Thepontifex maximus (Latin for 'supremepontiff')[1][2][3] was the chiefhigh priest of theCollege of Pontiffs (Collegium Pontificum) inancient Rome. This was the most important position in theancient Roman religion, open only topatricians until 254 BC, when aplebeian first held this position. Although in fact the most powerful office in the Roman priesthood, thepontifex maximus was officially ranked fifth in theranking of the highest Roman priests (Ordo Sacerdotum), behind theRex Sacrorum and theflamines maiores (Flamen Dialis,Flamen Martialis,Flamen Quirinalis).[4]
A distinctly religious office under the earlyRoman Republic, it gradually became politicized until, beginning withAugustus, it was subsumed into the position ofemperor in theRoman imperial period. Subsequent emperors were styledpontifex maximus well intoLate Antiquity, includingGratian (r. 367–383), but during Gratian's reign the phrase was replaced in imperial titulature with the Latin phrase:pontifex inclytus ("honourable pontiff"), an example followed by Gratian's junior co-emperorTheodosius the Great and which was used by emperors thereafter including theco-augustiValentinian III (r. 425–455),Marcian (r. 450–457) and theaugustusAnastasius Dicorus (r. 491–518). The first to adopt theinclytus alternative tomaximus may have been the rebelaugustusMagnus Maximus (r. 383–388).
The wordpontifex and its derivative "pontiff" became terms used for Christianbishops,[5] including the Bishop ofRome.[6][7] The title ofpontifex maximus was applied to the RomanCatholic Church for thepope as its chief bishop and appears on buildings, monuments and coins of popes ofRenaissance and modern times. The official list of titles of the pope given in theAnnuario Pontificio includes "supreme pontiff" (Latin:summus pontifex) as the fourth title, the first being "bishop of Rome".[8]
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The etymology of "pontifex" is uncertain, but the word has been used since Roman times. The word appears to consist of the Latin word for "bridge" and the suffix for "maker" (pons +facere)". However, there is a possibility that this definition is afolk etymology for anEtruscan term,[9] since Roman religion was heavily influenced by Etruscan religion, and little is known about theEtruscan language, which is anon-Indo-European and poorly attested language.
According to the common interpretation whereby the termpontifex means "bridge-builder", this could have been originally meant in a literal sense: the position of bridge-builder was indeed an important one in Rome, where the major bridges were over theTiber, the sacred river (and a deity): only prestigious authorities with sacral functions could be allowed to "disturb" it with mechanical additions. However, it was always understood in its symbolic sense as well: the pontifices were the ones who smoothed the "bridge" between gods and men.[10]
The interpretation of the wordpontifex as "bridge-builder" was that ofDionysius of Halicarnassus andMarcus Terentius Varro.Plutarch pointed out that the term existed before there were any bridges in Rome and derived the word fromOld Latinpontis [sic] meaning a powerful or absolute master, while others derived it frompotis facere in the sense of "able to sacrifice".[11] The last derivation is mentioned also by Varro, who rejected it,[12] but it was the view ofpontifex maximusQuintus Scaevola.[13] Others have held that the word was originallypompifex (leader of public processions).[13] The wordpons originally meant "way" andpontifex would thus mean "maker of roads and bridges."[13]
Another opinion is that the word is a corruption of a similar-sounding but etymologically unrelatedEtruscan word.[14] Yet another hypothesis[15] considers the word as a loan from theSabine language, in which it would mean a member of a college of five, fromOsco-Umbrianponte, five.[16] This explanation takes into account that the college was established bySabine kingNuma Pompilius and the institution is Italic: the expressionspontis andpomperias found in theIguvine Tablets may denote a group or division of five or by five. The pontifex would thence be a member of a sacrificial college known aspomperia (Latinquinio).[17]
The Roman titlepontifex maximus was rendered in Greek inscriptions and literature of the time asKoinē Greek:ἀρχιερεύς,romanized: archiereús,lit. 'Archpriest'[18] or by a more literal translation and order of words asKoinē Greek:ἀρχιερεὺς μέγιστος,romanized: archireús mégistos,lit. 'greatest archpriest'.[19] The termἀρχιερεύς is used in the GreekSeptuagint text of theOld Testament and in theNew Testament to refer to theHigh Priest of Israel, including in2 Maccabees (2 Maccabees 4:7).
The wordpontifex, Latin for "pontiff," was used in ancient Rome to designate a member of theCollege of Pontiffs. In the LatinVulgate translation of theNew Testament, it is sometimes used to designate the Jewish high priest, as in theGospel of John andEpistle to the Hebrews (John 11:49;Hebrews 5:1). From perhaps as early as the 3rd century, it has been used to denote a Christian bishop. In theVulgate, the termsummus pontifex was originally applied to theHigh Priest of Israel, as in theBook of Judith (Judith 15:19), whose place, each in his owndiocese, the Christian bishops were regarded as holding, based on an interpretation of theFirst Epistle of Clement (I Clement 40).[20]
TheCollegium Pontificum (College of Pontiffs) was the most important priesthood of ancient Rome. The foundation of this sacred college and the office ofpontifex maximus is attributed to the secondking of Rome,Numa Pompilius.[21] Much of what is known about theRegal period in Roman history is semi-legendary or mythical. TheCollegium presumably acted as advisers to therex (king) in religious matters. Thecollegium was headed by thepontifex maximus, and all thepontifices held their office for life. But the pontifical records of early Rome were most likely destroyed when the city was sacked by the Gauls in 387 BC, and the earliest accounts of Archaic Rome come from the literature of theRepublic, most of it from the 1st century BC and later.[citation needed]
According to theAugustan-erahistorianLivy,Numa Pompilius, aSabine, devised Rome's system of religious rites, including the manner and timing of sacrifices, the supervision of religious funds, authority over all public and private religious institutions, instruction of the populace in the celestial and funerary rites including appeasing the dead, and expiation of prodigies. Numa is said to have founded Roman religion after dedicating an altar on theAventine Hill toJupiter Elicius and consulting the gods by means ofaugury.[21] Numa wrote down and sealed these religious instructions, and gave them to the firstpontifex maximus,Numa Marcius.[citation needed]
In theRoman Republic, thepontifex maximus was the highest office in thestate religion of ancient Rome and directed theCollege of Pontiffs. According to Livy, after the overthrow of the monarchy, the Romans created the priesthood of therex sacrorum, or "king of sacred rites," to carry out certain religious duties and rituals previously performed by the king. Therex sacrorum was explicitly deprived of military and political power, but thepontifices were permitted to hold bothmagistracies and military commands.[22]
The official residence of thepontifex maximus was theDomus Publica ("State House") which stood between the House of theVestal Virgins and theVia Sacra, close to theRegia, in theRoman Forum. His religious duties were carried out from the Regia. Unless thepontifex maximus was also a magistrate, he was not allowed to wear thetoga praetexta, i.e. toga with the purple border. In artistic representations, he can be recognized by his holding an iron knife(secespita)[9] or thepatera,[23] and the distinctive robes or toga with part of the mantle covering the head(capite velato), in keeping with Roman practice.
In practice, particularly during the late Republic, the office ofpontifex maximus was generally held by a member of a politically prominent family. It was a coveted position mainly for the great prestige it conferred on the holder.Julius Caesar became pontifex in 73 BC andpontifex maximus in 63 BC.
The major Republican source on the pontiffs would have been the theological writings ofVarro, which survive only in fragments preserved by later authors such asAulus Gellius andNonius Marcellus. Other sources areCicero,Livy,Dionysius of Halicarnassus,Valerius Maximus,Plutarch'sLife of Numa Pompilius,Festus's summaries ofVerrius Flaccus, and in later writers, including several of theChurch Fathers. Some of these sources present an extensive list of everyday prohibitions for thepontifex maximus; it seems difficult to reconcile these lists with evidence that manypontifices maximi were prominent members of society who lived normal lives.
The number of Pontifices, elected byco-optatio (i.e. the remaining members nominate their new colleague) for life, was originally five, including thepontifex maximus.[24][9] Thepontifices, moreover, could only come from the old nobility. In effect, this was only members of the patrician class. However, in 300–299 BC thelex Ogulnia opened the office ofpontifex maximus to public election and permitted theplebs (plebeians) to be co-opted as priests, so that part of the exclusivity of the title was lost. But it was only in 254 BC thatTiberius Coruncanius became the first plebeianpontifex maximus.[25]
Thelex Ogulnia also increased the number of pontiffs to nine (thepontifex maximus included). In 104 BC thelex Domitia prescribed that the election of all pontiffs would henceforward be voted by thecomitia tributa (an assembly of the people divided into voting districts); by the same law only 17 tribes, chosen by lot from the 35 tribes of the city, could vote. The law's promulgator, L[ucius] Domitius Ahenobarbus, was shortly afterwards elected pontifex maximus after the death of the incumbentMetellus Dalmaticus: Something of a personal revenge because, the previous year, he had expected to be co-opted as a pontiff to replace his late father, but the pontifical college had appointed another candidate in his place. The office's next holder,Q[uintus] Mucius Scaevola, was also elected under the same law, though without controversy or opposition since he was a former consul and long-serving pontiff.
This law was abolished in 81 BC bySulla in his dictatorship, in thelex Cornelia de Sacerdotiis, which restored to the great priestly colleges their full right ofco-optatio.[26][27][28] Also under Sulla, the number of pontifices was increased to fifteen, thepontifex maximus included, and Sulla appointedQuintus Caecilius Metellus Pius as the next holder of the office – the only truly unelectedpontifex maximus in history, since even the other pontiffs did not get a vote in the matter.
In 63 BC, the law of Sulla was abolished by the tribuneTitus Labienus, and a modified form of thelex Domitia was reinstated providing for election bycomitia tributa once again:Gaius Julius Caesar followed Ahenobarbus's precedent by being elected by public vote, although Caesar at least had previously been a pontiff. Marcus Antonius later restored the right ofco-optatio to the college,[29] in time for the election ofMarcus Aemilius Lepidus. Also underJulius Caesar, the number of pontifices were increased to sixteen, thepontifex maximus included. (Possibly because Caesar's own long absences from Rome necessitated the appointment of a deputy pontiff for those occasions when fifteen needed to be present.) The number of pontifices varied during the Empire but is believed to have been regular at fifteen.[24]
The office came into its own with the abolition of the monarchy, when most sacral powers previously vested in the King were transferred either to thepontifex maximus or to theRex Sacrorum, though traditionally a (non-political)dictator[30] was formally mandated by the Senate for one day, to perform a specific rite.
According to Livy in his "History of Rome," an ancient instruction written in archaic letters commands: "Let him who is thePraetor Maximus fasten a nail on the Ides of September." This notice was fastened on the right side of the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus, next to the chapel of Minerva. This nail is said to have marked the number of the year.
It was in accordance with this direction that the consul Horatius dedicated the Temple ofJupiter Optimus Maximus in the year following the expulsion of the kings; from the Consuls the ceremony of fastening the nails passed to the Dictators, because they possessed greater authority. As the custom had been subsequently dropped, it was felt to be of sufficient importance to require the appointment of a dictator. L[ucius] Manlius was accordingly nominated but his appointment was due to political rather than religious reasons. He was eager to command in the war with the Hernici. He caused an anger among the men liable to serve by the inconsiderate way in which he conducted the enrolment. In consequence of the unanimous resistance offered by the tribunes of the plebs, he gave way, either voluntarily or through compulsion, and laid down his dictatorship. Since then, this rite was performed by the Rex Sacrorum.[31]
The main duty of the Pontifices was to maintain thepax deorum or "peace of the gods."[32]
The immense authority of the sacred college ofpontiffs was centered on thepontifex maximus, the other pontifices forming hisconsilium or advising body. His functions were partly sacrificial or ritualistic, but these were the least important. His real power lay in the administration ofius divinum or divine law;[33] the information collected by the pontifices related to the Roman religious tradition was bound in acorpus which summarizeddogma and other concepts.
The chief departments ofjus divinum may be described as follows:
The pontifices had many relevant and prestigious functions such as being in charge of caring for the state archives, the keeping the official minutes of elected magistrates,[35] the list of magistrates, and they kept the records of their own decisions (commentarii) and of the chief events of each year, the so-called "public diaries", theAnnales maximi.[36]
Thepontifex maximus was also subject to severaltaboos. Among them was the prohibition to leave Italy. Plutarch describedPublius Cornelius Scipio Nasica Serapio (141–132 BC) as the first to leave Italy, after being forced by the Senate to do so, and thus break the sacred taboo.Publius Licinius Crassus Dives Mucianus (132–130 BC) was the first to leave Italy voluntarily. Afterwards it became common and no longer against the law for thepontifex maximus to leave Italy. Among the most notable of those who did wasJulius Caesar (63–44 BC).
The Pontifices were in charge of thelunisolarRoman calendar and determined whenintercalary months needed to be added to synchronize the calendar to the seasons. Since the Pontifices were often politicians, and because a Roman magistrate's term of office corresponded with a calendar year, this power was prone to abuse: a Pontifex could lengthen a year in which he or one of his political allies was in office, or refuse to lengthen one in which his opponents were in power. A Pontifex with other political responsibilities, especially away from Rome, might also have been simply distracted from his calendrical duties as chief priest. This caused the calendar to become out of step with the seasons; for example, Caesar's crossing of theRubicon in January 49 BC actually took place in mid-autumn.
Under his authority aspontifex maximus, Julius Caesar introduced the calendar reform that created the entirelysolarJulian calendar, with a fault of less than a day per century. This calendar remained the standard calendar of the Roman Empire until its collapse, and was used by thestate church of the Roman Empire after the adoption of Christianity as the Roman state religion. The Julian calendar, established by Caesar in his capacity aspontifex maximus, thus became the standard calendar in all of Europe, and continued in use in Western Europe until theGregorian reform in the 16th century.
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After Julius Caesar's assassination in 44 BC, his allyMarcus Aemilius Lepidus was selected aspontifex maximus. Though Lepidus eventually fell out of political favor and was sent into exile asAugustus consolidated power, he retained the priestly office until his death in 13/12 BC, at which point Augustus was selected to succeed him and given the right to appoint other pontifices. Thus, from the time of Augustus, the election of pontifices ended and membership in the sacred college was deemed a sign of imperial favour.[9] Augustus took the title ofpontifex maximus for political gain, in an attempt to restore traditional Roman values. With this attribution, the new office of Emperor was given a religious dignity and the responsibility for the entire Roman state cult. Most authors contend that the power of naming the Pontifices was not really used as aninstrumentum regni, an enforcing power.[citation needed]
From this point on,pontifex maximus was one of the many titles of the Emperor, slowly losing its specific and historical powers and becoming simply a referent for the sacral aspect of imperial duties and powers. During the Imperial period, apromagister (vice-master) performed the duties of thepontifex maximus in lieu of the emperors whenever they were absent.[10]
In post-Severan times (after 235 AD), the small number of pagan senators interested in becoming pontiffs led to a change in the pattern of office holding. In Republican and Imperial times no more than one family member of a gens was member of theCollege of Pontiffs, nor did one person hold more than one priesthood in this collegium. However, these rules were loosened in the later part of the 3rd century A.D. In periods of joint rule, at first only one of the emperors bore this title, as it occurred for the first time during the joint reign ofMarcus Aurelius andLucius Verus (161–169 AD), when only Marcus Aurelius waspontifex maximus, but later twopontifices maximi could serve together, asPupienus andBalbinus did in 238 AD—a situation unthinkable in Republican times.[37]
WhenTertullian, aMontanist, furiously applied the term to a bishop with whom he was at odds (eitherPope Callixtus I orAgrippinus of Carthage),[38][39] ca. 220, over a relaxation of the Church's penitential discipline allowing repentant adulterers and fornicators back into the Church, it was in bitter irony:
In opposition to this [modesty], could I not have acted the dissembler? I hear that there has even been an edict sent forth, and a peremptory one too. The "Pontifex Maximus," that is the "bishop of bishops," issues an edict: "I remit, to such as have discharged [the requirements of] repentance, the sins both of adultery and of fornication." O edict, on which cannot be inscribed, "Good deed!"... Far, far from Christ's betrothed be such a proclamation!
— Tertullian,On Modesty ch. 1
In theCrisis of the Third Century, emperors continued to assume the titlepontifex maximus. The early Christian emperors, includingConstantine the Great (r. 306–337) and the rest of theConstantinian dynasty, continued to use it; it was only relinquished byGratian, possibly in 376 at the time of his visit to Rome,[10] or more probably in 383 when a delegation of pagan senators implored him to restore theAltar of Victory in theRoman Senate'sCuria Julia.[40] Its last use with reference to the emperors is in inscriptions of Gratian.[41][24][9]
TheEdict of Thessalonica of 27 February 380 was enacted in Thessalonica (Thessaloniki) and published inConstantinople (Istanbul) for the whole empire. By it, Theodosius I establishedNicene Christianity as thestate church of the Roman Empire. The Latin text refers to the bishop of Rome,Damasus, as apontifex, and the bishop of Alexandria,Peter, as anepiscopus:[42]
... the profession of that religion which was delivered to the Romans by the divine Apostle Peter, as it has been preserved by faithful tradition and which is now professed by thePontiff Damasus and by Peter,Bishop of Alexandria ... We authorize the followers of this law to assume the title Catholic Christians ...[43]
Various forms ofsummus pontifex ('highest pontiff' or bishop) were for centuries used not only of the Bishop of Rome but of other bishops also.[20]Hilary of Arles (d. 449) is styledsummus pontifex byEucherius of Lyon (P. L., vol. L, col. 773).
During Gratian's reign or immediately afterwards the phrasepontifex maximus – which had unwelcome associations with traditional Roman religion during theChristianization of the Roman Empire – was replaced in imperial titulature with the phrase:pontifex inclytus.[44] The first to adopt theinclytus alternative tomaximus may have been the rebelaugustus and devout Christian close to bishopMartin of Tours,Magnus Maximus (r. 383–388), who killed Gratian in August 383.[44]
This practice was followed by Gratian's junior co-emperorTheodosius the Great and was used by emperors thereafter, including theco-augustiValentinian III (r. 425–455),Marcian (r. 450–457) and theaugustusAnastasius Dicorus (r. 491–518), for whom examples of official usage survive.[44] Another inscription dedicated toJustin II (r. 565–574) and naming himpontifex has long been recognized as a forgery, though there is no evidence to suggest the title could not have been used byJustinian the Great (r. 527–565) or even byConstantine IV (r. 654–685).[44]
Lanfranc is termedprimas et pontifex summus by his biographer,Milo Crispin (P. L., vol. CL, 10), but from the 11th century it appears to be applied only to the Pope.[20]
In the 15th century, when theRenaissance drove new interest in ancient Rome,pontifex maximus became a regular title of honour for Popes.[45] After theFall of the Eastern Roman Empire with theFall of Constantinople to theOttoman Empire and the death of the finalRoman emperorConstantine XI in 1453,pontifex maximus became part of thepapacy's official titulature of the Bishop of Rome.[46] The name given to the book containing the liturgical rites to be performed by any bishop, theRoman Pontifical, and to the form of liturgy known asPontifical High Mass witness to the continued use ofpontifex to refer to bishops in general.[citation needed]
Tertullian (c. 155 – c. 220 AD), in his work "De Pudicitia" (On Modesty), criticizedPope Callixtus I for allowing repentant adulterers and fornicators back into the Church, even if they were repeat offenders, sarcastically referring to him as "Pontifex Maximus."[47][48]
The Pontifex Maximus — that is, the bishop of bishops — issues an edict: "I remit, to such as have discharged (the requirements of) repentance, the sins both of adultery and of fornication." O edict, on which cannot be inscribed, Good deed!
— Tertullian, On Modesty, Chapter I
While the titlepontifex maximus has for some centuries been used in inscriptions referring to the Popes, it has never been included in the official list ofpapal titles published in theAnnuario Pontificio. The official list of titles of the Pope given in theAnnuario Pontificio includes "Supreme Pontiff of the whole Church" (in Latin,Summus Pontifex Ecclesiae Universalis) as the fourth title, the first being "Bishop of Rome." The titlepontifex maximus appears in inscriptions on buildings and on coins and medallions.[citation needed]
In December 2012,Pope Benedict XVI adopted@pontifex as hisX (formerly known as Twitter)handle,[49] prompting users to pose questions with the#askpontifexhashtag.[50][51] This was also maintained by his successorPope Francis, who used it as his X handle.[52]
In the matter of hierarchical nomenclature, one of the most striking instances is the adoption of the term pontifex for a bishop
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