Pontus orPontos (/ˈpɒntəs/;Greek:Πόντος,romanized: Póntos,lit. 'sea',[2]) is aregion on the southern coast of theBlack Sea, located in the modern-day easternBlack Sea Region ofTurkey. The name was applied to the coastal region and its mountainous hinterland (rising to thePontic Alps in the east) by theGreeks who colonized the area in theArchaic period and derived from the Greek name of the Black Sea:Εύξεινος Πόντος(Eúxinos Póntos), "Hospitable Sea",[3] or simplyPontos (ὁ Πόντος) as early as theAeschyleanPersians (472 BC) andHerodotus'Histories (circa 440 BC).
Pontus remained outside the reach of theBronze Age empires, of which the closest was GreatHatti. The region went further uncontrolled by Hatti's eastern neighbors,Hurrian states likeAzzi and (or) Hayasa. In those days, the best any outsider could hope from this region was temporary alliance with a local strongman. TheHittites called the unorganized groups on their northeastern frontier theKaška. As of 2004 little had been found of them archaeologically.[4]
In the wake of the Hittite empire's collapse, theAssyrian court noted that the "Kašku" had overrun its territory in conjunction with a hitherto unknown group whom they labeled theMuški.[5]Iron Age visitors to the region, mostly Greek, noted that the hinterlands remained disunited, and they recorded the names of tribes: Moskhians (often associated with those Muški),[6]Leucosyri,[7] Mares,Makrones,Mossynoikoi,Tibarenoi,[8]Tzans[9] andChalybes or Chaldoi.[10]
TheArmenian language went unnoted by the Hittites, the Assyrians, and all the post-Hittite nations; an ancient theory – first conjectured byHerodotus – is that its speakers migrated fromPhrygia, past literary notice, across Pontus during the early Iron Age. TheGreeks, who spoke a closely related Indo-European tongue, followed them along the coast. The Greeks are the earliest long-term inhabitants of the region from whom written records survive. During the late 8th century BC, Pontus further became a base for theCimmerians, another Indo-European speaking people; however, these were defeated by theLydians, and became a distant memory after the campaigns ofAlyattes.[11]
Since there was so little literacy in northeastern Anatolia[12] until thePersian and Hellenistic era, one can only speculate as to the other languages spoken here. Given thatKartvelian languages remain spoken to the east of Pontus, some are suspected to have been spoken in eastern Pontus during the Iron Age: the Tzans are usually associated with today'sLaz.[9]
Anatolia orAsia Minor in the Greco-Roman period: The classical regions, including Pontus, and their main settlements.Map of Pontus in antiquity, 1901
The first travels of Greek merchants and adventurers to the Pontus region occurred probably from around 1000 BC, whereas their settlements would become steady and solidified cities only by the 8th and 7th centuries BC as archaeological findings document. This fits in well with a foundation date of 731 BC as reported byEusebius of Caesarea forSinope, perhaps the most ancient of the Greek colonies in what was later to be called Pontus.[13] The epical narratives related to the travels ofJason and theArgonauts toColchis, the tales ofHeracles' navigating the Black Sea, andOdysseus' wanderings into the land of theCimmerians, as well as the myth ofZeus constrainingPrometheus to theCaucasus mountains as a punishment for his outwitting the Gods, can all be seen as reflections of early contacts between early Greek colonists and the local, probably Caucasian, peoples. The earliest known written description of Pontus, however, is that ofScylax of Korianda, who in the 7th century BC described Greek settlements in the area.[14]
By the 6th century BC, Pontus had become officially a part of theAchaemenid Empire, which probably meant that the local Greek colonies were paying tribute to the Persians. When the Athenian commanderXenophon passed through Pontus around a century later in 401-400 BC, in fact, he found no Persians in Pontus.[15]
The peoples of this part of northernAsia Minor were incorporated into the third and nineteenthsatrapies of the Persian empire.[16]Iranian influence ran deep, illustrated most famously by the temple of the Persian deities Anaitis, Omanes, and Anadatos atZela, founded by victorious Persian generals in the 6th century BC.[17]
TheKingdom of Pontus extended generally to the east of the Halys River. ThePersian dynasty which was to found this kingdom had during the 4th century BC ruled the Greek city ofCius (or Kios) inMysia, with its first known member beingAriobarzanes I of Cius and the last ruler based in the city beingMithridates II of Cius. Mithridates II's son, also calledMithridates, would proclaim himself later Mithridates I Ktistes of Pontus.
As theEncyclopaedia Iranica states, the most famous member of the family,Mithradates VI Eupator, although undoubtedly presenting himself to the Greek world as a civilized philhellene and new Alexander, also paraded hisIranian background: he maintained a harem andeunuchs in true Oriental fashion; he gave all his sons Persian names; he sacrificed spectacularly in the manner of the Persian kings atPasargadae (Appian, Mith. 66, 70); and he appointed “satraps” (a Persian title) as his provincial governors.[18] Iranica further states, and although there is only one inscription attesting it, he seems to have adopted the title “king of kings.” The very small number of Hellenistic Greek inscriptions that have been found anywhere in Pontus suggest thatGreek culture did not substantially penetrate beyond the coastal cities and the court.[18]
During the troubled period following the death ofAlexander the Great, Mithridates Ktistes was for a time in the service ofAntigonus, one of Alexander'ssuccessors,[19] and successfully maneuvering in this unsettled time managed, shortly after 302 BC, to create the Kingdom of Pontus which would be ruled by his descendants mostly bearing the same name, until 64 BC. Thus, this Persian dynasty managed to survive and prosper in theHellenistic world while the mainPersian Empire had fallen.
This kingdom reached its greatest height underMithridates VI or Mithridates Eupator, commonly called the Great, who for many years carried on war with the Romans. Under him, the realm of Pontus included not only Pontic Cappadocia but also the seaboard from theBithynian frontier toColchis, part of inlandPaphlagonia, andLesser Armenia.[19] Despite ruling Lesser Armenia, King Mithridates VI was an ally of Armenian KingTigranes the Great, to whom he married his daughter Cleopatra.[20] Eventually, however, the Romans defeated both King Mithridates VI and his son-in-law, Armenian King Tigranes the Great, during theMithridatic Wars, bringing Pontus under Roman rule.[21]
Map of Asia Minor in 89 BC, showing Roman provinces and client states as well as Pontic territory. The Kingdom of Pontus, under Mithridates VI the Great, is in green.
With the subjugation of this kingdom byPompey in 64 BC, little changed in the daily lives of either the oligarchies that controlled the cities or for the common people there and in the hinterland, though the meaning of the name Pontus underwent a change.[19] Part of the kingdom was now annexed to theRoman Empire, being united with Bithynia in a double province calledPontus and Bithynia: this part included only the seaboard betweenHeraclea (todayEreğli) andAmisus (Samsun), theora Pontica.[19] The larger part of Pontus, however, was included in the province of Galatia.[21]
Hereafter the simple name Pontus without qualification was regularly employed to denote the half of this dual province, especially by Romans and people speaking from the Roman point of view; it is so used almost always in theNew Testament.[19] The eastern half of the old kingdom was administered as aclient kingdom together withColchis. Its last king wasPolemon II.
In AD 62, the country was constituted byNero aRoman province. It was divided into the three districts:Pontus Galaticus in the west, bordering onGalatia;Pontus Polemoniacus in the centre, so called from its capitalPolemonium; andPontus Cappadocicus in the east, bordering on Cappadocia (Armenia Minor). Subsequently, the Roman EmperorTrajan moved Pontus into the province of Cappadocia itself in the early 2nd century AD.[21] In response to aGothic raid on Trebizond in 287 AD, the Roman EmperorDiocletian decided to break up the area into smaller provinces under more localized administration.[9]
With the reorganization of the provincial system under Diocletian (about AD 295), the Pontic districts were divided up between three smaller, independent provinces within theDioecesis Pontica:[9][19]
Pontus Polemoniacus, with its capital at Polemonium (also calledSide), and including the cities ofNeocaesarea,Argyroupolis, Comana, and Cerasus as well.
Cappadocian Pontus, with its capital at Trebizond, and including the small ports ofAthanae andRhizaeon. This province extended all the way to Colchis.
The Byzantine EmperorJustinian further reorganized the area in 536:
Pontus Polemoniacus was dissolved, with the western part (Polemonium and Neocaesarea) going to Helenopontus, Comana going to the new province ofArmenia II, and the rest (Trebizond and Cerasus) joining the new province ofArmenia I Magna with its capital at Justinianopolis.[9]
Helenopontus gained Polemonium and Neocaesarea, and lost Zela toArmenia II. The provincial governor was relegated to the rank ofmoderator.
Paphlagonia absorbedHonorias and was put under apraetor.
By the time of the early Byzantine Empire, Trebizond became a center of culture and scientific learning. In the 7th century, an individual named Tychicus returned from Constantinople to establish a school of learning. One of his students was the early Armenian scholarAnania of Shirak.[22]
Under the Byzantine Empire, the Pontus came under theArmeniac Theme, with the westernmost parts (Paphlagonia) belonging to theBucellarian Theme. Progressively, these large early themes were divided into smaller ones, so that by the late 10th century, the Pontus was divided into the themes ofChaldia, which was governed by the Gabrades family,[22] and Koloneia. After the 8th century, the area experienced a period of prosperity, which was brought to an end only by theSeljuk conquest of Asia Minor in the 1070s and 1080s. Restored to the Byzantine Empire byAlexios I Komnenos, the area was governed by effectively semi-autonomous rulers, like the Gabras family of Trebizond.
The region was secured militarily from the 11th through the 15th centuries with a vast network of sophisticated coastal fortresses.[23]
FollowingConstantinople's loss of sovereignty to theFourth Crusade in 1204, the Pontus retained independence as theEmpire of Trebizond under theKomnenos dynasty. Through a combination of geographic remoteness and adroit diplomacy, this remnant managed to survive, until it was conquered by theOttomans in 1461 after theFall of Constantinople itself. This political adroitness included becoming a vassal state at various times to both Georgia and to various inland Turkic rulers. In addition, the Empire of Trebizond became a renowned center of culture under its ruling Komnenos dynasty.[24]
Under the subsequent Ottoman rule which began with the fall ofTrebizond, particularly starting from the 17th century, some of the region'sPontic Greeks became Muslim through theDevşirme system. But at the same time some valleys inhabited by Greeks converted voluntarily, most notably those in the Of valley. Large communities (around 25% of the population) of Christian Pontic Greeks remained throughout the area (including Trabezon and Kars in northeastern Turkey/the Russian Caucasus) until the 1920s, and in parts of Georgia and Armenia until the 1990s, preserving their own customs anddialect of Greek. One group of Islamicized Greeks were called the Kromli, but were suspected ofsecretly having remained Christians. They numbered between 12,000 and 15,000 and lived in villages including Krom, Imera, Livadia, Prdi, Alitinos, Mokhora, and Ligosti.[26] Many of the Islamized Greeks continued speakingtheir language, known for itsunique preservation of characteristics of Ancient Greek and still today there are some in the Of valley that speak the localOphitic dialect.
TheRepublic of Pontus (Greek:Δημοκρατία του Πόντου,romanized: Dimokratía tou Póntou) was a proposed Pontic Greek state on the southern coast of the Black Sea. Its territory would have encompassed much of historical Pontus and today forms part of Turkey's Black Sea Region. The proposed state was discussed at theParis Peace Conference of 1919, but the Greek government ofEleftherios Venizelos feared the precarious position of such a state and so it was included instead in the larger proposed state of Wilsonian Armenia. Neither state came into existence and the Pontic Greek population was subjected togenocide and expelled from Turkey after 1922 and resettled in the Soviet Union or inMacedonia. This state of affairs was later formally recognized as part of the population exchange between Greece and Turkey in 1923.
The Black Sea Region in today's TurkeyAdministrative subdivisions of today's Black Sea Region
TheBlack Sea Region (Turkish:Karadeniz Bölgesi), comprising all or parts of 22 provinces, is one ofTurkey's sevencensus-defined geographical regions. It encompasses but is larger than historic Pontus.
Mentioned thrice in the New Testament, inhabitants of Pontus were some of the first converts toChristianity.Acts 2:9 mentions them present inJerusalem on the Day ofPentecost;Acts 18:2 mentions a Jewish tentmaker from Pontus,Aquila, who was then living inCorinth with his wifePriscilla, who had both converted to Christianity, and in1 Peter 1:1,Peter the Apostle addresses the Pontians in his letter as the "elect" and "chosen ones".
As early as theFirst Council of Nicea, Trebizond had its own bishop. Subsequently, the Bishop of Trebizond was subordinated to theMetropolitan Bishop ofPoti. Then during the 9th century, Trebizond itself became the seat of the Metropolitan Bishop ofLazica.[10]
^πόντος, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott,A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus.
^Εὔξεινος, William J. Slater,Lexicon to Pindar, on Perseus.
^Roger Matthews (December 2004). "Landscapes of Terror and Control: Imperial Impacts in Paphlagonia".Near Eastern Archaeology.67 (4):200–211.doi:10.2307/4132387.JSTOR4132387.S2CID161960753.
^Records of Tiglath-Pileser IapudRD Barnett (1975). "30".The Cambridge Ancient History. pp. 417f., 420.
^Hewsen, Robert H. (2009). "Armenians on the Black Sea: The Province of Trebizond". In Richard G. Hovannisian (ed.).Armenian Pontus: The Trebizond-Black Sea Communities. Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda Publishers, Inc. pp. 40 f.ISBN978-1-56859-155-1.
^Kristensen, Anne Katrine Gade (1988).Who were the Cimmerians, and where did they come from?: Sargon II, and the Cimmerians, and Rusa I. Copenhagen Denmark: The Royal Danish Academy of Science and Letters.
^Robert W. Edwards, “The Garrison Forts of the Pontos: A Case for the Diffusion of the Armenian Paradigm,”Revue des Études Arméniennes 19, 1985, pp. 181-284, pls.1-51b.
As found in theNotitia Dignitatum. Provincial administration reformed anddioceses established byDiocletian,c. 293. Permanentpraetorian prefectures established after the death ofConstantine I. Empire permanently partitioned after 395. Exarchates ofRavenna andAfrica established after 584. After massive territorial losses in the 7th century, the remaining provinces were superseded by thetheme system in c. 640–660, although inAsia Minor and parts of Greece they survived under the themes until the early 9th century.
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