There are about 380,000 knownspecies of plants, of which the majority, some 260,000,produce seeds. They range in size from single cells to the tallesttrees. Green plants provide a substantial proportion of the world's molecular oxygen; the sugars they create supply the energy for most of Earth'secosystems, and otherorganisms, including animals, eithereat plants directly or rely on organisms which do so. (Full article...)
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Lambertia formosa, commonly known asmountain devil, is ashrub of the familyProteaceae,endemic toNew South Wales, Australia. Firstdescribed in 1798 by English botanistJames Edward Smith, it is thetype species of the small genusLambertia. It is generally found inheathland or open forest, growing insandstone-based soils. It grows as a multistemmed shrub to around 2 m (7 ft) with a woody base known as alignotuber, from which it regrows afterbushfire. It has stiff narrow leaves, and the pink to red flowerheads, made up of seven individual tubular flowers, generally appear in spring and summer. It gains its common name from the horned woodyfollicles, which were used to make small devil-figures.
The flowers hold profuse amounts of nectar and are pollinated byhoneyeaters. AlthoughL. formosa is uncommon incultivation, it is straightforward to grow in soils with good drainage and a partly shaded to sunny aspect. It is readilypropagated by seed. Unlike all other members of the genusLambertia,L. formosa is greatly resistant to the soil pathogenPhytophthora cinnamomi. (Full article...)
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Georg Forster in 1781, age 26
Johann George Adam Forster, also known asGeorg Forster (German:[ˈɡeːɔʁkˈfɔʁstɐ]; 27 November 1754 – 10 January 1794), was a German-Polishgeographer,naturalist,ethnologist,travel writer, journalist and revolutionary. At an early age, he accompanied his father,Johann Reinhold Forster, on several scientific expeditions, includingJames Cook'ssecond voyage to thePacific. His report of that journey,A Voyage Round the World, contributed significantly to the ethnology of the people ofPolynesia and remains a respected work. As a result of the report, Forster, who was admitted to theRoyal Society at the early age of twenty-two, came to be considered one of the founders of modern scientific travel literature.
After returning to continental Europe, Forster turned toward academia. He taught natural history at theCollegium Carolinum in theOttoneum,Kassel (1778–84), and later at theAcademy of Vilna (Vilnius University) (1784–87). In 1788, he becamehead librarian at theUniversity of Mainz. Most of his scientific work during this time consisted of essays onbotany and ethnology, but he also prefaced and translated many books about travel and exploration, including a German translation of Cook's diaries. (Full article...)
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Alloxylon pinnatum, known asDorrigo waratah, is a tree of the familyProteaceae found inwarm-temperate rainforest of south-east Queensland and northern New South Wales in eastern Australia. It has shiny green leaves that are eitherpinnate (lobed) and up to 30 cm (12 in) long, orlanceolate (spear-shaped) and up to 15 cm (5.9 in) long. The prominent pinkish-red flower heads, known asinflorescences, appear in spring and summer; these are made up of 50 to 140 individual flowers arranged incorymb orraceme. These are followed by rectangular woody seed pods, which bear two rows of winged seeds.
Known for many years asOreocallis pinnata, it was transferred to the new genusAlloxylon byPeter Weston andMike Crisp in 1991. This genus contains the four species previously classified inOreocallis that are found in Australasia. Its terminal globular flowers indicate that the species is pollinated by birds. Classified asnear threatened under the QueenslandNature Conservation Act 1992, the Dorrigo waratah has proven difficult to keep alive in cultivation. (Full article...)
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Telopea oreades, commonly known as theGippsland-,mountain- orVictorian waratah, is a large shrub or small tree in the familyProteaceae. Native to southeastern Australia, it is found in wetsclerophyll forest andrainforest on richacidic soils high in organic matter. Nosubspecies are recognised, though a northern isolated populationhybridises extensively with the Braidwood waratah (T. mongaensis). Reaching a height of up to 19 metres (62 feet),T. oreades grows with a single trunk and erecthabit. It has dark green leaves with prominent veins that are 11–28 centimetres (4.3–11 in) long and 1.5–6 cm (0.6–2.4 in) wide. The red flower heads, known asinflorescences, appear in late spring. Each is composed of up to 60 individual flowers.
In the garden,T. oreades grows in soils with good drainage and ample moisture in part-shaded or sunny positions. Several commercially availablecultivars that are hybrid forms withT. speciosissima have been developed, such as the 'Shady Lady' series. The timber is hard and has been used for making furniture and tool handles. (Full article...)
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Banksia telmatiaea, commonly known asswamp foxbanksia or rarelymarsh banksia, is a shrub that grows in marshes and swamps along the lower west coast of Australia. It grows as an upright bush up to 2 metres (6 feet 7 inches) tall, with narrow leaves and a pale brown flower spike, which can produce profuse quantities of nectar. First collected in the 1840s, it was not published as a separate species until 1981; as with several other similar species it was previously included inB. sphaerocarpa (fox banksia).
The shrub grows amongstscrubland in seasonally wet lowland areas of the coastal sandplain betweenBadgingarra andSerpentine inWestern Australia. A little studied species, not much is known of itsecology orconservation biology. Reports suggest that a variety of birds and small mammals pollinate it. Like many members of the seriesAbietinae, it has not been considered to have much horticultural potential and is rarely cultivated. (Full article...)
Banksia ericifolia, theheath-leavedbanksia, orlantern banksia, is aspecies of woodyshrub of the familyProteaceae native toAustralia. It grows in two separate regions of Central and NorthernNew South Wales east of theGreat Dividing Range. Well known for its orange or red autumninflorescences, which contrast with its green fine-leaved heath-like foliage, it is a medium to large shrub that can reach 6 m (20 ft) high and wide, though is usually half that size. In exposedheathlands and coastal areas, it is more often 1–2 m (3.3–6.6 ft).
Banksia ericifolia was one of the originalBanksia species collected byJoseph Banks aroundBotany Bay in 1770 and was named byCarl Linnaeus the Younger, son ofCarl Linnaeus, in 1782. A distinctive plant, it has split into two subspecies:Banksia ericifolia subspeciesericifolia of the Sydney region andBanksia ericifolia subspeciesmacrantha of the New South WalesFar North Coast which was recognised in 1996. (Full article...)
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Theflora of Madagascar consists of more than 12,000species of plants, as well as a poorly known number offungi andalgae. Around 83% ofMadagascar'svascular plants are found only on the island. Theseendemics include five plantfamilies, 85% of the over 900orchid species, around 200 species ofpalms, and such emblematic species as thetraveller's tree, six species ofbaobab and theMadagascar periwinkle. The high degree of endemism is due to Madagascar's long isolation following its separation from the African and Indian landmasses in theMesozoic, 150–160 and 84–91 million years ago, respectively. However, few plant lineages remain from the ancientGondwanan flora; mostextant plant groups immigrated via across-oceandispersal well after continental break-up.
After its continental separation, Madagascar probably experienced a dry period, andtropical rainforest expanded only later in theOligocene toMiocene when rainfall increased. Today, humid forests, including thelowland forests, are mainly found on the eastern plateau where abundant rainfall from theIndian Ocean is captured by anescarpment. A large part of thecentral highlands, in thesub-humid forests ecoregion, is today dominated bygrasslands. They are widely seen as result of human landscape transformation but some may be more ancient. Grassland occurs in a mosaic with woodland and bushland, includingtapia forest, andhard-leaved thickets on the high mountains.Dry forest andsucculent woodland are found in the drier western part and grade into the uniquespiny thicket in the southwest, where rainfall is lowest and thewet season shortest.Mangroves occur on the west coast, and a variety ofwetland habitats with an adapted flora are found across the island. (Full article...)
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Adiantum viridimontanum growing in adunite roadcut
Adiantum viridimontanum, commonly known asGreen Mountain maidenhair fern, is afern found only in outcrops ofserpentine rock inNew England and Eastern Canada. The leaf blade is cut into finger-like segments, themselves once-divided, which are borne on the outer side of a curved, dark, glossyrachis. These finger-like segments are not individual leaves, but parts of a singlecompound leaf. The "fingers" may be drooping or erect, depending on whether the individual fern grows in shade or sunlight.Spores are borne under falseindusia at the edge of the subdivisions of the leaf, a characteristic unique to the genusAdiantum.
Until 1991,A. viridimontanum was grouped with the western maidenhair fern,A. aleuticum, which grows both in western North America and as adisjunct on serpentine outcrops in eastern North America. At one time,A. aleuticum itself was classified as avariety (A. pedatum var.aleuticum) of the northern maidenhair fern,A. pedatum. However, after several years of study, botanist Cathy Paris recognized thatA. aleuticum was a distinct species, and that some of the specimens that had been attributed to thattaxon (group of organisms) were a third,hybrid species intermediate betweenA. pedatum andA. aleuticum. She named the new speciesA. viridimontanum for the site of its discovery in theGreen Mountains inVermont; it has since been located inQuebec and in one site in coastalMaine. (Full article...)
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Bartlett's rātā (centre) in Te Paki
Metrosideros bartlettii, commonly known asBartlett's rātā, is a rare species of tree in the familyMyrtaceae. It isendemic to theNorthland Region in New Zealand'sNorth Island. Bartlett's rātā reaches a height of up to 30 metres (100 feet) with atrunk of 1–1.5 metres (3 ft 3 in – 4 ft 11 in) in diameter. The species is classified in thesubgenusMetrosideros and is known for its distinct whitish, paper-likebark and small white-coloured flowers. Bartlett's rātā was firstdiscovered in 1975 by the New Zealand botanist and schoolteacherJohn Bartlett, who accidentally discovered the species while searching forliverworts nearCape Reinga. It was firstdescribed by botanistJohn Dawson in a 1985 article in theNew Zealand Journal of Botany.
Bartlett's rātā'srange covers the northern tip of theAupōuri Peninsula, in three dense forest remnants nearPiwhane / Spirits Bay. Bartlett's rātā typically begins life as anepiphyte (growing on another plant); it inhabits lowland forests and is usually found growing near wet areas. A 2018 article by theNew Zealand Plant Conservation Network documented 13 adult trees in the wild, a significant decrease from another research article in 2000 that documented 31 wild adult trees. The species has a high chance of becomingextinct in the wild unless immediateconservation measures are taken to stop its ongoing decline, which has been attributed to land use changes following human settlement and the introduction ofcommon brushtail possums, which browse its buds, flowers, and shoots. Bartlett's rātā'sconservation status was assessed by theIUCN Red List in 2013 ascritically endangered, and its population trend was assessed as decreasing. (Full article...)
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Banksia petiolaris is a rarespecies offlowering plant in thefamilyProteaceaenative toWestern Australia, where it is found in sandy soils in the south coastal regions fromMunglinup east toIsraelite Bay. It was first described byVictorian statebotanistFerdinand von Mueller in 1864, and nosubspecies are recognised.B. petiolaris is one of several closely related species that will all grow asprostrate shrubs, with horizontal stems and thick, leathery upright leaves. Those of this species can be viable for up to 13 years—the longest-lived of any flowering plant recorded. It bears yellow cylindrical flower spikes, known asinflorescences, up to 16 cm (6+1⁄4 in) high in spring. As the spikes age, they turn grey and develop up to 20 woody seed pods, known asfollicles, each.
Insects such as bees, wasps and even ants can pollinate the flowers.B. petiolaris is nonlignotuberous, meaning it regenerates by seed afterbushfire.B. petiolaris adapts readily to cultivation, growing in well-drained sandy soils in sunny locations. It is suitable forrockeries and as agroundcover. (Full article...)
Ficus macrophylla, commonly known as theMoreton Bay fig orAustralian banyan, is a large evergreenbanyan tree of the mulberry and fig familyMoraceae. It is native to eastern Australia, from theWide Bay–Burnett region of Queensland in the north to theIllawarra region of New South Wales. TheinfraspeciesFicus macrophylla f.columnaris is endemic toLord Howe Island. Its common name refers toMoreton Bay in Queensland. It is best known for its imposingbuttress roots.
Ficus macrophylla is called astrangler fig because seed germination usually takes place in the canopy of ahost tree, where the seedling lives as anepiphyte until its roots establish contact with the ground, when it enlarges and strangles its host, eventually becoming a freestanding tree by itself. Individuals may reach 60 m (200 ft) in height. The greatest exact height to be reported is 70.6 m (232 ft). It has an obligatemutualism withfig wasps; figs are pollinated only by fig wasps, and fig wasps can reproduce only in fig flowers. The wasp partner of the Moreton Bay Fig isPleistodontes froggattii. Many species of birds, including pigeons, parrots, and various passerines, eat the fruit. (Full article...)
A small, prickly-leavedshrub between 0.2–3 m (0.66–9.84 ft) high,G. juniperina generally grows onclay-based oralluvial soils ineucalyptwoodland. The flower heads, known asinflorescences, appear from winter to early summer and are red, orange or yellow. Birds visit and pollinate the flowers.Grevillea juniperina plants are killed bybushfire, regenerating afterwards from seed.Grevillea juniperina adapts readily to cultivation and has been important in horticulture as it is the parent of many popular gardenhybrids. (Full article...)
In nature,B. sceptrum grows in deep yellow or pale red sand in tallshrubland, commonly ondunes, being found as a shrub to 5 metres (16 ft) high, though often smaller in exposed areas. It is killed byfire and regenerates byseed, the woodyfollicles opening with fire.B. sceptrum is one of the most striking yellow-floweredbanksias of all. Its tall bright yellow spikes, known asinflorescences, are terminal and well displayed. Flowering is in summer, mainly December and January, though flowers are occasionally seen at other times. (Full article...)
Banksia blechnifolia is aspecies offlowering plant in thegenusBanksia found in WesternAustralia. It was first described by Victorian state botanistFerdinand von Mueller in 1864, and no subspecies are recognised. It gained its specific name as its leaves are reminiscent of a fern (Blechnum).B. blechnifolia is one of several closely related species that grow asprostrate shrubs, with horizontal stems and leathery, upright leaves. The red-brown flower spikes, known asinflorescences, are up to 20 centimetres (8 in) high and appear from September to November in the Australian spring. As the spikes age, each turns grey and develops as many as 25 woody seed pods, known asfollicles.
Insects such as bees, wasps, ants and flies pollinate the flowers. Found in sandy soils in the south coastal region of Western Australia in the vicinity ofLake King,B. blechnifolia is non-lignotuberous, regenerating by seed afterbushfire. The plant adapts readily to cultivation, growing in well-drained sandy soils in sunny locations. It is suitable forrockeries and as agroundcover. (Full article...)
The Meilland Family is a multi-generational family ofFrench rose breeders. The family's first rosarian was gardener,Joseph Rambaux, who first started breeding roses in 1850 inLyon. He is best known for developing thePolyantha'Perle d'Or'. His wife, Claudine and son-in-law, Francois Dubreuil, took over the nursery after Rambaux died in 1878. Dubreuil became a successful rose breeder and grower. In 1900, Dubreuil hired sixteen year old, Antoine Meilland, as a gardening assistant, where he met Dubreuil's daughter, Claudia. Antoine and Claudia married in 1909 and their son,Francis was born in 1912. The couple took over Dubreuil's nursery after his death in 1916.
AfterWorld War I, Antoine and Claudia bought property inTassin-la-Demi-Lune, near Lyon and started a new nursery. Their son, Francis, married Marie-Louise (Louisette) Paolino, daughter of an Italian rose breeder in 1939. Francis expanded the rose business over time into a large, international company, and became the most famous and prolific rose breeder in the family. His legendary 'Peace' rose, brought the family international attention and great commercial success when it was introduced afterWorld War II. The Meilland family merged their business with Francisque Richardier in 1946, so that Francis Meilland could focus solely on breeding roses. After Francis's early death in 1958, Louisette continued to breed roses, introducing many awarding winning new varieties. The new company, Meilland-Richardier grew intoMeilland International (AKA House of Meilland), and is located inLe Luc en Provence, France. Francis and Louisette's children, Alain and Michele, are both successful rose breeders and continue to manage the company. (Full article...)
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Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius), alsofalse saffron, is a highly branched,herbaceous,thistle-likeannual plant in the family Asteraceae. It is one of the world's oldest crops; today, it is commercially cultivated forvegetable oil extracted from theseeds. Plants are 30 to 150 cm (12 to 59 in) tall with globularflower heads havingyellow,orange, orredflowers. Each branch will usually have from one to five flower heads containing 15 to 20 seeds per head. Safflower is native to arid environments havingseasonal rain. It grows a deeptaproot which enables it to thrive in such environments. (Full article...)
Some species are shrubs, trees (such asteak), or, rarely, vines. Many members of the family are widely cultivated, not only for their aromatic qualities, but also their ease of cultivation, since they are readily propagated by stem cuttings. Besides those grown for their edible leaves, some are grown for decorative foliage. Others are grown for seed, such asSalvia hispanica (chia), or for their edible tubers, such asPlectranthus edulis,P. esculentus,P. rotundifolius, andStachys affinis (Chinese artichoke). Many are also grown ornamentally, notablycoleus,Plectranthus, and manySalvia species and hybrids. (Full article...)
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Redcurrants, a type of berry derived from a simple (one-locule) inferior ovary Inbotany, aberry is a fleshyfruit produced from a singleflower containing oneovary. Berries so defined includegrapes,currants, andtomatoes, as well ascucumbers,eggplants (aubergines),persimmons andbananas, but exclude certain fruits that meet theculinary definition of berries, such asstrawberries andraspberries. The berry is the most common type of fleshy fruit in which the entire outer layer of the ovary wall ripens into a potentially edible "pericarp". Berries may be formed from one or morecarpels from the same flower (i.e. from a simple or a compound ovary). Theseeds are usually embedded in the fleshy interior of the ovary, but there are some non-fleshy exceptions, such asCapsicum species, with air rather than pulp around their seeds.
Pollen grains have a hard coat made ofsporopollenin that protects the gametophytes during the process of their movement from thestamens to thepistil of flowering plants, or from the malecone to the female cone ofgymnosperms. If pollen lands on a compatible pistil or female cone, itgerminates, producing apollen tube that transfers thesperm to theovule containing the female gametophyte. Individual pollen grains are small enough to require magnification to see detail. The study of pollen is calledpalynology and is highly useful inpaleoecology,paleontology,archaeology, andforensics. (Full article...)
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Coffea arabica flowers
Coffea arabica (/əˈræbɪkə/), also known as theArabica coffee, is a species offlowering plant in thecoffee and madder familyRubiaceae. It is believed to be the first species of coffee to have been cultivated and is the dominant cultivar, representing about 60% of global production. Coffee produced from the less acidic, more bitter, and more highlycaffeinated robusta bean (C. canephora) makes up most of the remaining coffee production. The natural populations ofCoffea arabica are restricted to the forests of South Ethiopia and Yemen. (Full article...)
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A tropical plant community onDiego Garcia Plant ecology is a subdiscipline ofecology that studies the distribution andabundance ofplants, the effects ofenvironmental factors upon the abundance of plants, and the interactions among plants and between plants and other organisms. Examples of these are the distribution oftemperate deciduous forests in North America, the effects of drought or flooding upon plant survival, and competition among desert plants for water, or effects of herds of grazing animals upon the composition of grasslands.
A global overview of the Earth's major vegetation types is provided by O.W. Archibold. He recognizes 11 major vegetation types: tropical forests, tropical savannas, arid regions (deserts), Mediterranean ecosystems, temperate forest ecosystems, temperate grasslands,coniferous forests, tundra (both polar and high mountain), terrestrialwetlands, freshwater ecosystems and coastal/marine systems. This breadth of topics shows the complexity of plant ecology, since it includes plants from floating single-celled algae up to large canopy forming trees. (Full article...)
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Australia, 1907: Cattlemen survey 700 cattle that were killed overnight by poisonous plants
Plants that cause illness or death after consuming them are referred to aspoisonous plants. The toxins in poisonous plants affectherbivores, and deter them from consuming the plants. Plants cannot move to escape their predators, so they must have other means of protecting themselves from herbivorous animals. Some plants have physical defenses such as thorns, spines and prickles, but by far the most common type of protection is chemical.
Over millennia, through the process ofnatural selection, plants have evolved the means to produce a vast and complicated array of chemical compounds to deter herbivores.Tannin, for example, is a defensive compound that emerged relatively early in the evolutionary history of plants, while more complex molecules such aspolyacetylenes are found in younger groups of plants such as theAsterales. Many of the knownplant defense compounds primarily defend against consumption by insects, though other animals, including humans, that consume such plants may also experience negative effects, ranging from mild discomfort to death. (Full article...)
It is grown in 90 countries throughout South and Southeast Asia, islands in the Pacific Ocean and Caribbean Sea, Central America, and Africa. Its name is derived from the texture of the moderately ripe fruit when cooked, similar to freshly baked bread and having a potato-like flavor. (Full article...)
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Hop flower in a hop yard in theHallertau, Germany Hops are theflowers (also called seed cones orstrobiles) of the hop plantHumulus lupulus, a member of theCannabaceae family of flowering plants. They are used primarily as a bittering, flavouring, and stability agent inbeer, to which, in addition to bitterness, they impart floral, fruity, or citrus flavours and aromas. Hops are also used for various purposes in other beverages andherbal medicine. The hops plants have separate female and male plants, and only female plants are used for commercial production. The hop plant is a vigorous climbing herbaceousperennial, usually trained to grow up strings in a field called a hopfield, hop garden (in the South of England), or hop yard (in theWest Country and United States) when grown commercially. Many different varieties of hops are grown by farmers around the world, with different types used for particular styles of beer.
The first documented use of hops in beer is from the 9th century, thoughHildegard of Bingen, 300 years later, is often cited as the earliest documented source. Before this period, brewers used a "gruit", composed of a wide variety of bitter herbs and flowers, includingdandelion,burdock root,marigold,horehound (the old German name for horehound,Berghopfen, means "mountain hops"),ground ivy, andheather. Early documents include mention of a hop garden in the will ofCharlemagne's father,Pepin the Short. (Full article...)
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Jean H. Langenheim (néeHarmon; September 5, 1925 – March 28, 2021) was an Americanplant ecologist andethnobotanist, highly respected as an eminent scholar and a pioneer for women in the field. She has done field research in arctic, tropical, and alpine environments across five continents, with interdisciplinary research that spans across the fields of chemistry, geology, and botany. Her early research helped determine the plant origins ofamber and led to her career-long work investigating the chemical ecology of resin-producing trees, including the role of plant resins for plant defense and the evolution of several resin-producing trees in the tropics. She wrote what is regarded as the authoritative reference on the topic:Plant Resins: Chemistry, Evolution, Ecology, and Ethnobotany, published in 2003.
Langenheim earned a PhD in botany with a minor in geology in 1953 from theUniversity of Minnesota. She was the first female faculty member in the natural sciences and first woman to be promoted to full professor at theUniversity of California, Santa Cruz. She was the first woman to serve as president for the Association for Tropical Biology, second woman to serve as president of theEcological Society of America (ESA) andSociety for Economic Botany, founded and served as the first president for the International Society of Chemical Ecology, and was a fellow of theAmerican Association for the Advancement of Science and theCalifornia Academy of Sciences. During her time as ESA president, she initiated a project to document women's experiences and contributions to the field of ecology and conducted a follow-up project in 1996. Her research was summarized in two publications, and resulted in a large historical collection and a continued effort by ESA to document women's contributions to the field. (Full article...)
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Maize (Zea mays,Poaceae) is the most widely cultivated C4 plant.
In botany,C4 carbon fixation is one of three known methods ofphotosynthesis used by plants. C4 plants increase their photosynthetic efficiency by reducing or suppressingphotorespiration, which mainly occurs under low atmospheric CO2 concentration, high light, high temperature, drought, and salinity. There are roughly 8,100 known C4 species, which belong to at least 61 distinctevolutionary lineages in 19 families (as perAPG IV classification) offlowering plants. Among these are important crops such asmaize,sorghum andsugarcane, but alsoweeds andinvasive plants. Although only 3% of flowering plant species use C4 carbon fixation, they account for 23% of globalprimary production. The repeated,convergent C4 evolution fromC3 ancestors has spurred hopes tobio-engineer the C4 pathway into C3 crops such asrice. C4 photosynthesis probably first evolved 30–35 million years ago in theOligocene, and further origins occurred since, most of them in the last 15 million years. C4 plants are mainly found in tropical and warm-temperate regions, predominantly in opengrasslands where they are often dominant. While most aregraminoids, other growth forms such asforbs, vines, shrubs, and even some trees and aquatic plants are also known among C4 plants. (Full article...)
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Green scuppernongs among muscadine mix
Thescuppernong is a large variety ofmuscadine (Vitis rotundifolia), a species ofgrape native to the southern United States. It is usually a greenish or bronze color and is similar in appearance and texture to a white grape, but rounder and larger.
First known as the "big white grape", the grape is commonly known as the "scuplin" in some areas of theDeep South and also as the "scufalum", "scupanon", "scupadine", "scuppernine", "scupnun", or "scufadine" in other parts of the South. The scuppernong is the state fruit of North Carolina. (Full article...)
Millets (/ˈmɪlɪts/) are a highly varied group of small-seededgrasses, widely grown around the world ascereal crops or grains forfodder and human food. Most millets belong to the tribePaniceae.
Mendel worked with seven characteristics ofpea plants: plant height, pod shape and color, seed shape and color, and flower position and color. Taking seed color as an example, Mendel showed that when a true-breeding yellow pea and a true-breeding green pea were cross-bred, their offspring always produced yellow seeds. However, in the next generation, the green peas reappeared at a ratio of 1 green to 3 yellow. To explain this phenomenon, Mendel coined the terms "recessive" and "dominant" in reference to certain traits. In the preceding example, the green trait, which seems to have vanished in the first filial generation, is recessive, and the yellow is dominant. He published his work in 1866, demonstrating the actions of invisible "factors"—now calledgenes—in predictably determining the traits of an organism. The actual genes were only discovered in a long process that ended in 2025 when the last three of the seven Mendel genes were identified in the peagenome. (Full article...)
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Carl Linnaeus (23 May 1707 – 10 January 1778), also known afterennoblement in 1761 asCarl von Linné, was a Swedishbiologist andphysician who formalisedbinomial nomenclature, the modern system of naming organisms. He is known as the "father of moderntaxonomy". Many of his writings were in Latin; his name is rendered in Latin asCarolus Linnæus and, after his 1761 ennoblement, asCarolus a Linné.
Linnaeus was the son of acurate and was born inRåshult, in the countryside ofSmåland, southernSweden. He received most of his higher education atUppsala University and began giving lectures in botany there in 1730. He lived abroad between 1735 and 1738, where he studied and also published the first edition of hisSystema Naturae in the Netherlands. He then returned to Sweden where he became professor of medicine and botany at Uppsala. In the 1740s, he was sent on several journeys through Sweden to find and classify plants and animals. In the 1750s and 1760s, he continued to collect and classify animals, plants, and minerals, while publishing several volumes. By the time of his death in 1778, he was one of the most acclaimed scientists in Europe. (Full article...)
Thegrapefruit (Citrus ×paradisi) is a subtropicalcitrus tree known for its relatively large,sour to semi-sweet, somewhatbitter fruit. The flesh of the fruit is segmented and varies in color from pale yellow to dark red.
Grapefruits originated inBarbados in the 18th century. They are a citrushybrid that was created through an accidental cross between thesweet orange (C. ×sinensis) and thepomelo (C. maxima), both of which were introduced to the Caribbean from Asia in the 17th century. It has also been called the 'forbidden fruit'. In the past it was called thepomelo, but that term is now mostly used as the common name forCitrus maxima. (Full article...)
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A display of commercially-grownbulbs, including red and yellow cultivars
Theonion (Allium cepaL.Tooltip Carl Linnaeus, fromLatincepa), also known as thebulb onion orcommon onion, is avegetable that is the most widely cultivated species of the genusAllium. Theshallot is abotanical variety of the onion which was classified as a separate species until 2011. The onion's close relatives includegarlic,scallion,leek, andchives.
The genus contains several other species variously called onions and cultivated for food, such as the Japanese bunching onionAllium fistulosum, thetree onionAllium ×proliferum, and the Canada onionAllium canadense. The namewild onion is applied to a number ofAllium species, butA. cepa is exclusively known from cultivation. Its ancestral wild original form is not known, although escapes from cultivation have become established in some regions. The onion is most frequently abiennial or aperennial plant, but is usually treated as anannual and harvested in its first growing season. (Full article...)
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Hypericum foliosum, theshining St John's wort, is a species offlowering plant in the familyHypericaceae. It is a bushy shrub endemic to the PortugueseAzores Islands with golden yellow petals and many stems. The species was described byWilliam Aiton in 1789 and was later placed into sectionAndrosaemum of the genusHypericum byNorman Robson in 1984. It has a diverseessential oil profile made up mostly of monoterpene hydrocarbons, and significant concentrations of various medicinally usefulphenols andcarotenoids. Populations of the plant are small in number, but quick to colonize cleared areas like groves, landslide areas, and volcanic ash deposits. It is parasitized by fungus and by moth species, but is not considered endangered by the IUCN.H. foliosum is used in traditional medicine on the Azores fordiuretic,hepatoprotective, andantihypertensive purposes. It also hasin vitroantibiotic andantioxidizing capabilities. (Full article...)
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Fossils ofA. longicervia described in Wonget al. (2015)
The species was originally described as apitcher plant with close affinities toextant members of thefamilySarraceniaceae. This would make it the earliest knowncarnivorous plant and the only known fossil record of Sarraceniaceae, or the New World pitcher plant family.Archaeamphora is also one of the three oldest knowngenera ofangiosperms (flowering plants). Li (2005) wrote that "the existence of a so highly derived Angiosperm in the Early Cretaceous suggests that Angiosperms should have originated much earlier, maybe back to 280 mya as themolecular clock studies suggested". (Full article...)
A. chaplinei's leaves are in abasal arrangement (sprouting from base of the shoot) and give the plant a fern-like appearance when not flowering. Its flowers are pale yellow. It is named for William Ridgley Chapline, the first person tocollect the plant and who collected theholotype fromSitting Bull Falls in New Mexico in 1916. (Full article...)
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Norman C. Deno (February 15, 1921 – September 22, 2017) was an Americanchemist andplant scientist. He was a professor of chemistry atPenn State University and is known as one of the foremost researchers inseed germination theory. He researched the biochemical reactions that underlie the germination of all seeds, performing germination research on plant species from 150 families, 800 genera, and 2500 species over the course of his career. Deno authored 150 papers in chemistry and 20 papers inhorticulture, and self-published a number of books that combined his scientific results.
AChicagoan, Deno had an interest in plants from a young age, but obtained apost-doctoral degree in chemistry as a more lucrative career opportunity. His chemistry professor position at Penn State University resulted in a discovery by his lab on coal refinement foroil refineries that earned him a large amount of wealth from grants. He later reduced his focus on chemistry to pursue his interests in horticulture. Determining the germination requirements for plants had Deno create the "baggie and paper towel" method for mimicking laboratory growth settings and his general low tech methodologies would end up being dubbed "The Deno Method". His approach to seed germination would result in multiple interviews in newspapers and for books, along with seed companies coming to him specifically for specific cultivar research. He went on to publish multiple books covering seed germination theory and he received awards from theNorth American Rock Garden Society for his work. (Full article...)
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Thebitter orange,sour orange,Seville orange,bigarade orange, ormarmalade orange is the hybridcitrus tree speciesCitrus ×aurantium, and its fruit. It is native toSoutheast Asia and has been spread by humans to many parts of the world. It is a cross between the pomelo,Citrus maxima, and the wild type mandarin orange,Citrus reticulata. The bitter orange is used to makeessential oil, used in foods, drinks, and pharmaceuticals. The Seville orange is prized for making British orangemarmalade. (Full article...)
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Sorghum bicolor, commonly calledsorghum (/ˈsɔːrɡəm/) and also known asbroomcorn,great millet,Indian millet,Guinea corn,jowar, ormilo is a species in thegrass genusSorghum cultivated chiefly for itsgrain. The grain is used as food by humans, while the plant is used for animal feed and ethanol production. The stalk ofsweet sorghum varieties, calledsorgo orsorgho and taller than those grown for grain, can be used forforage orsilage or crushed for juice that can be boiled down into edible syrup or fermented intoethanol.
Sorghum originated and was domesticated inSudan, and is widely cultivated in tropical and subtropical regions. It is the world's fifth-most importantcereal crop afterrice,wheat,maize, andbarley. It is typically an annual, but some cultivars are perennial. It grows in clumps that may reach over 4 metres (13 ft) high. The grain is small, 2 to 4 millimetres (0.08 to 0.2 in) in diameter. (Full article...)
She was the first plant pathologist atRothamsted Experimental Station and was particularly interested in soil-based fungal diseases including potato wart,eyespot in wheat andtake-all. She discovered a method for identifying varieties of crop resistant to these fungal diseases and proved that methods such ascrop rotation only perpetuated the problem. Her research led to increased yields in agriculture, which was of particular note duringWorld War II, and was appointed an OBE for her services to agriculture. (Full article...)
Systemin is aplant peptide hormone involved in the wound response in the familySolanaceae. It was the firstplant hormone that was proven to be apeptide having been isolated from tomato leaves in 1991 by a group led byClarence A. Ryan. Since then, other peptides with similar functions have been identified in tomato and outside of the Solanaceae.Hydroxyproline-richglycopeptides were found intobacco in 2001 and AtPeps (ArabidopsisthalianaPlantElicitorPeptides) were found inArabidopsis thaliana in 2006. Their precursors are found both in thecytoplasm andcell walls ofplant cells, upon insect damage, the precursors are processed to produce one or more mature peptides. Thereceptor for systemin was first thought to be the same as thebrassinolide receptor but this is now uncertain. Thesignal transduction processes that occur after the peptides bind are similar to thecytokine-mediatedinflammatory immune response in animals. Early experiments showed that systemin travelled around the plant after insects had damaged the plant, activatingsystemic acquired resistance, now it is thought that it increases the production ofjasmonic acid causing the same result. The main function of systemins is to coordinate defensive responses againstinsectherbivores but they also affectplant development. Systemin induces the production ofprotease inhibitors which protect against insect herbivores, other peptides activatedefensins and modify root growth. They have also been shown to affect plants' responses to salt stress and UV radiation. AtPEPs have been shown to affect resistance againstoomycetes and may allowA. thaliana to distinguish between different pathogens. InNicotiana attenuata, some of the peptides have stopped being involved in defensive roles and instead affectflower morphology. (Full article...)
Erythranthe, themonkey-flowers andmusk-flowers, is a diverseplantgenus with more than 120 members (as of 2022) in thefamilyPhrymaceae.Erythranthe was originally described as a separate genus, then generally regarded as a section within the genusMimulus, and recently returned to generic rank.Mimulus sect.Diplacus was segregated fromMimulus as a separate genus at the same time.Mimulus remains as a small genus of eastern North America and the Southern Hemisphere. Molecular data showErythranthe andDiplacus to be distinct evolutionary lines that are distinct fromMimulus as strictly defined, although this nomenclature is controversial.
Member species are usuallyannuals orherbaceousperennials. Flowers are red, pink, or yellow, often in various combinations. A large number of theErythranthe species grow in moist to wet soils with some growing even in shallow water. They are not very drought resistant, but many of the species now classified asDiplacus are. Species are found at elevations from oceanside to high mountains as well as a wide variety of climates, though most prefer wet areas such as riverbanks. (Full article...)
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Title page of the 1776 quarto edition ofCharacteres generum plantarum Characteres generum plantarum (complete titleCharacteres generum plantarum, quas in Itinere ad Insulas Maris Australis, Collegerunt, Descripserunt, Delinearunt, annis MDCCLXXII-MDCCLXXV Joannes Reinoldus Forster et Georgius Forster, "Characteristics of the types of plants collected, described, and delineated during a voyage to islands of theSouth Seas, in the years 1772–1775 by Johann Reinhold Forster and Georg Forster") is a 1775/1776 book byJohann Reinhold Forster andGeorg Forster about the botanical discoveries they made during thesecond voyage of James Cook.
The book contains 78 plates, the majority of which depict dissections of flowers at natural size. The book introduced 94 binomial names from 75 genera, of which 43 are still the accepted names today. Many plant genera were named after friends or patrons of the Forsters. The book was published in afolio and aquarto edition and translated into German in 1779. It is an important book as the earliest publication of names and descriptions of the native species of New Zealand. (Full article...)
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De Boom Die Alles Zag and the monument next to it in 2009
... that the name ofDiaphoretickes, a group containing a huge diversity of organisms including plants and kelps, is derived from a Greek word meaningdiverse?
... that according to Lois N. Magner,Hildegard of Bingen'sPhysica is "probably the first book by a female author to discuss the elements and the therapeutic virtues of plants, animals, and metals"?
... thatErna Meyer urged the Jewish immigrant readers ofHow to Cook in Palestine to try olives and eggplants, but doubted their ability to eat spicy food like the "native population"?
Image 3Abanded tube from the Late Silurian/Early Devonian. The bands are difficult to see on this specimen, as an opaque carbonaceous coating conceals much of the tube. Bands are just visible in places on the left half of the image. Scale bar: 20 μm (fromEvolutionary history of plants)
Image 15The fruit ofMyristica fragrans, a species native toIndonesia, is the source of two valuable spices, the red aril (mace) enclosing the dark brownnutmeg. (fromBotany)
Image 16A nineteenth-century illustration showing the morphology of the roots, stems, leaves and flowers of the rice plantOryza sativa (fromBotany)
Image 17The evolution of syncarps. a: sporangia borne at tips of leaf b: Leaf curls up to protect sporangia c: leaf curls to form enclosed roll d: grouping of three rolls into a syncarp (fromEvolutionary history of plants)
Image 19Structure of a plant cell (fromPlant cell)
Image 20The Devonian marks the beginning of extensive land colonization by plants, which – through their effects on erosion and sedimentation – brought about significant climatic change. (fromEvolutionary history of plants)
Image 22Leaf lamina. The megaphyllousleaf architecture arose multiple times in different plant lineages (fromEvolutionary history of plants)
Image 23Structure ofAzadirachtin, a terpenoid produced by theNeem plant, which helps ward off microbes and insects. Many secondary metabolites have complex structures (fromEvolutionary history of plants)
Image 28Five of the key areas of study within plant physiology (fromBotany)
Image 29Paper chromatography of somespinach leaf extract shows the various pigments present in their chloroplasts: yellowish xanthophylls, greenish chlorophyllsa andb. (fromBotany)
Image 331 An oatcoleoptile with the sun overhead.Auxin (pink) is evenly distributed in its tip. 2 With the sun at an angle and only shining on one side of the shoot, auxin moves to the opposite side and stimulatescell elongation there. 3 and4 Extra growth on that side causes the shoot tobend towards the sun. (fromBotany)
Image 34A botanist preparing a plant specimen for mounting in theherbarium (fromBotany)
Image 35Echeveria glauca in a Connecticut greenhouse. Botany uses Latin names for identification; here, the specific nameglauca means blue. (fromBotany)
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