberation, erupted in the north of the territory whenUPA rebels based inRepublic of the Congo massacred both white and black civilians in surprise attacks in the countryside. After visiting theUnited Nations, rebel leaderHolden Roberto returned toKinshasa and organisedBakongo militants.[10]
Holden Roberto launched an incursion into Angola on 15 March 1961, leading 4,000 to 5,000 militants. His forces took farms, government outposts, and trading centres, killing everyone they encountered. At least 1,000 whites and an unknown number of blacks were killed.[11] Commenting on the incursion, Roberto said, "this time the slaves did not cower". They massacred everything.[12] The effective military in Angola were composed of approximately 6,500 men: 5,000 black Africans and 1,500 white Europeans sent from Portugal. After these events the Portuguese government, under thedictatorialEstado Novo regime ofAntónio de Oliveira Salazar and laterMarcelo Caetano, sent thousands of troops from Europe to perform counterterrorism and counterinsurgency operations.
In 1963 Holden Roberto established theRevolutionary Government of Angola in Exile (Portuguese:Governo revolucionário de Angola no exílio, GRAE) inKinshasa in an attempt to claim on the international scene the sole representation of forces fighting Portuguese rule in Angola. In 1966, the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA) also started pro-independence guerrilla operations. Despite the overall military superiority of thePortuguese Army in the Angolan theatre, theindependence guerrilla movements were never fully defeated.[citation needed]
From 1966 to 1970, the pro-independence guerrilla movement MPLA expanded their previously limited insurgency operations to the East of Angola. This vast countryside area was far away from the main urban centres and close to foreign countries where the guerrillas were able to take shelter. The UNITA, a smaller pro-independence guerrilla organisation established in the East, supported the MPLA. Until 1970, the combined guerrilla forces of MPLA and UNITA in the East Front were successful in pressuringPortuguese Armed Forces (FAP) in the area to the point that the guerrillas were able to cross theCuanza River and could threaten the territory ofBié, which included an important urban centre in the agricultural, commercial and industrial town ofSilva Porto. In 1970, the guerrilla movement decided to reinforce the Eastern Front by relocating troops and armament from the North to the East.[citation needed]
In 1971, the Portuguese Armed Forces started a successful counter-insurgency military campaign that expelled the three guerrilla movements operating in the East to beyond the frontiers of Angola, theFrente Leste. The last guerrillas lost hundreds of soldiers and left tons of equipment behind, disbanding chaotically to neighbouring countries or, in some cases, joining or surrendering to the Portuguese. In order to gain the confidence of the local rural populations, and to create conditions for their permanent and productive settlement in the region, the Portuguese authorities organised massive vaccination campaigns, medical check-ups, and water, sanitation and alimentary infrastructure as a way to better contribute to the economic and social development of the people and dissociate the population from the guerrillas and their influence. On 31 December 1972, the Development Plan of the East (Plano de Desenvolvimento do Leste) included in its first stage 466 development enterprises (150 were completed and 316 were being built). Nineteen health centres had been built and 26 were being constructed. 51 new schools were operating and 82 were being constructed[13][14] By 1972, after theFrente Leste, complemented by a pragmatic hearts and minds policy, the military conflict in Angola was effectively won for the Portuguese.[citation needed]
In June 1972, thePortuguese National Assembly approved a new version of itsOrganic Law on Overseas Territories, in order to grant its African overseas territories a widerpolitical autonomy and to tone down the increasing dissent both internally and abroad. It changed Angola's status from anoverseas province to anautonomous state with authority over some internal affairs, while Portugal was to retain responsibility for defense and foreign relations. However, the intent was by no means to grant Angolan independence, but was instead to "win the hearts and minds" of the Angolans, convincing them to remain permanently a part of an intercontinental Portugal. Renaming Angola (likeMozambique) in November 1972 (in effect 1 January 1973)[15] "Estado" (state) was part of an apparent effort to give thePortuguese Empire a sort offederal structure, conferring some degree of autonomy to the "states". In fact, the structural changes and increase in autonomy were extremely limited. The government of the "State of Angola" was the same as the old provincial government, except for some cosmetic changes to personnel and titles. As in Portugal itself, the government of the "State of Angola" was entirely composed of people aligned with theEstado Novo regime's establishment. While these changes were taking place, a few guerrilla nuclei stayed active inside the territory, and continued to campaign outside of Angola against Portuguese rule. The idea of having the independence movements take part in the political structure of the revamped territory's organization was absolutely unthinkable (on both sides).[16]
However, the Portuguese authorities were unable to defeat the guerrillas as a whole during thePortuguese Colonial War, particularly inPortuguese Guinea, and suffered heavy casualties in the 13 years of conflict. Throughout the colonial war Portugal faced increasing dissent, arms embargoes and other punitive sanctions from most of theinternational community. The war was becoming even more unpopular in Portuguese society due to its length and costs, the worsening of diplomatic relations with other United Nations members, and the role it played as a factor in the perpetuation of theEstado Novo regime. It was this escalation that would lead directly to the mutiny of members of the Portuguese armed forces in theCarnation Revolution of April 1974 – an event that would lead to the independence of all of the former Portuguese colonies in Africa.[citation needed]
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On 25 April 1974, the Portuguese Government of theEstado Novo regime underMarcelo Caetano, thecorporatist andauthoritarian regime established byAntónio de Oliveira Salazar that had ruled Portugal since the 1930s, was overthrown in theCarnation Revolution, a military uprising inLisbon. In May of that year, theJunta de Salvação Nacional (the new revolutionary government of Portugal) proclaimed a truce with the pro-independence African guerrillas in an effort to promote peace talks and independence.[17] The military-led coup returned democracy to Portugal, ending the unpopular Colonial War where hundreds of thousands of Portuguese soldiers had been conscripted into military service, and replacing the authoritarianEstado Novo (New State) regime and its secret police which repressed elementalcivil liberties andpolitical freedoms. It started as a professional class[18] protest ofPortuguese Armed Forcescaptains against the 1973 decree lawDec. Lei n.o 353/73.[19][20]
These events prompted a mass exodus of Portuguese citizens, overwhelmingly white but somemestiço (mixed race) or black, from Portugal's African territories, creating hundreds of thousands destitute refugees — theretornados.[21] On 11 November 1975 Angola became asovereign state in accordance with theAlvor Agreement and the newly independent country was proclaimed thePeople's Republic of Angola.[citation needed]
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In the 20th century, Portuguese Angola was subject to theEstado Novo regime. In 1951, the Portuguese authorities changed the statute of the territory from a colony to anoverseas province of Portugal. Legally, the territory was as much a part of Portugal as Lisbon but as an overseas province enjoyed special derogations to account for its distance from Europe. Most members of the government of Angola were from Portugal, but a few were Angolan. Nearly all members of the bureaucracy were from Portugal, as most Angolans did not have the necessary qualifications to obtain positions.[citation needed]
The government of Angola, as it was in Portugal, was highly centralised. Power was concentrated in theexecutive branch, and all elections where they occurred were carried out using indirect methods. From the Prime Minister's office in Lisbon, authority extended down to the most remote posts of Angola through a rigidchain of command. The authority of the government of Angola was residual, primarily limited to implementing policies already decided in Europe. In 1967, Angola also sent a number of delegates to theNational Assembly in Lisbon.[citation needed]
The highest official in the province was the governor-general, appointed by the Portuguese cabinet on recommendation of the Overseas Minister. The governor-general had both executive and legislative authority. A Government Council advised the governor-general in the running of the province. The functional cabinet consisted of five secretaries appointed by the Overseas Minister on the advice of the governor. A Legislative Council had limited powers and its main activity was approving the provincial budget. Finally, an Economic and Social Council had to be consulted on all draft legislation, and the governor-general had to justify his decision to Lisbon if he ignored its advice.[citation needed]
In 1972, thePortuguese National Assembly changed Angola's status from an overseas province to anautonomous state with authority over some internal affairs; Portugal was to retain responsibility for defense and foreign relations. In 1973, elections were held in Angola for a legislative assembly.[17]
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Portuguese Angola was a territory covering 1,246,700 km2, an area greater thanFrance andSpain put together. It had 5,198 km of terrestrial borders and a coastline with 1,600 km. Its geography was diverse. From the coastal plain, ranging in width from 25 kilometres in the south to 100–200 kilometers in the north, the land rises in stages towards the high inland plateau covering almost two-thirds of the country, with an average altitude of between 1,200 and 1,600 metres. Angola's two highest peaks were located in these central highlands. They wereMoco Mountain (2,620 m) and Meco Mountain (2,538 m).
Most of Angola's rivers rose in the central mountains. Of the many rivers that drain to the Atlantic Ocean, theCuanza andCunene were the most important. Other major streams included theKwango River, which drains north to theCongo River system, and theKwando andCubango Rivers, both of which drain generally southeast to theOkavango Delta. As the land drops from the plateau, many rapids and waterfalls plunge downward in the rivers. Portuguese Angola had no sizable lakes, besides those formed by dams and reservoirs built by the Portuguese administration.[citation needed]
The Portuguese authorities established several national parks and natural reserves across the territory:Bicauri,Cameia,Cangandala,Iona,Mupa,Namibe andQuiçama. Iona was Angola's oldest and largest national park, it was proclaimed as a reserve in 1937 and upgraded to a national park in 1964.
Angola was a territory that underwent a great deal of progress after 1950. The Portuguese government built dams, roads, schools, etc. There was also an economic boom that led to a huge increase of the European population. The white population increased from 44,083 in 1940 to 172,529 in 1960. With around 1,000 immigrants arriving each month. On the eve of the end of the colonial period, the ethnic European residents numbered 400,000 (1974) (excluding enlisted and commissioned soldiers from the mainland) and the mixed race population was at around 100,000 (many wereCape Verdian migrants working in the territory). The total population was around 5.9 million at that time.[citation needed]
Luanda grew from a town of 61,208 with 14.6% of those inhabitants being white in 1940, to a major cosmopolitan city of 475,328 in 1970 with 124,814 Europeans (26.3%) and around 50,000 mixed race inhabitants. Most of the other large cities in Angola had around the same ratio of Europeans at the time, with the exception of Sá da Bandeira (Lubango), Moçâmedes (Namibe) and Porto Alexandre (Tombua) in the south where the white population was more established. All of these cities had European majorities from 50% to 60%.[citation needed]
The capital of the territory was Luanda,[22][23] officially called São Paulo de Luanda. Other cities and towns were:[24]
The exclave ofCabinda was to the north.[32]Portuguese Congo (Cabinda) was established a Portugueseprotectorate by the 1885Treaty of Simulambuco. Sometime during the 1920s, it became incorporated into the larger colony (later theoverseas province) of Portuguese Angola. The two colonies had initially been contiguous, but later becamegeographically separated by a narrow corridor of land, which Portugal ceded to theCongo Free State, allowing it access to the Atlantic Ocean. Following thedecolonisation of Portuguese Angola with the 1975Alvor Agreement, the short-livedRepublic of Cabinda unilaterally declared its independence. However, Cabinda was soon overpowered and re-annexed by the newly proclaimedPeople's Republic of Angola and never achievedinternational recognition.
Portuguese explorers and settlers founded trading posts and forts along the coast ofAfrica beginning in the 15th century, and reached the Angolan coast in the 16th. Portuguese explorerPaulo Dias de Novais founded Luanda in 1575 as "São Paulo de Loanda", and the region developed aslave trade with the help of localImbangala andMbundu peoples, who werenotable slave hunters. Trade was mostly with the Portuguesecolony of Brazil in theNew World. Brazilian ships were the most numerous in the ports of Luanda and Benguela.[citation needed] By this time, Angola, a Portuguese colony, was in fact more like a colony of Brazil, another Portuguese colony. A strong Brazilian influence was also exercised by theJesuits in religion and education.[33]
Thephilosophy of war gradually gave way to the philosophy of trade. The greattrade routes and the agreements that made them possible were the driving force for activities between the different areas; warlike states become states ready to produce and to sell.[33] In theBrazilian Highlands, Planalto or high plains, the most important states were those ofBié andBailundo, the latter being noted for its production of foodstuffs and rubber. The colonial power, Portugal, becoming ever richer and more powerful, would not tolerate the growth of these neighbouring states and subjugated them one by one, enabling Portuguese hegemony over much of the area. During the period of theIberian Union (1580–1640), Portugal lost influence and power and made new enemies. TheDutch, a major enemy ofCastile, invaded many Portuguese overseas possessions, including Luanda. The Dutch ruled Luanda from 1640 to 1648 as Fort Aardenburgh. They were seeking black slaves for use insugarcane plantations ofNortheastern Brazil (Pernambuco,Olinda andRecife), which they had also seized from Portugal.John Maurice, Prince of Nassau-Siegen, conquered the Portuguese possessions ofSaint George del Mina, Saint Thomas, and Luanda on the west coast of Africa. After the dissolution of the Iberian Union in 1640, Portugal reestablished its authority over the lost territories of thePortuguese Empire.[33]
The Portuguese started to develop townships, trading posts,logging camps, and small processing factories. From 1764 onwards, there was a gradual change from aslave-based society to one based on production fordomestic consumption and export.Portuguese Brazil becameindependent in 1822, and the slave trade was abolished in 1836.
In 1844, Angola's ports were opened to legal foreign shipping. By 1850, Luanda was one of the most developed cities outsideMainland Portugal in thePortuguese Empire: it was full of trading companies, exporting (together withBenguela) palm and peanut oil, wax,copal, timber, ivory, cotton, coffee, and cocoa, among many other products. Maize, tobacco, dried meat andcassava flour also began to be produced locally. The Angolanbourgeoisie was born.[33] From the 1920s to the 1960s, strong economic growth, abundant natural resources and development of infrastructure, led to the arrival of even more Portuguese settlers from themetropole.[33]
Diamond mining began in 1912, when the first gems were discovered by Portuguese prospectors in a stream of theLunda region, in the northeast. In 1917, the Companhia de Diamantes de Angola (Diamang) was granted the concession for diamond mining and prospecting in Portuguese Angola. Diamang had exclusive mining and labor rights in a huge concession in Angola and used this monopoly to become the colony's largest commercial operator and also its leading revenue generator. Its wealth was generated by African laborers, many of whom were forcibly recruited to work on the mines with Lunda's aggressive state-company recruitment methods (See also chivalo/shibalo).[34] as late as 1947, the company saw no benefit to mechanizing its operations, because local labour was so inexpensive.[34] Work was done with shovels into the 1970s. Even the voluntary contract workers, or contratados, were exploited and had to build their own housing and often cheated of their wages.[citation needed] However Diamang, which wasexempt from taxes and grew affluent in the 1930s also realized that in a remote area like Lunda, the supply of workers was not inexhaustible and so the workers there were somewhat better treated than on some of the other mines or on thesugar plantations.[citation needed]
On the whole, African laborers performed brutal work in poor conditions for very little pay that they were frequently cheated of. The American sociologist Edward Ross visited rural Angola in 1924 on behalf of the Temporary Slavery Commission of theLeague of Nations and wrote a scathing report describing the labor system as "virtually stateserfdom", that did not allow Africans time to produce their own food. In addition, when their wages were embezzled and they were denied access to the colonial judicial system.[35]
From the mid-1950s until 1974,iron ore was mined inMalanje,Bié,Huambo, andHuíla provinces, and production reached an average of 5.7 million tons per year between 1970 and 1974. Most of the iron ore was shipped toJapan,West Germany, and theUnited Kingdom, and earned almost US$50 million a year in export revenue. During 1966–67 a major iron ore terminal was built by the Portuguese at Saco, the bay just 12 km North ofMoçâmedes (Namibe). The client was theCompania Mineira do Lobito, the Lobito Mining Company, which developed an iron ore mine inland atCassinga. The construction of the mine installations and a 300 km railway were commissioned toKrupp of Germany and the modern harbour terminal to SETH, a Portuguese company owned byHøjgaard & Schultz of Denmark. The small fishing town of Moçâmedes hosted construction workers, foreign engineers and their families for two years. The Ore Terminal was completed on time within one year and the first 250,000 ton ore carrier docked and loaded with ore in 1967.[30][36] The Portuguese discoveredpetroleum in Angola in 1955. Production began in theCuanza basin in the 1950s, in theCongo basin in the 1960s, and in theexclave ofCabinda in 1968. ThePortuguese government granted operating rights for Block Zero to the Cabinda Gulf Oil Company, a subsidiary ofChevronTexaco, in 1955. Oil production surpassed the exportation ofcoffee as Angola's largest export in 1973.
By the early 1970s, a variety of crops and livestock were produced in Portuguese Angola. In the north,cassava,coffee, andcotton were grown; in the central highlands,maize was cultivated; and in the south, where rainfall is lowest,cattle herding was prevalent. In addition, there were large plantations run by Portuguese that producedpalm oil,sugarcane,bananas, andsisal. These crops were grown by commercial farmers, primarily Portuguese, and by peasant farmers, who sold some of their surplus to local Portuguese traders in exchange for supplies. The commercial farmers were dominant in marketing these crops, however, and enjoyed substantial support from the overseas province's Portuguese government in the form oftechnical assistance, irrigation facilities, and financial credit. They produced the great majority of the crops that were marketed in Angola's urban centres or exported for several countries.[37]
Fishing in Portuguese Angola was a major and growing industry. In the early 1970s, there were about 700fishing boats, and the annual catch was more than 300,000 tons. Including the catch of foreign fishing fleets in Angolan waters, the combined annual catch was estimated at over 1 million tons. The Portuguese territory of Angola was a net exporter of fish products, and the ports ofMoçâmedes,Luanda andBenguela were among the most important fishing harbours in the region.
Non-urban black African access to educational opportunities was very limited for most of thecolonial period, most were not able to speakPortuguese and did not have knowledge ofPortuguese culture andhistory.[38] Until the 1950s, educational facilities run by the Portuguese colonial government were largely restricted to the urban areas.[38] Responsibility for educating rural Africans were commissioned by the authorities to severalRoman Catholic andProtestant missions based across the vast countryside, which taught black Africans in Portuguese language and culture.[38] As a consequence, each of the missions established its own school system, although all were subject to ultimate control and support by the Portuguese.[38]
In mainland Portugal, the homeland of the colonial authorities who ruled in the territory from the 16th century until 1975, by the end of the 19th century theilliteracy rates were at over 80 percent and higher education was reserved for a small percentage of the population. 68.1 percent of mainland Portugal's population was still classified as illiterate by the 1930 census. Mainland Portugal's literacy rate by the 1940s and early 1950s was low byNorth American andWestern European standards at the time. Only in the 1960s did the country make public education available for all children between the ages of six and twelve, and the overseas territories profited from this new educational developments and change in policy atLisbon.
Starting in the early 1950s, the access to basic, secondary and technical education was expanded and its availability was being increasingly opened to both the African indigenes and the ethnic Portuguese of the territories. Education beyond theprimary level became available to an increasing number of black Africans since the 1950s, and the proportion of the age group that went on tosecondary school in the early 1970s was an all-time record high enrollment.[38] Primary school attendance was also growing substantially.[38] In general, the quality of teaching at the primary level was acceptable, even with instruction carried on largely by black Africans who sometimes had substandard qualifications.[38] Most secondary school teachers were ethnically Portuguese, especially in the urban centers.[38]
Two state-run university institutions were founded in Portuguese Africa in 1962 by the Portuguese Ministry of the Overseas Provinces headed byAdriano Moreira—theEstudos Gerais Universitários de Angola in Portuguese Angola and theEstudos Gerais Universitários de Moçambique inPortuguese Mozambique—awarding a wide range of degrees from engineering to medicine.[39] In the 1960s, the Portuguese mainland had four public universities, two of them in Lisbon (which compares with the 14 Portuguese public universities today). In 1968, theEstudos Gerais Universitários de Angola was renamedUniversidade de Luanda (University of Luanda).
From the 1920s onward, city and town expansion and modernization included the construction of several sports facilities forfootball,rink hockey,basketball,volleyball,handball,athletics,gymnastics andswimming. Severalsports clubs were founded across the entire territory, among them were some of the largest and oldest sports organizations of Angola, likeSporting Clube de Luanda, established in 1920 as a branch ofSporting Clube de Portugal.[40] Several sportsmen, especially football players, that achieved wide notability in Portuguese sports were from Angola.José Águas,Rui Jordão andJacinto João were examples of that, and excelled in thePortugal national football team. Since the 1960s, with the latest developments oncommercial aviation, the highest ranked football teams of Angola and the other African overseas provinces of Portugal, started to compete in theTaça de Portugal (the Portuguese Cup). Other facilities and organizations forswimming,nautical sports,tennis andwild hunting became widespread. Beginning in the 1950s, motorsport was introduced to Angola. Sport races were organized in cities likeNova Lisboa,Benguela,Sá da Bandeira andMoçâmedes. The International Nova Lisboa 6 Hours sports car race became noted internationally.[41]
Football became very popular in Angola during the 20th century. Football was mostly spread to Angola by the Portuguese people who settled in the colonies. This was mostly due to the fact that immigration to the colonies was encouraged, both Angola and Mozambique saw an influx of Portuguese migrants. People started to follow teams that were from the Portuguese mainland. In the latter half of the 20th century, Portugal would recruit many players form Angola.Miguel Arcanjo was one such player who played in Portugal. The colonial players would help Portuguese teams win many championships.[42]
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This article incorporates text from a publication now in thepublic domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Angola".Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 2 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 38–40.
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