Pastinaca sativa fruits and seedsFlowering parsnip, second year
Theparsnip (Pastinaca sativa) is aroot vegetable closely related tocarrot andparsley, all belonging to theflowering plant familyApiaceae. It is abiennial plant usually grown as anannual. Its longtaproot has cream-colored skin and flesh, and, left in the ground to mature, becomes sweeter in flavor after winterfrosts. In its first growing season, the plant has arosette ofpinnate, mid-green leaves. If unharvested, it produces a flowering stem topped by anumbel of small yellow flowers in its second growing season, later producing pale brown, flat, winged seeds. By this time, the stem has become woody, and the taproot inedible. Precautions should be taken when handling the stems and foliage, as parsnip sap can cause askin rash or evenblindness ifexposed to sunlight after handling.[2]
The parsnip is native toEurasia; it has been used as a vegetable sinceantiquity and was cultivated bythe Romans, although some confusion exists between parsnips and carrots in the literature of the time. It was used as a sweetener before the arrival ofcane sugar in Europe.[3]
Parsnips are usually cooked but can also be eaten raw. The flesh has a sweet flavor, even more so than carrots. It is high invitamins,antioxidants, andminerals (especiallypotassium); and also contains both soluble and insolubledietary fiber. Parsnips are best cultivated in deep, stone-free soil. The plant is attacked by thecarrot fly and other insect pests, as well as viruses and fungal diseases, of whichcanker is the most serious.[4]
The parsnip is abiennial plant with arosette of roughly hairyleaves that have a pungent odor when crushed. Parsnips are grown for their fleshy, edible, cream-coloredtaproots. The roots are generally smooth, althoughlateral roots sometimes form. Most are narrowly conical, but somecultivars have a more bulbous shape, which generally tends to be favored byfood processors as it is more resistant to breakage. The plant'sapical meristem produces a rosette of pinnate leaves, each with several pairs of leaflets with toothed margins. The lower leaves have short stems, the upper onesare stemless, and the terminal leaves have three lobes. The leaves are once- or twice-pinnate with broad, ovate, sometimes lobed leaflets with toothed margins; they grow up to 40 centimetres (16 inches) long.Thepetioles are grooved and have sheathed bases. The floralstem develops in the second year and can grow to more than 150 cm (60 in) tall. It is hairy, grooved, hollow (except at the nodes), and sparsely branched. It has a few stalkless, single-lobed leaves measuring 5 to 10 cm (2 to 4 in) long that are arranged in opposite pairs.[5]: 30–31
The yellow flowers are in a loose, compoundumbel measuring 10 to 20 cm (4 to 8 in) in diameter. Six to 25 straightpedicels are present, each measuring 2 to 5 cm (1 to 2 in) that support the umbellets (secondary umbels). The umbels and umbellets usually have no upper or lowerbracts. The flowers have tinysepals or lack them entirely, and measure about 3.5 millimetres (1⁄8 in). They consist of five yellow petals that are curled inward, fivestamens, and onepistil. The fruits, orschizocarps, are oval and flat, with narrow wings and short, spreadingstyles. They are coloredstraw to light brown, and measure4 to 8 mm (3⁄16 to5⁄16 in) long.[6]: 218
Like most plants of agricultural importance, severalsubspecies andvarieties ofP. sativa have been described, but these are mostly no longer recognized as independent taxa,[9] but rather, morphological variations of the same taxon.[6]: 218
Pastinaca sativa var.siamensisRoem. &Schult. ex Alef.
In Eurasia, some authorities distinguish between cultivated and wild versions of parsnips by using subspeciesP. s.sylvestris for the latter, or even elevating it to species status asPastinaca sylvestris. In Europe, various subspecies have been named based on characteristics such as the hairiness of the leaves, the extent to which the stems are angled or rounded, and the size and shape of the terminal umbel.[6]: 218
Theetymology of the generic namePastinaca is not known with certainty but is probably derived from either theLatin wordpastino, meaning 'to prepare the ground for planting of the vine' orpastus, meaning 'food'. Thespecific epithetsativa means 'sown'.[11]
Whilefolk etymology sometimes assumes the name is a mix ofparsley andturnip, it actually comes fromMiddle Englishpasnepe, alteration (influenced bynep, 'turnip') ofOld Frenchpasnaie (nowpanais) from Latinpastinum, a kind of fork. The word's ending was changed to-nip by analogy with turnip because it was mistakenly assumed to be a kind of turnip.[12]
Previous-year growth of wild parsnip as seen in the spring. Invasive specimen photographed inOttawa, Ontario.
The parsnip's popularity as a cultivated plant has led to its spread beyond its native range, and wild populations have become established in other parts of the world. A scattered population can be found throughout North America.[14]
The plant can form dense stands which outcompetenative species and is especially common in abandoned yards, farmland, and along roadsides and other disturbed environments. The increasing abundance of this plant is a concern, particularly due to the plant's toxicity and increasing abundance in populated areas such as parks. Control is often carried out via chemical means, withglyphosate-containingherbicides considered effective.[15]
Zohary and Hopf note that the archaeological evidence for the ancient cultivation of the parsnip is "still rather limited" and that Greek and Roman literary sources are a major source about its early use.[13] They warn that "there are some difficulties in distinguishing between parsnip and carrot (which, in Roman times, were white or purple) in classical writings since both vegetables seem to have been calledpastinaca inLatin, yet each vegetable appears to be well under cultivation in Roman times".[13]
This plant was introduced to North America simultaneously by theFrench colonists in Canada and the British in theThirteen Colonies for use as a root vegetable, but in the mid-19th century, it was replaced as the main source of starch by thepotato and consequently was less widely cultivated.[16][6]: 224
In 1859, a new cultivar called 'Student' was developed byJames Buckman at theRoyal Agricultural College inEngland. He back-crossed cultivated plants to wild stock, aiming to demonstrate how native plants could be improved by selective breeding. This experiment was so successful 'Student' became the major variety in cultivation in the late 19th century.[17]
The wild parsnip from which the modern cultivated varieties were derived is a plant of dry, rough grassland and waste places, particularly onchalk andlimestone soils.[18] Parsnips are biennials, but are normally grown asannuals. Sandy and loamy soils are preferable to silt, clay, and stony ground; the latter produces short, forked roots. Parsnip seed significantly deteriorates in viability if stored for long. Seeds are usually planted in early spring, as soon as the ground can be worked to a finetilth, in the position where the plants are to grow. The growing plants are thinned and kept weed-free. Harvesting begins in late fall after the firstfrost and continues through winter. The rows can be covered with straw to enable the crop to be lifted during frosty weather.[19] Low soil temperatures cause some of the starches stored in the roots to be converted into sugars, giving them a sweeter taste.[5]: 225
Parsnip leaves are sometimes tunnelled by thelarvae of thecelery fly (Euleia heraclei). Irregular, pale brown passages can be seen between the upper and lower surfaces of the leaves. The effects are most serious on young plants, as whole leaves may shrivel and die. Treatment is by removing affected leaflets, whole leaves, or by chemical means.[19]
The crop can be attacked by larvae of thecarrot fly (Chamaepsila rosae). This pest feeds on the outer layers of the root, burrowing its way inside later in the season. Seedlings may be killed while larger roots are spoiled. The damage done provides a point of entry for fungal rots and canker. The smell of bruised tissue attracts the fly.[20]
Parsnip is used as a food plant by the larvae of somelepidopteran species, including theparsnip swallowtail (Papilio polyxenes), thecommon swift moth (Korscheltellus lupulina), thegarden dart moth (Euxoa nigricans), and theghost moth (Hepialus humuli).[21] The larvae of theparsnip moth (Depressaria radiella), native to Europe and accidentallyintroduced to North America in the mid-1800s, construct their webs on the umbels, feeding on flowers and partially developed seeds.[6]: 232
Parsnip canker is a serious disease of this crop. Black or orange-brown patches occur around the root's crown and shoulders, accompanied by cracking and hardening of the flesh. It is more likely to occur when the seed is sown into cold, wet soil, thepH of the soil is too low, or the roots have already been damaged bycarrot fly larvae.[22] Several fungi are associated with canker, includingPhoma complanata,Ilyonectria radicicola,Itersonilia pastinaceae, andI. perplexans. In Europe,Mycocentrospora acerina has been found to cause a black rot that kills the plant early.[6]: 232–233 Watery soft rot, caused bySclerotinia minor andS. sclerotiorum, causes the taproot to become soft and watery. A white orbuff-coloured mould grows on the surface. The pathogen is most common in temperate and subtropical regions with a cool, wet season.[23]
Violet root rot caused by the fungusHelicobasidium purpureum sometimes affects the roots, covering them with a purplish mat to which soil particles adhere. The leaves become distorted and discoloured, and themycelium can spread through the soil between plants. Some weeds can harbour this fungus, and it is more prevalent in wet, acid conditions.[19]Erysiphe heraclei causes apowdery mildew that can cause significant crop loss. Infestation by this causes results in the yellowing of the leaf and loss of foliage. Moderate temperatures and high humidity favor the development of the disease.[24]
The shoots and leaves of parsnip must be handled with care, as its sap containsfuranocoumarins,phototoxic chemicals that cause blisters on the skin when it is exposed to sunlight, a condition known asphytophotodermatitis.[25] It shares this property with many of its relatives in thecarrot family. Symptoms include redness, burning, and blisters; afflicted areas can remain sensitive and discolored for up to two years.[26] Reports of gardeners experiencing toxic symptoms after coming into contact with foliage have been made, but these have been small compared to the number of people who grow the crop. The problem is most likely to occur on a sunny day when gathering foliage or pulling up old plants that have gone to seed. The symptoms have mostly been mild to moderate.[27] Risk can be reduced by wearing long pants and sleeves to avoid exposure, and avoiding sunlight after any suspected exposure.[28]
If eyes are exposed to the sap it can cause blindness.[29]
The toxic properties of parsnip extracts are resistant to heating and periods of storage lasting several months. Toxic symptoms can also affect livestock and poultry in parts of their bodies where their skin is exposed.[6]: 221–222 Polyynes can be found in Apiaceae vegetables such as parsnip, and they showcytotoxic activities.[30]
Parsnips resemble carrots and can be used in similar ways, but they have a sweeter taste, especially when cooked.[31] They can be baked, boiled, pureed, roasted, fried, grilled, or steamed. When used instews,soups, andcasseroles, they give a rich flavour.[32] In some cases, parsnips are boiled, and the solid portions are removed from the soup or stew, leaving behind a more subtle flavour than the whole root andstarch to thicken the dish. Roast parsnip is considered an essential part ofChristmas dinner in some parts of the English-speaking world and frequently features in the traditionalSunday roast.[33] Parsnips can also be fried or thinly sliced and made intocrisps. They can be made into a wine with a taste similar toMadeira.[34]
The authorDorothy Hartley described parsnips as having "the type of sweetness that mingles with honey and spice..." The food writerAlan Davidson remarks, "parsnip has a taste which, although not strong, is peculiar and not to everyone's liking."[35]
InRoman times, parsnips were believed to be anaphrodisiac.[36] However, parsnips do not typically feature in modern Italian cooking. Instead, they are fed to pigs, particularly those bred to makeParma ham.[37]
A typical 100 g serving of parsnip provides 314 kilojoules (75 kilocalories) offood energy. Most parsnip cultivars consist of about 80% water, 5%sugar, 1%protein, 0.3%fat, and 5%dietary fiber. The parsnip is rich in vitamins and minerals and is particularly rich in potassium with 375 mg per 100 g.[40] Several of the B-group vitamins are present, but levels of vitamin C are reduced in cooking. Since most of the vitamins and minerals are found close to the skin, many will be lost unless the root is finely peeled or cooked whole. During frosty weather, part of the starch is converted to sugar, and the root tastes sweeter.[41]
The parsnip was much esteemed in Rome, and EmperorTiberius accepted part of thetribute payable to Rome by Germania in the form of parsnips. In Europe, the vegetable was used as a source of sugar beforecane andbeet sugars were available.[32] Aspastinache comuni, the "common"pastinaca figures in the long list of comestibles enjoyed by theMilanese given byBonvesin da la Riva in his "Marvels of Milan" (1288).[44]
^Linnaeus, Carolus (1753).Species Plantarum (in Latin). Vol. 1. Stockholm: Laurentii Salvii. p. 262.
^abKays, Stanley J. (2011). "3 – Latin binomials and synonyms".Cultivated Vegetables of the World: A Multilingual Onomasticon. Wageningen Academic Publishers. pp. 617–708.ISBN978-90-8686-720-2.
^McKlintock, David; Fitter, R.S.R. (1956).The Pocket Guide to Wild Flowers. Collins. p. 102.
^abcBrickell, Christopher, ed. (1992).The Royal Horticultural Society Encyclopedia of Gardening. Dorling Kindersley. pp. 356, 565.ISBN978-0-86318-979-1.
^"Carrot fly".Garden Organic. Henry Doubleday Research Association. Archived fromthe original on 2013-01-26. Retrieved2013-03-29.
^Zidorn, Christian; Jöhrer, Karin; Ganzera, Markus; Schubert, Birthe; Sigmund, Elisabeth Maria; Mader, Judith; Greil, Richard; Ellmerer, Ernst P.; Stuppner, Hermann (2005). "Polyacetylenes from the Apiaceae vegetables carrot, celery, fennel, parsley, and parsnip and their cytotoxic activities".Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry.53 (7):2518–2523.doi:10.1021/jf048041s.PMID15796588.
^Alleman, Gayle Povis; Webb, Denise; Smith, Susan Male (2006-04-18)."Parsnips: Natural Weight-Loss Foods".Discovery Health. Publications International. Retrieved2011-03-10.
^ab"The Parsnip"(PDF).Towne's Harvest Garden. Montana State University. Retrieved2013-03-30.
^Phillips, Henry (1831).The Companion for the Kitchen Garden. H. Colburn and R. Bentley. p. 42.Dioches, Cleophantus, Philistio, and Orpheus, as well as Pliny, all wrote on the aphrodisiac quality of the parsnip.
^Christensen, LP (2011). "Aliphatic C(17)-polyacetylenes of the falcarinol type as potential health-promoting compounds in food plants of the Apiaceae family".Recent Patents on Food, Nutrition & Agriculture.3 (1):64–77.doi:10.2174/2212798411103010064.PMID21114468.
^Siddiqui, I. R. (1989). "Studies on vegetables: fiber content and chemical composition of ethanol-insoluble and -soluble residues".Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry.37 (3):647–650.doi:10.1021/jf00087a015.
^Noted by John Dickie,Delizia! The Epic History of Italians and Their Food (New York, 2008), p. 38 (where they are identified as parsnips).
