Poland during Jagiellonian dynasty
1385–1572
Banner ofPoland-Lithuania
Monarch(s)	Władysław II Jagiełło (first) Sigismund II Augustus (last)
Chronology Piast dynasty Early elective monarchy

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The rule of theJagiellonian dynasty in Poland between 1386 and 1572 spans theLate Middle Ages and theEarly Modern Period in European history. TheLithuanian Grand DukeJogaila (Władysław II Jagiełło) founded the dynasty; his marriage to QueenJadwiga of Poland^[1] in 1386 strengthened an ongoingPolish–Lithuanian union. The partnership brought vast territories controlled by theGrand Duchy of Lithuania into Poland's sphere of influence and proved beneficial for both thePolish andLithuanian people, who coexisted and cooperated in one of the largestpolitical entities inEurope for the next four centuries.^[2][3]

In theBaltic Sea region, Poland engaged in ongoing conflict with theTeutonic Knights. The struggles led to a major battle, theBattle of Grunwald of 1410, but there was also the milestonePeace of Thorn of 1466 under KingCasimir IV Jagiellon; the treaty defined the basis of the futureDuchy of Prussia. In the south, Poland confronted theOttoman Empire and theCrimean Tatars, and in the east Poles helped Lithuania fight theGrand Duchy of Moscow. Poland's and Lithuania's territorial expansion included the far north region ofLivonia.^[2][3]

In the Jagiellonian period,Poland developed as afeudal state with a predominantly agricultural economy and an increasingly dominantlanded nobility. TheNihil novi act adopted by the PolishSejm in 1505 transferred most of thelegislative power in the state from themonarch to the Sejm. This event marked the beginning of the system known as the "Golden Liberty", when the "free and equal" members of thePolish nobility ruled the state^[2][3] andelected the monarch.

The 16th century sawProtestant Reformation movements deeply influencing PolishChristianity, resulting in unique policies ofreligious tolerance for the Europe of that time. The EuropeanRenaissance as fostered by the last Jagiellonian KingsSigismund I the Old (r. 1506–1548) andSigismund II Augustus (r. 1548–1572) resulted in an immensecultural flowering.^[2][3]

In 1385, theUnion of Krewo was signed between QueenJadwiga of Poland andJogaila, theGrand Duke of Lithuania, the ruler of the lastpagan state in Europe. The act arranged for Jogaila'sbaptism and the couple's marriage, which established the beginning of thePolish–Lithuanian union. After Jogaila's baptism, he was known in Poland by his baptismal name Władysław and the Polish version of his Lithuanian name, Jagiełło. The union strengthened both nations in their shared opposition to theTeutonic Knights and the growing threat of theGrand Duchy of Moscow.^[4]

Vast expanses ofRus' lands, including theDnieper River basin and territories extending south to theBlack Sea, were at that time under Lithuanian control. In order to gain control of these vast holdings, Lithuanians and Ruthenians had fought theBattle of Blue Waters in 1362 or 1363 against the invadingMongols and had taken advantage of the power vacuum to the south and east that resulted from theMongol destruction ofKievan Rus'. The population of the Grand Duchy's enlarged territory was accordingly heavilyRuthenian andEastern Orthodox. The territorial expansion led to a confrontation between Lithuania and the Grand Duchy of Moscow, which found itself emerging from theTatar rule and itself in a process of expansion.^[5] Uniquely in Europe, the union connected two states geographically located on the opposite sides of the great civilizational divide between theWestern Christian orLatin world, and theEastern Christian orByzantine world.^[6]

The intention of the union was to create a common state under Władysław Jagiełło, but the ruling oligarchy of Poland learned that their goal of incorporating Lithuania into Poland was unrealistic. Territorial disputes led to warfare between Poland and Lithuania or Lithuanian factions; the Lithuanians at times even found it expedient to conspire with the Teutonic Knights against the Poles.^[7] Geographic consequences of thedynastic union and the preferences of theJagiellonian kings instead created a process of orientating Polish territorial priorities to the east.^[4]

Between 1386 and 1572, the Polish–Lithuanian union was ruled by a succession of constitutional monarchs of theJagiellonian dynasty. The political influence of the Jagiellonian kings gradually diminished during this period, while the landed nobility took over an ever-increasing role in central government and national affairs.^[a] The royal dynasty, however, had a stabilizing effect on Poland's politics. The Jagiellonian Era is often regarded as a period of maximum political power, great prosperity, and in its later stage, aGolden Age of Polish culture.^[4]

The feudal rent system prevalent in the 13th and 14th centuries, under which eachestate had well defined rights and obligations, degenerated around the 15th century as the nobility tightened their control over manufacturing, trade and other economic activities. This created many directly owned agricultural enterprises known asfolwarks in which feudal rent payments were replaced with forced labor on the lord's land. This limited the rights of cities and forced most of thepeasants intoserfdom.^[8] Such practices were increasingly sanctioned by the law. For example, thePiotrków Privilege of 1496, granted by KingJohn I Albert, banned rural land purchases by townspeople and severely limited the ability of peasant farmers to leave their villages. Polish towns, lacking national representation protecting their class interests, preserved some degree of self-government (city councils and jury courts), and the trades were able to organize and formguilds. The nobility soon excused themselves from their principal duty: mandatory military service in case of war (pospolite ruszenie). The division of the nobility into two main layers was institutionalized, but never legally formalized, in theNihil novi "constitution" of 1505, which required the king to consult thegeneral sejm, that is theSenate, as well as the lower chamber of (regional) deputies, the Sejm proper, before enacting any changes. The masses of ordinary noblesszlachta competed or tried to compete against the uppermost rank of their class, themagnates, for the duration of Poland's independent existence.^[9]

The first king of the new dynasty was Jogaila, the Grand Duke of Lithuania, who was known asWładysław II Jagiełło in Poland. He was elected king of Poland in 1386 after his marriage toJadwiga of Anjou, theKing of Poland in her own right, and his conversion toCatholicism. TheChristianization of Lithuania into theLatin Church followed. Jogaila's rivalry in Lithuania with his cousinVytautas the Great, who was opposed to Lithuania's domination by Poland,^[10] was settled in 1392 in theOstrów Agreement and in 1401 in theUnion of Vilnius and Radom: Vytautas became the Grand Duke of Lithuania for life under Jogaila's nominal supremacy. The agreement made possible a close cooperation between the two nations necessary to succeed in struggles with the Teutonic Order. TheUnion of Horodło of 1413 defined the relationship further and granted privileges to theRoman Catholic (as opposed toEastern Orthodox) segment of the Lithuanian nobility.^[11][12]

ThePolish–Lithuanian–Teutonic War of 1409–1411, precipitated by theSamogitian uprisings in Lithuanian territories controlled by theState of the Teutonic Order, culminated in theBattle of Grunwald (Tannenberg), in which the combined forces of the Polish and Lithuanian-Rus' armies completely defeated theTeutonic Knights. The offensive that followed lost its impact with the ineffective siege ofMalbork (Marienburg). The failure to take the fortress and eliminate the Teutonic (laterPrussian) state had dire historic consequences for Poland in the 18th, 19th and 20th centuries. ThePeace of Thorn of 1411 gave Poland and Lithuania rather modest territorial adjustments, including Samogitia. Afterwards, there were more military campaigns and peace deals that did not hold. One unresolved arbitration took place at theCouncil of Constance. In 1415,Paulus Vladimiri,rector of theKraków Academy, presented hisTreatise on the Power of the Pope and the Emperor in respect to Infidels at the council, in which he advocated tolerance, criticized the violent conversion methods of the Teutonic Knights, and postulated that pagans have the right to peaceful coexistence with Christians and political independence. This stage of the Polish-Lithuanian conflict with the Teutonic Order ended with theTreaty of Melno in 1422. ThePolish-Teutonic War of 1431–35 (seeBattle of Wiłkomierz) was concluded with thePeace of Brześć Kujawski in 1435.^[13]

During theHussite Wars of 1420–1434, Jagiełło, Vytautas andSigismund Korybut were involved in political and military intrigues with respect to theCzech crown, which was offered by theHussites to Jagiełło in 1420. BishopZbigniew Oleśnicki became known as the leading opponent of a union with the Hussite Czech state.^[14]

The Jagiellonian dynasty was not entitled to automatic hereditary succession, rather each new king had to be approved by nobility consensus. Władysław Jagiełło had two sons late in life from his last wifeSophia of Halshany. In 1430, the nobility agreed to the succession of the futureWładysław III only after the king consented to a series of concessions. In 1434, the old monarch died and his minor son Władysław was crowned; the Royal Council led by Bishop Oleśnicki undertook the regency duties.^[14]

In 1438, the Czech anti-Habsburg opposition, mainly Hussite factions, offered the Czech crown to Jagiełło's younger sonCasimir. The idea, accepted in Poland over Oleśnicki's objections, resulted in two unsuccessful Polish military expeditions toBohemia.^[14]

After Vytautas' death in 1430, Lithuania became embroiled in internal wars and conflicts with Poland. Casimir, sent as a boy by King Władysław on a mission there in 1440, was surprisingly proclaimed by the Lithuanians as their Grand Duke, and he remained in Lithuania.^[14]

Oleśnicki gained the upper hand again and pursued his long-term objective of Poland's union with Hungary. At that time, theOttoman Empire embarked on a fresh round of European conquests and threatened Hungary, which needed the assistance of the powerful Polish–Lithuanian ally. In 1440, Władysław III assumed the Hungarian throne. Influenced byJulian Cesarini, the young king led the Hungarian army against the Ottomans in 1443 and again in 1444. Like Cesarini, Władysław III was killed at theBattle of Varna.^[14]

Beginning near the end of Jagiełło's life, Poland was governed in practice by an oligarchy of magnates led by Bishop Oleśnicki. The rule of the dignitaries was actively opposed by various groups ofszlachta. Their leaderSpytek of Melsztyn was killed at theBattle of Grotniki in 1439, which allowed Oleśnicki to purge Poland of the remaining Hussite sympathizers and pursue his other objectives without significant opposition.^[14]

In 1445,Casimir, the Grand Duke of Lithuania, was asked to assume the Polish throne vacated upon the death of his brother Władysław. Casimir was a tough negotiator and did not accept the Polish nobility's conditions for his election. He finally arrived in Poland and was crowned in 1447 on his own terms. His assumption of the Crown of Poland freed Casimir from the control that the Lithuanian oligarchy had imposed on him; in theVilnius Privilege of 1447, he declared theLithuanian nobility to have equal rights with Polishszlachta. In time, Casimir was able to wrest power fromCardinal Oleśnicki and his group. He replaced their influence with a power base built on the younger middle nobility. Casimir was able to resolve a conflict with the pope and the local Church hierarchy over the right to fill vacant bishop positions in his favor.^[15]

In 1454, thePrussian Confederation, an alliance of Prussian cities and nobility opposed to the increasingly oppressive rule of the Teutonic Knights, asked King Casimir to take over Prussia and initiated an armed uprising against the Knights. Casimir declared a war on the Order and the formal incorporation of Prussia into the Polish Crown; those events led to theThirteen Years' War of 1454–66. The mobilization of the Polish forces (thepospolite ruszenie) was weak at first, since theszlachta would not cooperate without concessions from Casimir that were formalized in theStatutes of Nieszawa promulgated in 1454. This prevented a takeover of all of Prussia, but in theSecond Peace of Thorn in 1466, the Knights had to surrender the western half of their territory to thePolish Crown (the areas known afterwards asRoyal Prussia, a semi-autonomous entity), and to accept Polish-Lithuaniansuzerainty over the remainder (the laterDucal Prussia). Poland regainedPomerelia, with its access to theBaltic Sea, as well asWarmia. In addition to land warfare, naval battles took place in which ships provided by the City ofDanzig (Gdańsk) successfully foughtDanish and Teutonic fleets.^[16]

Other territories recovered by the Polish Crown in the 15th-century include theDuchy of Oświęcim andDuchy of Zator onSilesia's border withLesser Poland, and there was notable progress regarding the incorporation of the PiastMasovian duchies into the Crown.^[16]

The influence of theJagiellonian dynasty inCentral Europe rose during the 15th century. In 1471, Casimir's sonWładysław became king of Bohemia, and in 1490, also of Hungary.^[16] The southern and eastern outskirts of Poland and Lithuania became threatened byTurkish invasions beginning in the late 15th century.Moldavia's involvement with Poland goes back to 1387, whenPetru I,Hospodar of Moldavia sought protection against the Hungarians by payinghomage to King Władysław II Jagiełło inLviv. This move gave Poland access toBlack Sea ports.^[17] In 1485, King Casimir undertook an expedition into Moldavia after its seaports were overtaken by theOttoman Turks. The Turkish-controlledCrimean Tatars raided the eastern territories in 1482 and 1487 until they were confronted by KingJohn Albert, Casimir's son and successor.

Poland was attacked in 1487–1491 by remnants of theGolden Horde that invaded Poland as far asLublin before being beaten atZaslavl.^[18] In 1497, King John Albert made an attempt to resolve the Turkish problem militarily, but his efforts were unsuccessful; he was unable to secure effective participation in the war by his brothers, KingVladislas (Władysław) II of Bohemia and Hungary andAlexander, the Grand Duke of Lithuania, and he also faced resistance on the part ofStephen the Great, the ruler of Moldavia. More destructiveTatar raids instigated by the Ottoman Empire took place in 1498, 1499 and 1500.^[19] Diplomatic peace efforts initiated by John Albert were finalized after the king's death in 1503. They resulted in a territorial compromise and an unstable truce.^[20]

Invasions into Poland and Lithuania from theCrimean Khanate took place in 1502 and 1506 during the reign of KingAlexander. In 1506, the Tatars were defeated at theBattle of Kletsk byMichael Glinski.^[21]

Lithuania was increasingly threatened by the growing power of theGrand Duchy of Moscow in the 15th and 16th centuries. Moscow indeed took over many of Lithuania's eastern possessions inmilitary campaigns of 1471, 1492, and 1500. Grand DukeAlexander of Lithuania was elected King of Poland in 1501, after the death of John Albert. In 1506, he was succeeded bySigismund I the Old (Zygmunt I Stary) in both Poland and Lithuania as political realities were drawing the two states closer together. Prior to his accession to the Polish throne, Sigismund had been a Duke ofSilesia by the authority of his brother Vladislas II ofBohemia, but like other Jagiellon rulers before him, he did not pursue the claim of the Polish Crown to Silesia.^[22]

Theculture of the 15th century Poland can be described as retaining typical medieval characteristics. Nonetheless, the crafts and industries in existence already in the preceding centuries became more highly developed under favorable social and economic conditions, and their products were much more widely disseminated. Paper production was one of the new industries that appeared, and printing developed during the last quarter of the century. In 1473,Kasper Straube produced the firstLatin print inKraków, whereas Kasper Elyan printed Polish texts for the first time inWrocław (Breslau) in 1475. The world's oldest prints inCyrillic script, namely religious texts inOld Church Slavonic, appeared after 1490 from the press ofSchweipolt Fiol in Krakow.^[23][24]

Luxury items were in high demand among the increasingly prosperous nobility, and to a lesser degree among the wealthy town merchants. Brick and stone residential buildings became common, but only in cities. The matureGothic style was represented not only in architecture, but also in sacral wooden sculpture. TheAltar of Veit Stoss inSt. Mary's Basilica in Kraków is one of the most magnificent art works of its kind in Europe.^[23]

Kraków University, which stopped functioning after the death ofCasimir the Great, was renewed and rejuvenated around 1400. Augmented by atheology department, the "academy" was supported and protected by QueenJadwiga and the Jagiellonian dynasty members, which is reflected in its present name: the Jagiellonian University. Europe's oldest department of mathematics and astronomy was established in 1405. Among the university's prominent scholars wereStanisław of Skarbimierz,Paulus Vladimiri andAlbert of Brudzewo,Copernicus' teacher.^[23]

John of Ludzisko and ArchbishopGregory of Sanok, the precursors of Polishhumanism, were professors at the university. Gregory's court was the site of an early literary society atLwów (Lviv) after he became the archbishop there. Scholarly thought elsewhere was represented by Jan Ostroróg, a political publicist and reformist, andJan Długosz, a historian, whoseAnnals is the largest history work of his time in Europe and a fundamental source for history of medieval Poland. Distinguished and influential foreign humanists were also active in Poland.Filippo Buonaccorsi, a poet and diplomat, arrived from Italy in 1468 and stayed in Poland until his death in 1496. Known as Kallimach, he prepared biographies of Gregory of Sanok, Zbigniew Oleśnicki, and very likely Jan Długosz, besides establishing another literary society in Kraków. He tutored and mentored the sons of Casimir IV and postulated unrestrained royal power. In Kraków, theGerman humanistConrad Celtes organized the humanist literary and scholarly associationSodalitas Litterarum Vistulana, the first in this part of Europe.^[23]

Thefolwark, a large-scale system of agricultural production based onserfdom, was a dominant feature on Poland's economic landscape beginning in the late 15th century and for the next 300 years. This dependence on nobility-controlled agriculture in central-eastern Europe diverged from the western part of the continent, where elements ofcapitalism andindustrialization were developing to a much greater extent, with the attendant growth of abourgeoisie class and its political influence. The 16th-century agricultural tradeboom combined with free or very cheap peasant labor made the folwark economy very profitable.^[25]

Mining and metallurgy developed further during the 16th century, and technical progress took place in various commercial applications. Great quantities of exported agricultural and forest products floated down the rivers to be transported through ports and land routes. This resulted in apositive trade balance for Poland throughout the 16th century. Imports from the West included industrial products, luxury products and fabrics.^[26]

Most of the exportedgrain left Poland throughGdańsk (Danzig), which became the wealthiest, most highly developed, and most autonomous of the Polish cities because of its location at the mouth of theVistula River and access to theBaltic Sea. It was also by far the largest center for manufacturing. Other towns were negatively affected by Gdańsk's near-monopoly in foreign trade, but profitably participated in transit and export activities. The largest of those wereKraków (Cracow),Poznań,Lwów (Lviv), andWarszawa (Warsaw), and outside of the Crown,Breslau (Wrocław).Thorn (Toruń) andElbing (Elbląg) were the main cities inRoyal Prussia after Gdańsk.^[26][27]

During the 16th century, prosperouspatrician families of merchants, bankers, or industrial investors, many of German origin, still conducted large-scale business operations in Europe or lent money to Polish noble interests, including the royal court. Some regions were highly urbanized in comparison to most of the rest of Europe. InGreater Poland andLesser Poland at the end of the 16th century, for example, 30% of the population lived in cities.^[28] 256 towns were founded, most inRed Ruthenia.^[b] The townspeople's upper layer was ethnically multinational and tended to be well-educated. Numerous sons of burghers studied at theAcademy of Kraków and at foreign universities; members of their group are among the finest contributors to the culture of thePolish Renaissance. Unable to form their own nationwide political class, many blended into the nobility in spite of the legal obstacles.^[28]

The nobility (orszlachta) in Poland constituted a greater proportion of the population than in other countries, up to 10%. In principle, they were all equal and politically empowered, but some had no property and were not allowed to hold offices or participate insejms orsejmiks, the legislative bodies. Of the "landed" nobility, some possessed a small patch of land that they tended themselves and lived like peasant families, while the magnates owned dukedom-like networks of estates with several hundred towns and villages and many thousands of subjects. Mixed marriages gave some peasants one of the few possible paths to nobility.

16th-century Poland was officially a "republic of nobles", and the "middle class" of the nobility (individuals at a lower social level than "magnates") formed the leading component during the later Jagiellonian period and afterwards. Nonetheless, members of the magnate families held the highest state and church offices. At that time, theszlachta in Poland and Lithuania was ethnically diversified and represented several religious denominations. During this period of tolerance, such factors had little bearing on one's economic status or career potential. Jealous of their class privilege ("freedoms"), the Renaissanceszlachta developed a sense of public service duties, educated their youth, took keen interest in current trends and affairs and traveled widely. TheGolden Age of Polish Culture adopted westernhumanism andRenaissance patterns, and visiting foreigners often remarked on the splendor of their residencies and the conspicuous consumption of wealthy Polish nobles.^[28]

In a situation analogous with that of other European countries, the progressive internal decay of thePolish Church created conditions favorable for the dissemination of theReformation ideas and currents. For example, there was a chasm between the lower clergy and the nobility-based Church hierarchy, which was quite laicized and preoccupied with temporal issues, such as power and wealth, and often corrupt. The middle nobility, which had already been exposed to theHussite reformist persuasion, increasingly looked at the Church's many privileges with envy and hostility.^[29]

The teachings ofMartin Luther were accepted most readily in the regions with strong German connections:Silesia,Greater Poland,Pomerania andPrussia. InGdańsk (Danzig) in 1525 a lower-classLutheran social uprising took place and was bloodily subdued bySigismund I; after the reckoning he established a representation for the plebeian interests as a segment of the city government.Königsberg and theDuchy of Prussia underAlbrecht Hohenzollern became a strong center ofProtestant propaganda dissemination affecting all of northern Poland andLithuania. Sigismund quickly reacted against the "religious novelties", issuing his first related edict in 1520, banning any promotion of the Lutheran ideology, or even foreign trips to the Lutheran centers. Such attempted (poorly enforced) prohibitions continued until 1543.^[29]

Sigismund's sonSigismund II Augustus (Zygmunt II August), a monarch of a much more tolerant attitude, guaranteed the freedom of the Lutheran religion practice in all ofRoyal Prussia by 1559. Besides Lutheranism, which, within the Polish Crown, ultimately found substantial following mainly in the cities of Royal Prussia and western Greater Poland, the teachings of the persecutedAnabaptists andUnitarians, and in Greater Poland theCzech Brothers, were met, at least among theszlachta, with a more sporadic response.^[29]

In Royal Prussia, 41% of the parishes were counted as Lutheran in the second half of the 16th century, but that percentage kept increasing. According toKasper Cichocki, who wrote in the early 17th century, only remnants of Catholicism were left there in his time. Lutheranism was strongly dominant in Royal Prussia throughout the 17th century, with the exception ofWarmia (Ermland).^[30]

Around 1570, of the at least 700 Protestant congregations in Poland–Lithuania, over 420 wereCalvinist and over 140 Lutheran, with the latter including 30–40 ethnically Polish. Protestants encompassed approximately half of themagnate class, a quarter of other nobility and townspeople, and one twentieth of the non-Orthodox peasantry. The bulk of the Polish-speaking population had remained Catholic, but the proportion of Catholics became significantly diminished within the upper social ranks.^[30]

Calvinism gained many followers in the mid 16th century among both theszlachta and the magnates, especially inLesser Poland and Lithuania. The Calvinists, who led byJan Łaski were working on unification of the Protestant churches, proposed the establishment of a Polish national church, under which all Christian denominations, includingEastern Orthodox (very numerous in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Ukraine), would be united. After 1555 Sigismund II, who accepted their ideas, sent an envoy to the pope, but the papacy rejected the various Calvinist postulates. Łaski and several other Calvinist scholars published in 1563 theBible of Brest, a complete PolishBible translation from theoriginal languages, an undertaking financed byMikołaj Radziwiłł the Black.^[31] After 1563–1565 (the abolishment of state enforcement ofthe Church jurisdiction), full religious tolerance became the norm. The PolishCatholic Church emerged from this critical period weakened but not badly damaged (the bulk of the Church property was preserved), which facilitated the later success ofCounter-Reformation.^[29]

Among the Calvinists, who also included the lower classes and their leaders, ministers of common background, disagreements soon developed, based on different views in the areas of religious and social doctrines. The official split took place in 1562, when two separate churches were officially established: the mainstream Calvinist and the smaller, more reformist,Polish Brethren orArians. The adherents of the radical wing of the Polish Brethren promoted, often by way of personal example, the ideas of social justice. Many Arians (such asPiotr of Goniądz andJan Niemojewski) were pacifists opposed to private property, serfdom, state authority and military service; through communal living some had implemented the ideas of shared usage of the land and other property. A major Polish Brethren congregation and center of activities was established in 1569 inRaków nearKielce, and lasted until 1638, when Counter-Reformation had it closed.^[32] The notableSandomierz Agreement of 1570, an act of compromise and cooperation among several Polish Protestant denominations, excluded the Arians, whose more moderate, larger faction toward the end of the century gained the upper hand within the movement.^[29]

The act of theWarsaw Confederation, which took place during theconvocation sejm of 1573, provided guarantees, at least for the nobility, of religious freedom and peace. It gave the Protestant denominations, including the Polish Brethren, formal rights for many decades to come. Uniquely in 16th-century Europe, it turned the Commonwealth, in the words of CardinalStanislaus Hosius, a Catholic reformer, into a "safe haven for heretics".^[29]

The Polish "Golden Age", the period of the reigns of Sigismund I and Sigismund II, the last two Jagiellonian kings, or more generally the 16th century, is most often identified with the rise of the culture ofPolish Renaissance. The cultural flowering had its material base in the prosperity of the elites, both the landed nobility and urbanpatriciate at such centers asKraków andGdańsk.^[33] As was the case with other European nations, theRenaissance inspiration came in the first place fromItaly, a process accelerated to some degree by Sigismund I's marriage toBona Sforza.^[33] Many Poles traveled to Italy to study and to learn its culture. As imitating Italian ways became very trendy (the royal courts of the two kings provided the leadership and example for everybody else), manyItalian artists and thinkers were coming to Poland, some settling and working there for many years. While the pioneering Polishhumanists, greatly influenced byErasmus of Rotterdam, accomplished the preliminary assimilation of theantiquity culture, the generation that followed was able to put greater emphasis on the development of native elements, and because of its social diversity, advanced the process of national integration.^[34]

Beginning in 1473 inCracow (Kraków), the printing business kept growing. By the turn of the 16th/17th century there were about 20 printing houses within the Commonwealth, 8 in Cracow, the rest mostly inGdańsk (Danzig),Thorn (Toruń) andZamość. TheAcademy of Kraków and Sigismund II possessed well-stocked libraries; smaller collections were increasingly common at noble courts, schools and townspeople's households. Illiteracy levels were falling, as by the end of the 16th century almost every parish ran a school.^[35]

TheLubrański Academy, an institution of higher learning, was established inPoznań in 1519. TheReformation resulted in the establishment of a number ofgymnasiums, academically oriented secondary schools, some of international renown, as theProtestant denominations wanted to attract supporters by offering high quality education. TheCatholic reaction was the creation ofJesuit colleges of comparable quality. TheKraków University in turn responded withhumanist program gymnasiums of its own.^[35]

The university itself experienced a period of prominence at the turn of the 15th/16th century, when especially the mathematics, astronomy and geography faculties attracted numerous students from abroad.Latin,Greek,Hebrew and their literatures were likewise popular. By the mid 16th century the institution entered a crisis stage, and by the early 17th century regressed intoCounter-Reformational conformism. The Jesuits took advantage of the infighting and established in 1579 auniversity college in Vilnius, but their efforts aimed at taking over the Academy of Kraków were unsuccessful. Under the circumstances many elected to pursue their studies abroad.^[35]

Sigismund I the Old, who built the presently existingWawelRenaissance castle, and his sonSigismund II Augustus, supported intellectual and artistic activities and surrounded themselves with the creative elite. Their patronage example was followed by ecclesiastic and lay feudal lords, and by patricians in major towns.^[35]

Polish science reached its culmination in the first half of the 16th century, in which the medieval point of view was criticized and more rational explanations were formulated.Copernicus'De revolutionibus orbium coelestium, published inNuremberg in 1543, shook up the traditional value system extended into an understanding of the physical universe, doing away with its Christianity-adoptedPtolemaicanthropocentric model and setting free the explosion of scientific inquiry. Generally the prominent scientists of the period resided in many different regions of the country, and increasingly, the majority were of urban, rather than noble origin.^[36]

Nicolaus Copernicus, a son of aToruń trader from Kraków, made many contributions to science and the arts. His scientific creativity was inspired at the University of Kraków, at the institution's height; he also studied at Italian universities later. Copernicus wrote Latin poetry, developed aneconomic theory, functioned as a cleric-administrator, political activist in Prussiansejmiks, and led thedefense of Olsztyn against the forces ofAlbrecht Hohenzollern. As anastronomer, he worked on his scientific theory for many years atFrombork, where he died.^[36]

Josephus Struthius became famous as a physician and medical researcher.Bernard Wapowski was a pioneer of Polishcartography.Maciej Miechowita, arector at theCracow Academy, published in 1517Tractatus de duabus Sarmatiis, a treatise on the geography of the East, an area in which Polish investigators provided first-hand expertise for the rest of Europe.^[36]

Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski was one of the greatest theorists of political thought in Renaissance Europe. His most famous work,On the Improvement of the Commonwealth, was published in Kraków in 1551. Modrzewski criticized the feudal societal relations and proposed broad realistic reforms. He postulated that all social classes should be subjected to the law to the same degree, and wanted to moderate the existing inequities. Modrzewski, an influential and often translated author, was a passionate proponent of the peaceful resolution of international conflicts.^[36] BishopWawrzyniec Goślicki (Goslicius), who wrote and published in 1568 a study entitledDe optimo senatore (The Counsellor in the 1598 English translation), was another popular and influential in the West political thinker.^[37]

HistorianMarcin Kromer wroteDe origine et rebus gestis Polonorum (On the origin and deeds of Poles) in 1555 and in 1577Polonia, a treatise highly regarded in Europe.Marcin Bielski'sChronicle of the Whole World, auniversal history, was written in about 1550. The chronicle ofMaciej Stryjkowski (1582) covered the history of Eastern Europe.^[36]

ModernPolish literature begins in the 16th century. At that time thePolish language, common to all educated groups, matured and penetrated all areas of public life, including municipal institutions, the legal code, the Church, and other official uses, coexisting for a while withLatin.Klemens Janicki, one of the Renaissance Latin language poets and a laureate of a papal distinction, was of peasant origin. Another plebeian author,Biernat of Lublin, wrote his own version ofAesop's fables in Polish, permeated with his socially radical views.^[38]

A Literary Polish language breakthrough came under the influence of theReformation with the writings ofMikołaj Rej. In hisBrief Discourse, a satire published in 1543, he defends a serf from a priest and a noble, but in his later works he often celebrates the joys of the peaceful but privileged life of a country gentleman. Rej, whose legacy is his unbashful promotion of the Polish language, left a great variety of literary pieces.Łukasz Górnicki, an author and translator, perfected the Polish prose of the period. His contemporary and friendJan Kochanowski became one of the greatest Polish poets of all time.^[38]

Kochanowski was born in 1530 into a prosperous noble family. In his youth he studied at the universities of Kraków,Königsberg andPadua and traveled extensively in Europe. He worked for a time as a royal secretary, and then settled in the village ofCzarnolas, a part of his family inheritance. Kochanowski's multifaceted creative output is remarkable for both the depth of thoughts and feelings that he shares with the reader, and for its beauty and classic perfection of form. Among Kochanowski's best known works are bucolicFrascas (trifles),epic poetry, religiouslyrics, drama-tragedyThe Dismissal of the Greek Envoys, and the most highly regardedThrenodies orlaments, written after the death of his young daughter.^[38]

The poetMikołaj Sęp Szarzyński, an intellectually refined master of small forms, bridges the late Renaissance and earlyBaroque artistic periods.^[38]

Following the European and Italian in particular musical trends, theRenaissance music was developing in Poland, centered around the royal court patronage and branching from there. Sigismund I kept from 1543 a permanent choir at the Wawel castle, while the Reformation brought large scale group Polish language church singing during the services.Jan of Lublin wrote a comprehensivetablature for theorgan and otherkeyboard instruments.^[39] Among the composers, who often permeated their music with national and folk elements, wereWacław of Szamotuły,Mikołaj Gomółka, who wrote music to Kochanowski translatedpsalms, andMikołaj Zieleński, who enriched the Polish music by adopting theVenetian Schoolpolyphonic style.^[40]

Architecture, sculpture and painting developed also under Italian influence from the beginning of the 16th century. A number of professionals fromTuscany arrived and worked as royal artists in Kraków.Francesco Fiorentino worked on the tomb ofJohn Albert already from 1502, and then together withBartolommeo Berrecci andBenedykt from Sandomierz rebuilt theroyal castle, which was accomplished between 1507 and 1536. Berrecci also builtSigismund's Chapel atWawel Cathedral. Polish magnates,Silesian Piast princes inBrzeg, and even Kraków merchants (by the mid 16th century their class economically gained strength nationwide) built or rebuilt their residencies to make them resemble the Wawel Castle. Kraków'sSukiennice andPoznań City Hall are among numerous buildings rebuilt in the Renaissance manner, butGothic construction continued alongside for a number of decades.^[41]

Between 1580 and 1600Jan Zamoyski commissioned the Venetian architectBernardo Morando to build the city ofZamość. The town and its fortifications were designed to consistently implement the Renaissance andMannerism aesthetic paradigms.^[41]

Tombstone sculpture, often inside churches, is richly represented on graves of clergy and lay dignitaries and other wealthy individuals.Jan Maria Padovano andJan Michałowicz of Urzędów count among the prominent artists.^[41]

Painted illuminations inBalthasar Behem Codex are of exceptional quality, but draw their inspiration largely fromGothic art.Stanisław Samostrzelnik, a monk in theCistercian monastery in Mogiła near Kraków, painted miniatures andpolychromed wallfrescos.^[41]

The Polish political system in the 16th century was contested terrain as the middle gentry(szlachta) sought power. KingsSigismund I the Old andSigismund II Augustus manipulated political institutions to block the gentry. The kings used their appointment power and influence on the elections to the Sejm. They issued propaganda upholding the royal position and provided financing to favoured leaders of the gentry. Seldom did the kings resort to repression or violence. Compromises were reached so that in the second half of the 16th century—for the only time in Polish history—the "democracy of the gentry" was implemented.^[42]

During the reign of Sigismund I,szlachta in the lower chamber ofgeneral sejm (from 1493 a bicameral legislative body), initially decidedly outnumbered by their more privileged colleagues from thesenate (which is what the appointed for life prelates and barons of the royal council were being called now),^[43] acquired a more numerous and fully elected representation. Sigismund however preferred to rule with the help of themagnates, pushingszlachta into the "opposition".^[44]

After theNihil novi act of 1505, a collection of laws known asŁaski's Statutes was published in 1506 and distributed to Polish courts. The legal pronouncements, intended to facilitate the functioning of a uniform and centralized state, with ordinaryszlachta privileges strongly protected, were frequently ignored by the kings, beginning with Sigismund I, and the upper nobility or church interests. This situation became the basis for the formation around 1520 of theszlachta'sexecution movement, for the complete codification and execution, or enforcement, of the laws.^[44]

In 1518 Sigismund I marriedBona Sforza d'Aragona, a young, strong-minded Italian princess. Bona's sway over the king and the magnates, her efforts to strengthen the monarch's political position, financial situation, and especially the measures she took to advance her personal and dynastic interests, including the forced royal election of the minorSigismund Augustus in 1529 and hispremature coronation in 1530, increased the discontent amongszlachta activists.^[44]

The opposition middleszlachta movement came up with a constructive reform program during the Kraków sejm of 1538/1539. Among the movement's demands were termination of the kings' practice of alienation ofroyal domain, giving or selling land estates to great lords at the monarch' discretion, and a ban on concurrent holding of multiple state offices by the same person, both legislated initially in 1504.^[45] Sigismund I's unwillingness to move toward the implementation of the reformers' goals negatively affected the country's financial and defensive capabilities.^[44]

The relationship withszlachta had only gotten worse during the early years of the reign of Sigismund II Augustus and remained bad until 1562. Sigismund Augustus' secret marriage withBarbara Radziwiłł in 1547, before his accession to the throne, was strongly opposed by his mother Bona and by the magnates of the Crown. Sigismund, who took over the reign after his father's death in 1548, overcame the resistance and had Barbara crowned in 1550; a few months later the new queen died. Bona, estranged from her son returned to Italy in 1556, where she died soon afterwards.^[44]

TheSejm, until 1573 summoned by the king at his discretion (for example when he needed funds to wage a war), composed of the two chambers presided over by the monarch, became in the course of the 16th century the main organ of the state power. The reform-mindedexecution movement had its chance to take on the magnates and the church hierarchy (and take steps to restrain their abuse of power and wealth) when Sigismund Augustus switched sides and lent them his support at the sejm of 1562. During this and several more sessions of parliament, within the next decade or so, theReformation inspiredszlachta was able to push through a variety of reforms, which resulted in a fiscally more sound, better governed, more centralized and territorially unified Polish state. Some of the changes were too modest, other had never become completely implemented (e. g. recovery of the usurpedCrown land), but nevertheless for the time being the middleszlachta movement was victorious.^[44]

Mikołaj Sienicki, a Protestant activist, was a parliamentary leader of the execution movement and one of the organizers of theWarsaw Confederation.^[44]

Despite the favorable economic development, the military potential of 16th century Poland was modest in relation to the challenges and threats coming from several directions, which included theOttoman Empire, theTeutonic state, theHabsburgs, andMuscovy. Given the declining military value and willingness ofpospolite ruszenie, the bulk of the forces available consisted of professional and mercenary soldiers. Their number and provision depended onszlachta-approved funding (self-imposed taxation and other sources) and tended to be insufficient for any combination of adversaries. The quality of the forces and their command was good, as demonstrated by victories against a seemingly overwhelming enemy. The attainment of strategic objectives was supported by a well-developed service of knowledgeable diplomats and emissaries. Because of the limited resources at the state's disposal, the Jagiellonian Poland had to concentrate on the area most crucial for its security and economic interests, which was the strengthening of Poland's position along theBaltic coast.^[46]

ThePeace of Thorn of 1466 reduced theTeutonic Knights, but brought no lasting solution to the problem they presented for Poland and their state avoided paying the prescribedtribute.^[47] The chronically difficult relations had gotten worse after the 1511 election ofAlbrecht asGrand Master of theOrder. Faced with Albrecht's rearmament and hostile alliances,Poland waged a war in 1519; the war ended in 1521, when mediation byCharles V resulted in a truce. As a compromise move Albrecht, persuaded byMartin Luther, initiated a process of secularization of the Order and the establishment of a lay duchy of Prussia, as Poland's dependency, ruled by Albrecht and afterwards by his descendants. The terms of the proposed pact immediately improved Poland's Baltic region situation, and at that time also appeared to protect the country's long-term interests. Thetreaty was concluded in 1525 in Kraków; the remaining state of the Teutonic Knights (East Prussia centered onKönigsberg) was converted into the Protestant (Lutheran)Duchy of Prussia under the King of Poland and thehomage act of the new Prussian duke in Kraków followed.^[48]

In reality theHouse of Hohenzollern, of which Albrecht was a member, the ruling family of theMargraviate of Brandenburg, had been actively expanding its territorial influence; for example already in the 16th century inFarther Pomerania and Silesia. Motivated by a current political expediency, Sigismund Augustus in 1563 allowed theBrandenburgelector branch of the Hohenzollerns, excluded under the 1525 agreement,^[49] to inherit thePrussian fief rule. The decision, confirmed by the 1569 sejm, made the future union of Prussia with Brandenburg possible. Sigismind II, unlike his successors, was however careful to assert his supremacy. ThePolish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, ruled after 1572 by elective kings, was even less able to counteract the growing importance of the dynastically active Hohenzollerns.^[48]

In 1568 Sigismund Augustus, who had already embarked on a war fleet enlargement program, established the Maritime Commission. A conflict with the City ofGdańsk (Danzig), which felt that its monopolistic trade position was threatened, ensued. In 1569Royal Prussia had its legal autonomy largely taken away, and in 1570 Poland's supremacy over Danzig and the Polish King's authority over theBaltic shipping trade were regulated and received statutory recognition (Karnkowski's Statutes).^[50]

In the 16th century theGrand Duchy of Moscow continued activities aimed at unifying the oldRus' lands still under Lithuanian rule. The Grand Duchy of Lithuania had insufficient resources to counter Moscow's advances, already having to control theRus' population within its borders and not being able to count on loyalty of Rus' feudal lords. As a result of the protracted war at the turn of the 15th and 16th centuries, Moscow acquired large tracts of territory east of theDnieper River. Polish assistance and involvement were increasingly becoming a necessary component of the balance of power in the eastern reaches of the Lithuanian domain.^[51]

UnderVasili III Moscow fought awar with Lithuania and Poland between 1512 and 1522, during which in 1514 the Russians tookSmolensk. That same year the Polish-Lithuanian rescue expedition fought the victoriousBattle of Orsha under HetmanKonstanty Ostrogski and stopped the Duchy of Moscow's further advances. An armistice implemented in 1522 left Smolensk land andSeveria in Russian hands. Another round of fighting took place during 1534–1537, when the Polish aid led by HetmanJan Tarnowski made possible the taking ofGomel and fiercely defeatedStarodub. New truce (Lithuania kept only Gomel), stabilization of the border and over two decades of peace followed.^[51]

In 1515, during acongress inVienna, a dynastic succession arrangement was agreed to betweenMaximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor and the Jagiellon brothers,Vladislas II of Bohemia and Hungary and Sigismund I of Poland and Lithuania. It was supposed to end the Emperor's support for Poland's enemies, the Teutonic and Russian states, but after the election ofCharles V, Maximilian's successor in 1519, the relations with Sigismund had worsened.^[53]

TheJagiellon rivalry with theHouse of Habsburg in central Europe was ultimately resolved to the Habsburgs' advantage. The decisive factor that damaged or weakened the monarchies of the last Jagiellons was theOttoman Empire's Turkish expansion. Hungary's vulnerability greatly increased afterSuleiman the Magnificent took theBelgrade fortress in 1521. To prevent Poland from extending military aid to Hungary, Suleiman had aTatar-Turkish force raid southeastern Poland–Lithuania in 1524. The Hungarian army was defeated in 1526 at theBattle of Mohács, where the youngLouis II Jagiellon, son of Vladislas II, was killed. Subsequently, after a period of internal strife and external intervention, Hungary was partitioned between the Habsburgs and the Ottomans.^[53]

The 1526 death ofJanusz III of Masovia, the last of theMasovianPiast dukes line (a remnant of thefragmentation period divisions), enabled Sigismund I to finalize the incorporation of Masovia into thePolish Crown in 1529.^[54]

From the early 16th century thePokuttya border region was contested by Poland andMoldavia (seeBattle of Obertyn). A peace with Moldavia took effect in 1538 and Pokuttya remained Polish. An "eternal peace" with the Ottoman Empire was negotiated by Poland in 1533 to secure frontier areas. Moldavia had fallen under Turkish domination, but Polish-Lithuanian magnates remained actively involved there.Sigismund II Augustus even claimed "jurisdiction" and in 1569 accepted a formal, short-livedsuzerainty over Moldavia.^[53]

In the 16th century the Grand Duchy of Lithuania became increasingly interested in extending its territorial rule toLivonia, especially to gain control of Baltic seaports, such asRiga, and for other economic benefits. Livonia was by the 1550s largelyLutheran,^[55] traditionally ruled by theBrothers of the Sword knightly order. This put Poland and Lithuania on a collision course with Moscow and other regional powers, which had also attempted expansion in that area.^[56]

Soon after theTreaty of Kraków of 1525,Albrecht (Albert) of Hohenzollern planned a Polish–Lithuanian fief in Livonia, seeking a dominant position for his brotherWilhelm, the Archbishop of Riga. What happened instead was the establishment of a Livonian pro-Polish–Lithuanian party or faction. Internal fighting in Livonia took place when the Grand Master of the Brothers concluded a treaty with Moscow in 1554, declaring his state's neutrality regarding the Russian–Lithuanian conflict. Supported by Albrecht and the magnates, Sigismund II declared a war on the Order. Grand MasterWilhelm von Fürstenberg accepted the Polish–Lithuanian conditions without a fight, and according to the 1557Treaty of Pozvol, a military alliance obliged the Livonian state to support Lithuania against Moscow.^[56]

Other powers aspiring to the Livonian Baltic access responded by partitioning theLivonian state, which triggered the lengthyLivonian War, fought between 1558 and 1583.Ivan IV of Russia tookDorpat (Tartu) andNarva in 1558, and soon theDanes andSwedes had occupied other parts of the country. To protect the integrity of their country, the Livonians now sought a union with the Polish–Lithuanian state.Gotthard Kettler, the new Grand Master, met inVilnius (Vilna, Wilno) with Sigismund Augustus in 1561 and declared Livonia a vassal state under the Polish king. TheUnion of Vilnius called for secularization of the Brothers of the Sword Order and incorporation of the newly establishedDuchy of Livonia into theRzeczpospolita ("Republic") as an autonomous entity. TheDuchy of Courland and Semigallia was also created as a separate fief, to be ruled by Kettler. Sigismund II obliged himself to recover the parts of Livonia lost to Moscow and the Baltic powers, which had led to grueling wars with Russia (1558–1570 and1577–1582) andheavy struggles also concerning the fundamental issues ofcontrol of the Baltic trade and freedom of navigation.^[56]

The Baltic region policies of the last Jagiellon king and his advisors were the most mature of 16th-century Poland's strategic programs. The outcome of the efforts in that area was to a considerable extent successful for the Commonwealth. The wars concluded during the reign of KingStephen Báthory.^[56]

Sigismund II's childlessness added urgency to the idea of turning thepersonal union between Poland and theGrand Duchy of Lithuania into a more permanent and tighter relationship; it was also a priority for the execution movement.Lithuania's laws were codified and reforms enacted in 1529, 1557, 1565–1566 and 1588, gradually making its social, legal and economic system similar to that of Poland, with the expanding role of the middle and lower nobility.^[57] Fighting wars withMoscow under Ivan IV and the threat perceived from that direction provided additional motivation for thereal union for both Poland and Lithuania.^[58]

The process of negotiating the actual arrangements turned out to be difficult and lasted from 1563 to 1569, with the Lithuanian magnates, worried about losing their dominant position, being at times uncooperative. It took Sigismunt II's unilateral declaration of theincorporation into the Polish Crown of substantial disputed border regions, including most of LithuanianUkraine, to make the Lithuanian magnates rejoin the process, and participate in the swearing of the act of theUnion of Lublin on July 1, 1569. Lithuania for the near future was becoming more secure on the eastern front. Its increasinglyPolonized nobility made in the coming centuries great contributions to theCommonwealth's culture, but at the cost of Lithuanian national development.^[58]

TheLithuanian language survived as a peasantvernacular and also as a written language in religious use, from the publication of the Lithuanian Catechism byMartynas Mažvydas in 1547.^[59] TheRuthenian language was and remained in the Grand Duchy's official use even after the Union, until the takeover ofPolish.^[60]

By the Union of Lublin a unifiedPolish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (Rzeczpospolita) was created, stretching from theBaltic Sea and theCarpathian mountains to present-dayBelarus and western and centralUkraine (which earlier had beenKievan Rus' principalities). Within the new federation some degree of formal separateness of Poland andLithuania was retained (distinct state offices, armies, treasuries and judicial systems), but the union became a multinational entity with a common monarch,parliament, monetary system and foreign-military policy, in which only the nobility enjoyed full citizenship rights. Moreover, the nobility's uppermost stratum was about to assume the dominant role in the Commonwealth, as magnate factions were acquiring the ability to manipulate and control the rest ofszlachta to their clique's private advantage. This trend, facilitated further by the liberal settlement and land acquisition consequences of the union,^[61] was becoming apparent at the time of, or soon after the 1572 death of Sigismund Augustus, the last monarch of the Jagiellonian dynasty.^[58]

One of the most salient characteristics of the newly established Commonwealth was itsmultiethnicity, and accordingly diversity of religious faiths and denominations. Among the peoples represented werePoles (about 50% or less of the total population),Lithuanians,Latvians,Rus' people (corresponding to today'sBelarusians,Ukrainians,Russians or theirEast Slavic ancestors),Germans,Estonians,Jews,Armenians,Tatars andCzechs, among others, for example smallerWest European groups. As for the main social segments in the early 17th century, nearly 70% of the Commonwealth's population werepeasants, over 20% residents of towns, and less than 10% nobles and clergy combined. The total population, estimated at 8–10 million, kept growing dynamically until the middle of the century.^[62] The Slavic populations of the eastern lands,Rus' orRuthenia, were solidly, except for the Polish colonizing nobility (andPolonized elements of local nobility),Eastern Orthodox, which portended future trouble for the Commonwealth.^[58][63][64]

Poland had become the home toEurope's largest Jewish population, as royal edicts guaranteeing Jewish safety and religious freedom, issued during the 13th century (Bolesław the Pious,Statute of Kalisz of 1264), contrasted with bouts of persecution in Western Europe.^[65] This persecution intensified following theBlack Death of 1348–1349, when some in the West blamed the outbreak of the plague on the Jews. As scapegoats were sought, the increasedJewish persecution led topogroms and mass killings in a number of German cities, which caused an exodus of survivors heading east. Much of Poland was spared from the Black Death, and Jewish immigration brought their valuable contributions and abilities to the rising state.^[66] The number of Jews in Poland kept increasing throughout the Middle Ages; the population had reached about 30,000 toward the end of the 15th century,^[67] and, as refugees escaping further persecution elsewhere kept streaming in, 150,000 in the 16th century.^[68] A royal privilege issued in 1532 granted the Jews freedom to trade anywhere within the kingdom.^[68] Massacres and expulsions from many German states continued until 1552–1553.^[69] By the mid-16th century, 80% of the world's Jews lived and flourished in Poland and in Lithuania; most of western and central Europe was by that time closed to Jews.^[69][70] In Poland–Lithuania the Jews were increasingly finding employment as managers and intermediaries, facilitating the functioning of and collecting revenue in huge magnate-owned land estates, especially in the eastern borderlands, developing into an indispensable mercantile and administrative class.^[71] Despite the partial resettlement of Jews in Western Europe following theThirty Years' War (1618–1648), a great majority of world Jewry had lived in Eastern Europe (in the Commonwealth and in the regions further east and south, where many migrated), until the 1940s.^[69]

• History of Lithuania
• History of Poland during the Piast dynasty
• History of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (1569–1648)
• Kingdom of Poland (1385–1569)

• Gierowski, Józef Andrzej (1986).Historia Polski 1505–1764 (History of Poland 1505–1764). Warszawa: Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe (Polish Scientific Publishers PWN).ISBN 83-01-03732-6.
• Wyrozumski, Jerzy (1986).Historia Polski do roku 1505 (History of Poland until 1505). Warszawa: Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe (Polish Scientific Publishers PWN).ISBN 83-01-03732-6.
• Stopka, Krzysztof (1999).Andrzej Chwalba (ed.).Kalendarium dziejów Polski (Chronology of Polish History). Kraków:Wydawnictwo Literackie.ISBN 83-08-02855-1.
• Basista, Jakub (1999).Andrzej Chwalba (ed.).Kalendarium dziejów Polski (Chronology of Polish History). Kraków:Wydawnictwo Literackie.ISBN 83-08-02855-1.
• Davies, Norman (1998).Europe: A History. New York: HarperPerennial.ISBN 0-06-097468-0.
• Davies, Norman (2005).God's Playground: A History of Poland, Volume I. New York: Columbia University Press.ISBN 978-0-231-12817-9.

• The Cambridge History of Poland (two vols., 1941–1950)online edition vol 1 to 1696Archived 2008-02-13 at theWayback Machine^{[ISBN missing]}
• Butterwick, Richard, ed.The Polish-Lithuanian Monarchy in European Context, c. 1500–1795. Palgrave, 2001. 249 pp.online editionArchived 2008-05-04 at theWayback Machine^{[ISBN missing]}
• Davies, Norman.Heart of Europe: A Short History of Poland. Oxford University Press, 1984.^{[ISBN missing]}
• Davies, Norman.God's Playground: A History of Poland. 2 vol. Columbia U. Press, 1982.^{[ISBN missing]}
• Pogonowski, Iwo Cyprian.Poland: A Historical Atlas. Hippocrene, 1987. 321 pp.^{[ISBN missing]}
• Sanford, George.Historical Dictionary of Poland. Scarecrow Press, 2003. 291 pp.^{[ISBN missing]}
• Stone, Daniel.The Polish-Lithuanian State, 1386–1795. U. of Washington Press, 2001.^{[ISBN missing]}
• Zamoyski, Adam.The Polish Way. Hippocrene Books, 1987. 397 pp.^{[ISBN missing]}

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