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Palestinian cuisine consists of foods from or commonly eaten byPalestinians or in the region of Palestine, whether inPalestine,Israel,Jordan, orrefugee camps in nearby countries, or by thePalestinian diaspora. The cuisine is a diffusion of the cultures of civilizations that settled in the region of Palestine, particularly during and after theIslamic era beginning with the ArabUmmayad conquest, then the eventualPersian-influencedAbbasids and ending with the strong influences ofTurkish cuisine, resulting from the coming of theOttomanTurks. It is similar to otherLevantine cuisines, includingLebanese,Syrian andJordanian.
Rice and variations ofkibbee are common in theGalilee.West Bank cuisine consists oftaboon bread, rice and meat, while fish andlentils are staples on the coast.Gaza cuisine is more diverse in terms of seafood and spices, with widespread use of chili peppers.
The area is also home to many desserts, ranging from those made regularly and those that are commonly reserved for the holidays. Most Palestinian sweets are pastries filled with either sweetened cheeses, dates or various nuts such as almonds, walnuts orpistachios. Beverages could also depend on holidays such as duringRamadan, wherecarob,tamarind andapricot juices are consumed at sunset. Coffee is consumed throughout the day and liquor is not very prevalent among the population; however, some alcoholic beverages such asarak orbeer are consumed byChristians and someMuslims.
The region of the southernLevant has a varied past and as such, its cuisine has contributions from various cultures.
After the area originally inhabited by Jews, Edomites, Moabites and Ammonites was conquered by theMuslims in the 7th century CE, it became part of aBilad al-Sham under the nameJund Filastin. Therefore, many aspects of Palestinian cuisine are similar to thecuisine of Syria—especially in theGalilee. Modern Syrian-Palestinian dishes have been generally influenced by the rule of three major Islamic groups: the Arabs, thePersian-influenced Arabs (Iraqis) and theTurks.[1]
The Arabs that conquered Syria and Palestine initially had simple culinary traditions primarily based on the use of rice, lamb, yogurt and dates.[2] This cuisine did not advance for centuries until the rise of theAbbasid Caliphate, that establishedBaghdad as its capital and integrated elements of Persian cuisine into the existingArab cuisine.[1] The Jerusalemite geographeral-Muqaddasi said this of Palestine's foods:
From Palestine comes olives, dried figs, raisins, the carob fruit... fromJerusalem comes cheeses and the celebrated raisins of the species known asAinuni andDuri, excellent apples... also pine nuts of the kind called 'Kuraish-bite', and their equal is not found elsewhere... from Sughar andBaysan come dates, the treacle calledDibs.[3]
The cuisine of theOttoman Empire—which incorporated Palestine in 1516—was partially made up of what had become, by then a "rich" Arab cuisine. After theCrimean War, in 1855, many other communities includingBosnians,Greeks,French andItalians began settling in the area especially in urban centers such asJerusalem,Jaffa andBethlehem. These communities' cuisines contributed to the character of Palestinian cuisine, especially communities from theBalkans.[1][4]
Until around the 1950s–1960s, the main ingredients for rural Palestinian cuisine were olive oil, oregano and bread baked in a simple oven called ataboon.[5] Author G. Robinson Lees, writing in 1905, observed that "The oven is not in the house, it has a building of its own, the joint property of several families whose duty is to keep it always hot."[6]
There are three primary culinary regions in historical Palestine—the Galilee,Gaza and theWest Bank (which has its own culinary subregions ranging from north to south).[7] In the Galilee, bulgur and meat (beef or lamb) are primary ingredients that are often combined to form several variations of dishes ranging from a family-sized meal to a side dish. However, in the West Bank and the Gaza Strip, the populations have a cooking style of their own. In the West Bank, meals are particularly heavy and contrast from the foods of the northernLevant. Main dishes involve rice,flatbreads and roasted meats. The staple food of the inhabitants in theGaza Strip is fish due to its location on the Mediterranean seacoast. Their culinary influences are also strongly affected by traditionalEgyptian cooking andchili peppers,dill seeds and garlic are the most common seasonings. Although the cuisine is diverse, generally Palestinians are not restricted to the foods of their specific region and there is constant culinary diffusion amongst them—although, because of Gaza's isolation from other Palestinian andLevantine Arab areas, their cooking styles are less known in the region.
The Galilee is highly influenced byLebanese cuisine, due to extensive communication between the two regions before the establishment of Israel. The Galilee specializes in a number of meals based on the combination ofbulgur, spices and meat, known askibbee by Arabs.Kibbee bi-siniyyeh|Kibbee bi-siniyee is a combination of minced lamb or beef mixed with pepper, allspice and other spices wrapped in a bulgur crust, then baked.Kibee bi-siniyee could serve as the main dish during a Palestinian lunch.Kibbee neyee is a variation ofkibee that is served as raw meat mixed with bulgur and a variety of spices. It is mostly eaten as a side dish and pita ormarkook bread is used for scooping the meat. Its leftovers are usually cooked as a different meal the next day, such as friedkibbee balls.[4][8]
A specific rice meal, calledpilaf, is common in the Galilee and consists of a mixture of rice with chopped lamb and pine nuts flavored with an assortment of spices, accompanied by a lamb leg or whole chickens. In addition, a variety of dishes made up of meatballs and potatoes are eaten during special occasions.[4]Shish kebab orlahme mashwi andshish taouk are grilled meats on skewers and are commonly eaten after an array of appetizers known as themezze.[8]
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Musakhan is a common main dish that originated in theJenin andTulkarm area in the northern West Bank. It consists of a roasted chicken over ataboon bread that has been topped with pieces of fried sweet onions,sumac,allspice andpine nuts.[8]Maqluba is an upside-down rice and baked eggplantcasserole mixed with cookedcauliflower, carrots and chicken or lamb. The meal is known throughout the Levant but among Palestinians especially. It dates back to the 13th century.[9]
Mansaf is a traditional meal in the central West Bank andNaqab region in the southern West Bank, having its roots from theBedouin population ofJordan. It is mostly cooked on occasions such as holidays, weddings or large gatherings.Mansaf is cooked as a lamb leg or large pieces of lamb on top of a taboon bread that has usually been smothered with yellow rice. A type of thick and dried cheesecloth yogurt from goat's milk, calledjameed, is poured on top of the lamb and rice to give it its distinct flavor and taste.[10] The dish is also garnished with cooked pine nuts andalmonds.[4] The classic form of eatingmansaf is using the right hand as a utensil. For politeness, participants in the feast tear pieces of meat to hand to the person next to them.[10]
In addition to meals, the West Bank's many subregions have their own fruit-based jams. In the Hebron area, the primary crops are grapes. Families living in the area harvest the grapes in the spring and summer to produce a variety of products ranging from raisins, jams and a molasses known asdibs.[8][11] TheBethlehem area (Beit Jala andJifna in particular), are known regionally for their apricots and apricot jam as is theTulkarm area for its olives and olive oil.[8]
The cuisine of theGaza Strip is influenced by both neighboringEgypt and its location on the Mediterranean coast. The staple food for the majority of the inhabitants in the area is fish. The Gaza Strip has a major fishing industry and fish is often served either grilled or fried after being stuffed withcilantro, garlic, red peppers and cumin and marinated in a mix ofcoriander, red peppers, cumin, and chopped lemons.[12][13] Besides fish, as well as other types of seafood, Gazan cooking styles are affected byEgyptian culinary influences. This generally includes using hot peppers, garlic andchard to flavor many of their meals.[8]Zibdieh is a clay pot dish that consists of shrimp baked in a stew of olive oil, garlic, hot peppers, and peeled tomatoes.[14] Crabs are cooked and then stuffed with a red hot pepper paste calledshatta.[12]
A dish native to the Gaza area issumaghiyyeh. The meal consists of water-soaked groundsumac mixed withtahina. The mixture is added to sliced chard and pieces of stewed beef and garbanzo beans and then additionally flavored with dill seeds, garlic and hot peppers. It is often eaten cool with khubz.Rummaniyya depends on the particular time of the year and it is made up of unripenedpomegranate seeds, eggplant, tahina, garlic, hot peppers and lentils.Fukharit adas is a slow-cooked lentil stew flavored with red pepper flakes, crushed dill seeds, garlic, and cumin, traditionally made during winter and early spring.[12]
Qidra is a rice dish named after the large clay vessel and clay oven that is used to bake it. In the oven, the rice is cooked with pieces of meat, often lamb, whole garlic cloves, garbanzo beans,cardamom pods, and various other spices such asturmeric—which gives it a yellow color—cinnamon, allspice, nutmeg and cumin. Plain rice cooked in meat or chicken broth and flavored with mild spices including cinnamon is known asfatteh ghazzawiyyeh. The rice is layered over a thinmarkook bread known asfarasheeh, smothered inghee (an Egyptian variation of butter) and topped with stuffed chicken or lamb. The meal is eaten with green peppers and lemon sauce.[12]
Palestinians bake a variety of different kinds of breads: they includekhubz, pita andmarkook andtaboon.Khubz is an everyday bread and is very similar to pita. It often takes the place of utensils; It is torn into bite-size pieces and used to scoop various dips such as hummus or ful.[8]Markook bread is a paper-thinunleavened bread and when unfolded it is almost transparent.[15]Taboon receives its name from the ovens used to bake them.[8]
There are several types of sandwich and pizza-like foods eaten by the Palestinians, includingmanaeesh,sfiha,fatayer andshawarma.Manaeesh is a baked flat bread, usually topped withza'atar and olive oil.[8]simboseh andfatayer are baked or sometimes fried doughs stuffed with minced meat and cooked onions orsnobar (pine nuts).[8]Fatayer is usually folded into triangles and unlikesimboseh, it could be filled with spinach orza'atar.
Sfiha is a baked miniatureflatbread, topped with lamb and cooked red peppers or tomatoes. Shawarma is mostly served in a long folded roll ofkhubz wrapped around shavedlamb or chicken accompanied by pickled turnips and cucumbers, tomatoes, onions and tahina.[8] Shawarma could also be served as lamb slices on a plate with tahina as a side dish.[16]Falafel are fried peppered fava beans or sometimes hummus, parsley and onions fried together into small patties. They are usually served and eaten wrapped inkhubz.[8]
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Mahashi dishes are composed of stuffed vegetables such as eggplants, baby pumpkins, potatoes, carrots and marrows as well as a variety of leaf vegetables, primarily grape leaves, cabbage leaves and less often chard.Mahashi requires delicacy and time—the main reason it is prepared before the day it is cooked and served. Many female family members participate in the rolling and stuffing of the vegetables, relaxing the amount of individual effort required.[17]
Waraq al-'ainib (grape leaves; known as dolma in Western and Balkan countries), is amahashi meal reserved for large gatherings. It is grape leaves normally wrapped around minced meat, white rice and diced tomatoes; however, meat is not always used. It is then cooked and served as dozens of rolls on a large plate usually accompanied by boiled potato slices, carrots and lamb pieces.Kousa mahshi are zucchinis stuffed with the same ingredients aswaraq al-'ainib and usually served alongside it with heavy meals. If made with a large number of zucchinis it is known aswaraq al-'ainib wa kousa.[8]
Bread dips and side dishes such ashummus,baba ghanoush,mutabbel andlabeneh are frequently served during breakfast and dinner.Hummus, the Arabic word for garbanzo beans, is commonly made ashummus bi tahini. Palestinians soak the garbanzo beans with water overnight, then boil them in a pot for at least an hour. The resulting ground beans are mixed withtahini (sesame paste) and sometimeslemon juice.[18] It is often lathered inolive oil and sometimes sprinkled withpaprika,oregano and pine nuts—the latter is especially used in the West Bank.[19] The town ofAbu Ghosh, west ofJerusalem, is a popular hummus destination forIsraelis and tourists.[20] Hummus could also be mixed, boiled or cooked withful (fava beans) and results in a completely different dish calledmukhluta that has a distinct flavor and brownish color.[8]
Baba ghanoush is aneggplant or aubergine salad or dip with several variants. The root of all the variants is broiled and mashed eggplant and tahini lathered with olive oil, which can then be flavored with garlic, onions, peppers, groundcumin seeds,mint and parsley.[21] Mutabbel is one of the spicier variants that receives its zest from green chili peppers.[22]
Jibneh Arabieh orjibneh baida is a white table cheese served with any of the above dishes.[8] Ackawi cheese is a common variation of jibneh baida. Ackawi cheese has a smoother texture and a mild salty taste.[23] It originated in the city of Akka (Acre)—hence the nameAckawi—in the Galilee. Labaneh is a pasty yogurt-like cream cheese either served on a plate with olive oil andza'atar—which is generally calledlabeneh wa za'atar—or in a khubz sandwich.[8]
AMediterranean-style table salad made in theLevant istabbouleh. The salad is made from parsley pieces,bulgur, diced tomatoes,cucumbers and is sautéed with lemon juice andvinegar. In 2006, the largest bowl oftabbouleh in the world was prepared by Palestinian cooks in theWest Bank city ofRamallah.[24]Fattoush is a combination ofkhubz pieces and parsley with chopped cucumbers, radishes, tomatoes and scallions and flavored by sumac.[25]Dagga orDagga Gazawiya is a Gazan salad usually made in a clay bowl and is a mix of crushed tomatoes, garlic cloves, red hot peppers, chopped dill and olive oil. Its seasoned with lemon juice immediately before being served.[12][26]
Palestinian desserts includebaklawa,halawa andkanafeh, as well as other semolina and wheat pastries.Baklawa is a pastry made of thin sheets of unleavened flour dough, filled withpistachios and walnuts sweetened by honey.[8]Halawa is a block confection of sweetened sesame flour served in sliced pieces.Muhalabiyeh is a rice pudding made with milk and topped withpistachios or almonds.[8]
Kanafeh, a well-known dessert in theArab World andTurkey, originated in the city ofNablus in the northern West Bank. It is made of several fine shreds of pastry noodles with honey-sweetened cheese in the center. The top layer of the pastry is usually dyed orange with food coloring and sprinkled with crushed pistachios.Nablus is famed for itskanafeh, partly due to its use of a white-brined cheese calledNabulsi after the city. Boiled sugar is used as a syrup forkanafeh.[8]
It is common for Palestinian hosts to serve fresh and dried fruits, nuts, seeds anddates to their guests. Roasted and salted watermelon, squash andsunflower seeds, as well as pistachios andcashews, are common legumes. Watermelon seeds, known asbizir al-bateekh, are eaten regularly during various leisurely activities: playing cards, smokingnargila, conversing with friends or before and after meals.[13]
Palestinian culture and life revolves around food in every aspect, whether it is an ordinary day or a special occasion such as a wedding or holiday.[27] Meals are structured in a cyclical order by Palestinians and span into two main courses and several intermediate ones likecoffee, fruits and sweets as well as dinner. Like in mostArab cultures, meals are a time to spend with family and could last 1–2 hours depending on the specific time of the day. Unlike other cultures, lunch is the primary course and breakfast and dinner are lighter in contents.[23]
There are two hot beverages that Palestinians consume: Coffee is served in the morning and throughout the day, while tea is sipped in the evening. Tea is usually flavored withna'ana (mint) ormaramiyyeh (sage). The coffee of choice is usuallyTurkish orArabic coffee. Arabic coffee is unsweetened but spiced withcardamom.[8] Homemade fruit juices are also a common household drink during warm days and duringRamadan, the holy month for fasting byMuslims.[8] A warm drink made from sweetened milk withsalep garnished with walnuts, coconut flakes and cinnamon, is known assahlab and is primarily served during the winter season.[32]
A widely consumed liquor byPalestinian Christians and many less-stringently observant Muslims isArak.Arak is a clearanise flavored alcoholic drink that is mixed with water to soften it and give it a creamy white color. It is consumed during special occasions such as holidays, weddings, and gatherings or with themezze.[8] Beer is also a consumed drink and the Palestinian town ofTaybeh in the central West Bank contains the onlybeer brewery in thePalestinian territories. In addition to regular beer, the brewery produces non-alcoholic beer for conservative Muslims.[33] Soft drinks are also common in Palestinian homes and the city of Ramallah contains aCoca-Cola bottling plant, whileGaza,Hebron and Nablus have distribution centers.[34]
There is a sharp difference of Palestinian courses eaten on a daily basis in comparison to those reserved for holidays—which include family and religious occasions for both Muslims and Christians.
In the past, during the fasting month of Ramadan, theMusaher of a town would yell and beat his drum to wake up the town's residents forsuhoor (lit. 'of dawn')—usually very early in the morning, ranging from 4–6 am. The meals eaten during this time are light and foods include labeneh, cheese, bread and fried or boiled eggs along with various liquids to drink. Themuezzin's call to dawn prayers signaled the beginning ofsawm or fasting.[27]
Breaking the day's fasting traditionally begins with the brief consumption ofdates and a chilled beverage. Palestinians make a variety of fruit-based beverages, including the flavors,tamar hindi ortamarind,sous orlicorice,kharroub orcarob andQamar Eddine.[8]Tamar hindi is made by soaking tamarinds in water for a many hours, then straining, sweetening and mixing it withrose water and lemon juice.[27]Kharroub is made similarly except instead of tamarind, carob is used.[8]Qamar Eddine is made of dried apricots boiled into a liquid and chilled.[27]
The termiftar has a different meaning in Ramadan where it is used to describe the 'breaking of fasting' unlike its common meaning of breakfast in the morning.Iftar begins with soup, either made fromlentils, vegetables orfreekeh.Freekeh soup is made from cracked, green wheat cooked in chicken broth. There is a wide variety of meals served duringiftar, ranging from small plates or bowls vegetable-based courses orsaniyyehs (large plates or trays) of a particular meat. Common small dishes on the dinner table arebamia—a name for okra in tomato paste,mloukhiyeh—acorchorus stew—ormaqali, an array of fried tomatoes, aubergines, potatoes, peppers and zucchini. Pilaf or plainfreekeh are normally served alongside the dinner meat. Each household prepares extra food to provide for their neighbors and the less fortunate—who must receive an equal version of the food eaten at home.[27]
A common Palestinian dessert reserved only for Ramadan isqatayef, which could be provided by the numerous street vendors in several major Palestinian cities or towns as well as typical Palestinian households.[35] Qatayef is the general name of the dessert as a whole, but more specifically, the name of the batter that acts as a base. The result of the batter being poured into a round hot plate appears similar to pancakes, except only one side is cooked, then folded. The pastry is filled with either unsalted goat cheese or ground walnuts and cinnamon. It is then baked and served with a hot sugar-water syrup or sometimes honey.[36]
Ka'ak bi 'awja is a semolinashortbread pastry filled with ground dates called 'ajwa or walnuts. The dessert is a traditional meal for Christians duringEaster,[37] however, ka'ak bi awja is also prepared towards the end of Ramadan, to be eaten duringEid al-Fitr—a Muslim festival immediately following Ramadan, as well as duringEid al-Adha.[27][38] DuringMawlid—the holiday honoring the birth of the Islamic prophetMuhammad—Zalabieh which consists of small, crunchy deep fried dough balls in dipped in syrup, is served. The dough is made from flour, yeast and water.[37]
A special pudding calledmughli is prepared for a new born child. The dessert is made of ground rice, sugar and a mixture of spices, garnished with almonds, pine nuts and walnuts. An infant's new tooth is celebrated with bowls of sweetened wheat or barley and sweets served after a child's circumcision include baklava andBurma. Christian families in mourning serve a sweet bun known asrahmeh. It is a food eaten in remembrance of the dead and as a gesture of blessing the soul of the deceased person. TheGreek Orthodox Church offer a special tray with cooked wheat covered with sugar and candy after a memorial service.[37]
