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Neolithic artifacts, uncovered by archeologists at the beginning of the 21st century, indicate thatIstanbul's historic peninsula was settled as far back as the 6th millennium BCE.[1] That early settlement, important in the spread of theNeolithic Revolution from the Near East toEurope, lasted for almost a millennium before being inundated by rising water levels.[2][3][4] The first human settlement on the Asian side, the Fikirtepe mound, is from theCopper Age period, with artifacts dating from 5500 to 3500 BCE.[5] In the European side, near the point of the peninsula (Sarayburnu) there was a settlement during the early1st millennium BCE. Modern authors have linked it to the possibleThracian toponymLygos,[6] mentioned byPliny the Elder as an earlier name for the site of Byzantium.[7]
There is evidence suggesting there were settlements around the region dating as far back as 6700 BC, and it is hard to define if there was any settlement on exact spot at city proper established, but earliest records about city proper begins around 660 BC[a][13][14] whenGreek settlers from the Attic town ofMegara colonized the area and establishedByzantium on the European side of theBosphorus. It fell to theRoman Republic in 196 BC,[15] and was known asByzantium in Latin until 330, when the city, soon renamed asConstantinople, became the new capital of theRoman Empire. During the reign ofJustinian I, the city rose to bethe largest in the western world, with a population peaking at close to half a million people.[16] Constantinople functioned as the capital of theByzantine Empire, which effectively ended with thefall of Constantinople in 1453. Constantinople then became the capital of theOttoman Turks.
The population had declined during the medieval period, but as theOttoman Empire approached its historical peak, the city grew to a population of close to 700,000 in the 16th century,[17] once again ranking among the world's most popular cities. With the founding of theRepublic of Turkey in 1923, that country's capital moved from Constantinople toAnkara (previously Angora).
Humans have lived in the area now known as Istanbul since at least theNeolithic period. The earliest known settlement dates from 6700 BC, discovered in 2008, during the construction works of theYenikapı subway station and theMarmaray tunnel at thehistoric peninsula on the European side.[18][19][20] On theAnatolian side, the earliest known settlement is the Fikirtepe mound from theCopper Age period, with artifacts dating from 5500 to 3500 BC.[21] In nearbyKadıköy (Chalcedon) a port settlement dating back to thePhoenicians has been discovered.
The first name of the city wasLygos[22] according toPliny the Elder in his historical accounts and it was possibly founded byThracian tribes along with the neighboring settlement ofSemystra.[23] Only a few walls and substructures belonging to Lygos have survived to date, near theSeraglio Point,[6] where theTopkapı Palace now stands. Lygos and Semystra were the only settlements on the European side of Istanbul. On the Asian side there was aPhoenician colony.
Byzantion (Βυζάντιον),Latinized asByzantium, was the next name of the city. The name is believed to be ofThracian orIllyrian origin and thus predates theAncient Greek settlement.[6] It may be derived from a Thracian or Illyrian personal name,Byzas.[24]: 352ff Ancient Greek legend refers to a legendary king Byzas as the leader of the Megarian colonists and eponymous founder of the city.Cape Moda in Chalcedon was the first location which theGreek settlers fromMegara chose to colonize in 685 BC, before colonizingByzantion on the European side of the Bosphorus under the command of KingByzas in 667 BC. Byzantion was established on the site of an ancient port settlement namedLygos[23] During the period of Byzantion, theAcropolis used to stand where the Topkapı Palace stands today.
After siding withPescennius Niger against the victoriousSeptimius Severus the city wasbesieged byRome and suffered extensive damage in AD 196.[15] Byzantium was rebuilt by theRoman EmperorSeptimius Severus and quickly regained its previous prosperity, being temporarily renamed asAugusta Antonina by the emperor, in honor of his son.
The location of Byzantium attractedConstantine the Great in 324 after apropheticdream was said to have identified the location of the city; this prophecy was probably due to Constantine's final victory overLicinius at theBattle of Chrysopolis (Üsküdar) on theBosphorus, on 18 September 324, which ended the civil war between the Roman Co-Emperors, and brought an end to the final vestiges of theTetrarchy system, during whichNicomedia (present-dayİzmit, 100 km east of Istanbul) was the most senior capital city of theRoman Empire. Byzantium (now renamed asNova Roma which eventually becameConstantinopolis, i.e.The City of Constantine) was officially proclaimed the new capital of theRoman Empire in 330. At the end of his reign in 337, Constantine declared his three sons as joint heirs of the Roman Empire in a system of co-emperorship.[25] However, the sons could not govern together peacefully and their military rivalry split the empire on the north–south line along theBalkan Peninsula. The territory was officially split in 395 whenTheodosius I (ruled, 379–395) died, leaving his sonHonorius emperor of theWestern Roman Empire, and his other sonArcadius emperor of theEastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire.[25]
Constantinople became the capital of the Byzantine Empire. The combination ofimperial power and a key location at the crossing point between thecontinents ofEurope andAsia, and laterAfrica and other regions, played an important role in terms ofcommerce,culture,diplomacy, andstrategy. It was the center of the Greek world and, for most of the Byzantine period, the largest city in Europe. Constantine's conversion toChristianity, in 312, had set the Roman Empire towardsChristianization, and in 381, during the reign of Theodosius I, theofficial state religion of the Roman Empire becameNicene Christianity, turning Constantinople into a thriving religious center.[26]
Throughout the fifth century, theWestern Roman Empire lost most of its power through a decline in political, economic, and social situations, the last western emperor being deposed by Germanic mercenaries in AD 476; the eastern half, however, was flourishing. According to historians this flourishing Eastern Roman Empire was then classified as the Byzantine Empire to distinguish it from the Roman Empire.[27] This empire was distinctly Greek inculture, and became the centre ofGreek Orthodox Christianity after an earliersplit with Rome, and was adorned with many magnificentchurches, includingHagia Sophia, once the world's largestcathedral. The seat of thePatriarch of Constantinople, spiritual leader of theEastern Orthodox Church, remains.
The most famousByzantine emperor wasJustinian (527-565). During his reign, he extended the Byzantine Empire to its largest boundaries spreading fromPalestine to the tip of Spain. His other achievements include the famousHagia Sophia church and the organized law system called theCodex which was completed in 534.[28] However, Justinian's reign was the greatest influence of the Byzantine Empire.
Starting in the 600s, warfare kept Constantinople's power flip-flopping between decline and progression. Alliance with Europe slowly began to break away from the Byzantine Empire between the seventh-eighth centuries, when the Byzantine and Roman churches disagreed on various subjects. However, the distinguishing gap placed between the two churches involved the use of icons in the church.Icons, being images of Christian holy people such asJesus Christ, theVirgin Mary, and thesaints, toByzantine Christians were more than representations; they were believed to possess holy power that affected people's daily lives[29] While many Byzantines worshiped icons many opposed the icons because they tested the authorities of the emperor. Finally, in 726 EmperorLeo III the Isaurian (ruled, 717-741) ordered all icons to be destroyed. The destruction of icons reorganized and reoriented the Byzantine rulers in imperial power.[30] The fierce opposition to icons clashed with thePope's tolerance of images. Thepapacy was unwilling to permit sacred images and icons to be destroyed and this caused an eventual separation.[31] Their separation caused hatred between the two churches and cooperation between the two was a struggle.
From around the 9th to 13th centuries, Constantinople developed complex relationships with an emerging and later the largest and most advanced state of that time inEurope –Kiev Rus. Constantinople played a significant role in theKiev Rus development, culture, and politics. Many of the Kiev Princes were married to daughters of the Byzantine Emperors, and because of this connection,Eastern Europe becameEastern Orthodox after theChristianization of Kievan Rus' byVladimir the Great ofKiev. However, these relationships were not always friendly – Constantinople was sacked several times over those 400 years by Kiev Princes, forcing Constantinople to sign increasingly favorable treaties forKiev, the texts of which were preserved in thePrimary Chronicle and other historical documents (seeRus'-Byzantine Wars). Byzantine constantly played Kiev, Poland, Bulgaria, and other European Nations of that time, against each other.
Near 1204, Constantinople began to decline in power. Because of the failure of theThird Crusade, self-confidentLatin Christians decided to again try to capture theHoly City of Jerusalem in theFourth Crusade; but this time their plan was to capture the Byzantine Empire as well. In 1204, western armies captured Constantinople and ransacked the city for treasures.[32] The pope decried thesacking of Constantinople but ordered the crusaders to consolidate their gains in the city for a year. The crusaders choseBaldwin of Flanders to be the newLatin Emperor of Constantinople; he along with other princes and theRepublic of Venicedivided the Empire amongst themselves; they never made it toJerusalem.[32] This newLatin Empire at Constantinople lasted until 1261 when the Byzantines under the command ofMichael VIII Palaeologusrecaptured the city and some outlying territory.[32] After this, Constantinople never regained its former glory. Rather than a thriving metropolis, Constantinople transformed into a collection of villages, and became a semi-ghost town with, asIbn Battuta noted, sown fields within the city walls. The city by 1453 held less than a tenth of its former population.
The city, known alternatively inOttoman Turkish asḲosṭanṭīnīye (قسطنطينيه after the Arabic formal-Qusṭanṭīniyyahالقسطنطينية) or Istanbul, while itsChristian minorities continued to call it Constantinople, as did people writing inFrench,English, and otherEuropean languages, was the capital of theOttoman Empire from its conquest in 1453 until the empire's collapse in 1922.
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On 29 May 1453,Sultan Mehmed II "the Conqueror" enteredConstantinople after a 53–daysiege during which his cannon had torn a huge hole in theWalls of Theodosius II. The city became the fourth and final capital of theOttoman Empire.
Mehmed had begun the siege on 6 April 1453. He had hired engineers to buildcannons and bombs for the occasion. He also acquired scholars and imams to encourage the soldiers. In accordance withShariah (Muslim Holy Law), Mehmed gave the Byzantine emperorConstantine XI Palaiologos (1449–1453) three chances to surrender the city.[33] He guaranteed the safety of the city's residents, with their riches, beliefs, and honor. Constantine valiantly refused the offer.[34]After more than a month of fighting, Mehmed's advisors were beginning to lose hope. Against their counsel, Mehmed continued to fight. The night before the final assault, he studied previous attempts to take the city to distinguish potentially successful approaches. On the morning of 29 May 1453 the sultan orderedAdzan (the call to prayer).[35] This was not a regular prayer session for religious reasons but rather a scare tactic: the sight of the entire Ottoman army getting on their knees to pray provided an intimidating display of unity to the Byzantine forces designed to overcome their minds before their bodies.[35]
Once the fighting started, it went on for forty-eight days. The wall was beginning to collapse when Constantine sent a letter to the pope asking for help. In response, the Papacy sent five ships full of reinforcements, weapons, and supplies. Another defense tactic involved Constantine blocking off theGolden Horn so that the Ottoman army could not get ships into it. Mehmed had his people pave a path from oiled tree branches in order to bring eighty ships overland viaGalata and placed them into the Golden Horn behind the enemy ships. The Ottoman ships burnt the Byzantine ones in a naval battle.[36]
Since theByzantine army was still holding on after this defeat, the sultan set up his secret weapon, a huge mobile tower. This tower could hold many soldiers who could be at the same level as the walls of the city, making it easier for them to break into Constantinople. The first group of Ottomans who entered the city were killed almost immediately, with the effect that the other Ottomans began to retreat. Witnessing this, the sultan encouraged his soldiers. Soon after the sultan's encouragement the Ottomans broke the wall in two places and entered the city. In a last attempt to protect it, Constantine attacked the enemy sword raised; however, he was defeated and killed.[37]
Finally, Constantinople was under Ottoman rule. Mehmed entered Constantinople through what is now known as theTopkapi Gate. He immediately rode his horse to theHagia Sophia which he ordered to be sacked. He ordered that animam meet him there in order to recite theMuslim Creed: "I testify that there is no God butAllah. I testify thatMuhammad is the Prophet of Allah."[38] He turned the Orthodox cathedral into an Islamicmosque, solidifying Turkish rule in Constantinople.Mehmed ordered the city to be plundered for three days.[39]Following the sack, Mehmed's main concern with Constantinople had to do with rebuilding the city's defenses and re-population. Building projects were commenced immediately after the conquest, which included the repair of the walls, construction of the citadel, and building a new palace.[33] Mehmed issued orders across his empire that Muslims, Christians, and Jews should resettle the city; he demanded that five thousand households needed to be deported to Constantinople by September.[40]
By 1459, the Sultan dedicated a lot of energy to bringing prosperity to Constantinople. In several quarters of the city pious foundations were created; these areas consisted of a theological college, a school (or a Madrasa, usually connected to the mosque[41]), a public kitchen, and a mosque.[33] In the same year, Mehmed sent out orders that any Greeks who had left Constantinople as slaves or refugees should be allowed to return. These actions led it to become a once again thriving capital city, now of the Ottoman Empire.[33]
Suleiman the Magnificent's reign over the Ottoman Empire from 1520 to 1566 was a period of great artistic and architectural achievements. The famous architectMimar Sinan designed many mosques and other grand buildings in the city, while Ottoman arts ofceramics andcalligraphy also flourished. Manytekkes survive to this day; some in the form of mosques while others have become museums such as theCerrahi Tekke and theSünbül Efendi and Ramazan Efendi mosques andtürbes inFatih, the Galata Mevlevihanesi inBeyoğlu, the Yahya Efendi tekke inBeşiktaş, and theBektaşi Tekke in Kadıköy, which now servesAleviMuslims as acemevi.
In the final years of the Byzantine Empire, the population of Constantinople had fallen steadily, throwing the great imperial city into the shadow of its past glory. ForMehmed II, conquest was only the first stage; the second was giving the old city an entirely new cosmopolitan social structure. Most of what remained of the Byzantine population – a mere 30,000 persons – was deported. According to the Ashikpashazade, a Turkish chronicle,
Mehmed then sent officers to all his lands to announce that whoever wished should come and take possession in Constantinople, as freehold, of houses and orchards and gardens ... Despite this measure the city was not repopulated. So then the Sultan commanded that from every land families, rich and poor alike, should be brought in by force ... and now the city began to be populous.[43]
Mehmed took much personal interest in the creation of his new capital. On his orders, the great mosque and the college of Fatih were built on the old burial grounds of the Byzantine Emperors at theChurch of the Holy Apostles. Bit by bit the great Christian city was transformed into a great Muslim city. Even so, the city was not to be entirely Muslim, at least not until the late 20th century.Slavs,Greeks,Jews, andArmenians, all of whose diverse skills were needed, were allowed to settle in a city which was to become known asalem penah-refuge of the universe. According to the census of 1477, there were 9,486 houses occupied by Muslims; 3,743 by Greeks; 1,647 by Jews; 267 by Christians from the Crimea, and 31 Gypsies. Mehmet also re-established Constantinople, as it was still called at that time, as the center of the Orthodox patriarchate.
There was also an Italian community in the area of theGalata Tower. Having surrendered before the fall of the city, Mehmed allowed them to preserve an element of self-government. For generations after, they supplied interpreters and diplomats for the Ottoman Court. After theconquest of Egypt in 1517, and the Sultan's acceptance of the position ofCaliph, Constantinople acquired additional importance in Muslim eyes. Mosques built bySultan Suleiman I and his successors gave the city the unique appearance it still preserves today. The individual communities, though, still lived in self-contained areas.
A 16th century Chinese geographical treatise described Constantinople/Istanbul as follows:
Its city has two walls. A sovereign prince lives in the city. There are Muslims wearing headwraps and Han-Chinese. There are translators. People cultivated dry fields. It has no products.[44]
The statement that there were translators suggests it was a multilingual, multicultural, cosmopolitan city. Although the claim that there were "Han-Chinese" is dubious.[44]
Until the eighteenth century, living standards were at least equal to most of Europe. For example, the development of urban craftsmen's wages was on a level similar to southern and central Europe during the sixteenth to eighteenth century.[45]
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"Foundation" iswaqf (vakıf) inTurkish. TheGrand Bazaar (1455) andTopkapı Palace (1459) were erected in the years following theTurkish conquest. Religious foundations were endowed to fund the building of mosques such as theFatih (1463) and their associatedschools andpublic baths. The city had to be repopulated by a mixture of force and encouragement.
Süleyman's reign was a time of greatartistic andarchitectural achievements. The architect Sinan designed many mosques and other greatbuildings in the city, while Ottoman arts ofceramics andcalligraphy also flourished.
Sufi orders which were so widespread in theIslamic world and who had many followers who had actively participated in the conquest of the city came to settle in the capital. DuringOttoman times over 100Tekkes were active in the city alone. Many of these Tekkes survive to this day some in the form of mosques while others as museums such as theJerrahi Tekke inFatih, theSunbul Effendi and Ramazan EffendiMosque andTurbes also inFatih, the Galata Mevlevihane inBeyoğlu, the Yahya Effendi Tekke inBeşiktaş, and theBektashi Tekke inKadıköy, which now servesAleviMuslims as aCem Evi.
As the years passed the population increased, from about 80,000 at the death of Mehmet, to 300,000 by the 18th century, and 400,000 in 1800. The capital of an empire that stretched across Europe, Asia, and Africa, it also became an important diplomatic centre, with several foreign embassies. It was only after 1922, following thewar between Greece and Turkey that things began to change.[citation needed]
The city was modernized from the 1870s onwards with the building of bridges, the creation of a proper water system, the use of electric lights, and the introduction oftrams andtelephones.
In 1915, after theOttoman entry into World War I on the side of theCentral Powers, theAllies led by First Lord of the AdmiraltyWinston Churchill's Royal Navy attempted an operation to capture Constantinople. It failed after theOttoman Army repulsed theBritish Army andANZAC landing force in theGallipoli campaign.[46] After theFirst World War, theArmistice of Mudros and theTreaty of Sèvres decreed that Constantinople would be occupied by Allied Forces. On 13 November 1918, theOccupation of Constantinople by Allied forces began, ending on 4 October 1923 with theTreaty of Lausanne.[47]
When theRepublic of Turkey was founded underMustafa Kemal Atatürk (then known as Mustafa KemalPasha) on 29 October 1923 during theTurkish War of Independence, the capital was moved from Constantinople to Angora, which becameAnkara in English.As a consequence, the population collapsed, from an estimated 1,125,000 in 1914 to about 500,000 in 1924; but the population steadily grew during the later 20th century, the metropolitan population surpassing 10 million in the year 2000.
The city's current nameİstanbul is a shortened version with aTurkish character of theMedieval Greek phrase "εἰς τὴν Πόλιν" [is tin ˈpolin], meaning "to the city", which had long been in vernacular use by the local population. The international nameConstantinople also remained in use until Turkey adopted theLatin alphabet in 1928 and urged other countries to use the city's Turkish name in their languages and their postal service networks.[citation needed] In 1929Lloyd's agents were informed that telegrams now must be addressed to "Istanbul" or "Stamboul", butThe Times stated that mail could still be delivered to "Constantinople".[48] However,The New York Times stated that year that mail to "Constantinople" may no longer be delivered.[49] In 1929Turkish Nationalists advocated for the usage of Istanbul in English instead of Constantinople.[50] TheU.S. State Department began using "Istanbul" in May 1930.[51]
With the establishment of the new Turkish Republic, built on a wave of nationalism, there was a mass exodus of much of the Greek and Armenian population from Istanbul, which had ceased to be the capital. After thepogrom of 1955, the remaining fraction also departed.
In the early years of the republic, Istanbul was overlooked in favour of Ankara, the new capital. However, starting from the late 1940s and early 1950s, Istanbul underwent a great structural change, as new public squares (such asTaksim Square), boulevards and avenues were constructed throughout the city; sometimes at the expense of the demolition of many historical buildings.
In September 1955, manyethnic Greek businesses were destroyed during theIstanbul pogrom. This accelerated thedeparture of Greeks from the city and Turkey. Jews, Armenians, andGeorgians were also targeted.
Starting from the 1970s, the population of Istanbul began to rapidly increase, as people fromAnatolia migrated to the city to find employment in the many new factories that were constructed at the outskirts of the sprawling metropolis. This sudden sharp rise in the city's population caused a large demand for housing development, and many previously outlying villages and forests became engulfed into the greater metropolitan area of Istanbul.
In March 1995, twenty-three people were killed and hundreds were injured in the incidents calledGazi Massacre. The events began with an armed attack on several coffee shops in the neighborhood, where anAlevi religious leader was killed. Protests occurred both inGazi andÜmraniye district on the Asian side of İstanbul. Police responded with gunfire.[52]
Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, laterPrime Minister of Turkey andPresident of Turkey, served asmayor of Istanbul from 1994 to 1998.[53]
In 2013,Taksim Square was the center of theGezi Park protests, where protesters protested a wide range of concerns at the core of which were issues of freedom of the press, of expression, assembly, and the government's encroachment onTurkey's secularism.[54]
In January 2016, a suicide bombattack onSultanahmet Square, near the famousBlue Mosque, killed 10 people, all of them German tourists.[55]
In July 2016, theTurkish coup d'état attempt took place. A number of rogue government units took over and were only repelled after a few hours. The troops that had taken part in the coup attempt surrendered on theBosphorus Bridge in Istanbul.[56]
In December 2016, a twin bombattack on police officers outside the football stadium of top-division teamBesiktas killed 38 people and injured many more.[57]
On 20 December 2016, the first road tunnel linking Europe and Asia was opened. Construction of the tunnel took over five years. A 5.4 kilometre (3.3 mile) section of theEurasia Tunnel runs under theBosphorus in Istanbul.[58]
On 1 January 2017, 39 people were killed in the New Year's Eveattack on an exclusive nightclub in Istanbul. Later a member of theIslamic State group was arrested.[59]
In June 2019, the main Turkish opposition party won the rerun of Istanbul’smayoral election, meaningRepublican People’s Party (CHP) candidateEkrem Imamoglu became newMayor of Istanbul.[60]
Istanbul’s new airport opened in October 2018, but commenced passenger services in April 2019, and cargo services in February 2022. The newIstanbul Airport replaced the oldAtatürk Airport.[61] The new Istanbul airport is one of the biggest airports in the world in terms of passenger traffic.[62][63]
In November 2022, astreet bombing in Istanbul's livelyIstiklal Avenue killed six people and wounded over 80. Turkish authorities blamed the outlawedKurdistan Workers' Party (PKK) as well asSyrian Kurdish militia (YPG). The PKK denied any involvement.[64]
As of August 2023, there are more than 530 000refugees of the Syrian civil war in Istanbul, the highest number of Syrian refugees in any Turkish city.[65]
In March 2025, hundreds of thousands of pro-democracydemonstrators gathered in the streets of Istanbul to show support for city's mayor Ekrem Imamoglu, the main rival of Turkey's President Recep Tayyip Erdogan. Imamoglu was arrested on corruption charges, which were seen as politically motivated by his supporters.[66]
On leaving the Dardanelles we come to the Bay of Casthenes, ... and the promontory of the Golden Horn, on which is the town of Byzantium, a free state, formerly called Lygos; it is 711 miles from Durazzo,...
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