The name derives from theOld EnglishNorþanhymbre meaning "the people or province north of the Humber",[7] as opposed to thepeople south of theHumber Estuary. What was to become Northumbria started as two kingdoms,Deira in the south andBernicia in the north. Conflict in the first half of the seventh century ended with the murder of the last king of Deira in 651, and Northumbria was thereafter unified under Bernician kings.
TheAnglo-Saxon kingdom of Northumbria was originally two kingdoms divided approximately around theRiver Tees:Bernicia was to the north of the river andDeira to the south.[8] It is possible that both regions originated as nativeCeltic British kingdoms, which theGermanic settlers later conquered, although there is very little information about the infrastructure and culture of the British kingdoms themselves.[9] Much of the evidence for them comes from regional names that are British rather than Anglo-Saxon in origin. The names Deira and Bernicia are likely British in origin, for example, indicating that some British place names retained currency after the Anglo-Saxon migrations to Northumbria.[a] There is also some archeological evidence to support British origins for the polities of Bernicia and Deira. In what would have been southern Bernicia, in theCheviot Hills, a hill fort atYeavering Bell contains evidence that it was an important centre for first the British and later the Anglo-Saxons. The fort is originally pre-Roman, dating back to theIron Age at around the first century. In addition to signs of Roman occupation, the site contains evidence of timber buildings that pre-date Germanic settlement in the area that are probably signs of British settlement. Moreover, Brian Hope-Taylor has traced the origins of the name Yeavering, which looks deceptively English, back to the British gafr from Bede's mention of a township called Gefrin in the same area.[13][14] Yeavering continued to be an important political centre after the Anglo-Saxons began settling in the north, as KingEdwin had a royal palace at Yeavering.[15]
Overall, English place-names dominate the Northumbrian landscape, suggesting the prevalence of an Anglo-Saxon elite culture by the time that Bede – Anglo-Saxon England's most prominent historian – was writing in the eighth century.[16][17] According to Bede, theAngles were the predominant Germanic immigrants, who settled north of the Humber and gained political prominence during this period.[18] While the British natives may have partially assimilated into the Northumbrian political structure, relatively contemporary textual sources such as Bede'sEcclesiastical History of the English People depict relations between Northumbrians and theBritish as fraught.[19]
The Anglo-Saxon states of Bernicia and Deira were often in conflict before their eventual semi-permanent unification in 651. Political power in Deira was concentrated in the East Riding ofYorkshire, which includedYork, the North York Moors, and the Vale of York.[20] The political heartlands of Bernicia were the areas around Bamburgh andLindisfarne,Monkwearmouth andJarrow, and inCumbria, west of thePennines in the area aroundCarlisle.[21] The name that these two states eventually united under, Northumbria, might have been coined by Bede and made popular through hisEcclesiastical History of the English People.[22]
Information on the early royal genealogies for Bernicia and Deira comes from Bede'sEcclesiastical History of the English People and Nennius'Historia Brittonum. According to Nennius, the Bernician royal line begins withIda, son ofEoppa.[23] Ida reigned for twelve years (beginning in 547) and was able to annex Bamburgh to Bernicia.[24] In Nennius' genealogy of Deira, a king named Soemil was the first to separate Bernicia and Deira, which could mean that he wrested the kingdom of Deira from the native British.[25] The date of this supposed separation is unknown. The first Deiran king to make an appearance in Bede'sHistoria Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum isÆlla, the father of the first Christian Northumbrian kingEdwin.[26]
A king of Bernicia, Ida's grandsonÆthelfrith, was the first ruler to unite the two polities under his rule. He exiled the Deiran Edwin to the court of KingRædwald of East Anglia in order to claim both kingdoms, but Edwin returned in approximately 616 to conquer Northumbria with Rædwald's aid.[27][28] Edwin, who ruled from approximately 616 to 633, was one of the last kings of the Deiran line to reign over all of Northumbria. Oswald's brotherOswiu eventually succeeded him to the Northumbrian throne despite initial attempts on Deira's part to pull away again.[28] The last independent king of Deira wasOswine. He was murdered by Oswiu in 651, and Northumbria was thereafter united under Bernician rule.[29]
While violent conflicts between Bernicia and Deira played a significant part in determining which line ultimately gained supremacy in Northumbria, marriage alliances also helped bind these two territories together.Æthelfrith married Edwin's sisterAcha, although this marriage did little to prevent future squabbles between the brothers-in-law and their descendants. The second intermarriage was more successful, withOswiu marryingEdwin's daughter and his own cousinEanflæd to produceEcgfrith, the beginning of the Northumbrian line. However, Oswiu had another relationship with an Irish woman named Fina which produced the problematic Aldfrith.[28] In hisLife and Miracles of St.Cuthbert, Bede declares that Aldfrith, known as Fland among the Irish, was illegitimate and therefore unfit to rule.[30]
England in 878. The independent rump of the former Kingdom of Northumbria (yellow) was to the north of the Danelaw (pink).
TheViking invasions of the ninth century and the establishment of theDanelaw once again divided Northumbria. Although primarily recorded in the southern provinces ofEngland, theAnglo-Saxon Chronicles (particularly the D and E recensions) provide some information on Northumbria's conflicts withVikings in the late eighth and early ninth centuries. According to these chronicles, Viking raids began to affect Northumbria when a band attacked Lindisfarne in 793.[31] After this initial catastrophic blow, Viking raids in Northumbria were either sporadic for much of the early ninth century or evidence of them was lost.[32] However, in 865 the so-calledGreat Heathen Army landed inEast Anglia and began a sustained campaign of conquest.[33][34] The Great Army fought in Northumbria in 866–867, strikingYork twice in less than one year. After the initial attack the Norse left to go north, leaving Kings Ælle and Osberht to recapture the city. The E recension of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle suggests that Northumbria was particularly vulnerable at this time because the Northumbrians were once again fighting amongst themselves, deposing Osberht in favour of Ælle.[35] In the second raid, the Vikings killed Kings Ælle and Osberht whilst recapturing the city.[33]
After KingAlfred re-established his control of southern England, the Norse invaders settled into what came to be known as the Danelaw in theMidlands,East Anglia, and the southern part of Northumbria.[33] In Northumbria, the Norse established theKingdom of York whose boundaries were roughly the River Tees and the Humber, giving it approximately the same dimensions as Deira.[36] Although this kingdom fell toHiberno-Norse colonisers in the 920s and was in constant conflict with the West-Saxon expansionists from the south, it survived until 954 when the last Scandinavian king Eric, who is usually identified asEric Bloodaxe, was driven out and eventually killed.[37][38][39]
In contrast, the Great Army was not as successful in conquering territory north of the River Tees. There were raids that extended into that area, but no sources mention lasting Norse occupation and there are very fewScandinavian place names to indicate significant Norse settlement in northern regions of Northumbria.[40] The political landscape of the area north of the Tees during the Viking conquest of Northumbria consisted of the Community ofSt. Cuthbert and the remnants of the English Northumbrian elites.[41] While the religious Community of St. Cuthbert "wandered" for a hundred years afterHalfdan Ragnarsson attacked their original home of Lindisfarne in 875, TheHistory of St. Cuthbert indicates that they settled temporarily atChester-le-Street between the years 875–883 on land granted to them by the Viking King of York,Guthred.[42][43] According to the twelfth-century accountHistoria Regum, Guthred granted them this land in exchange for establishing him as king. The land extended from the Tees to the Tyne and anyone who fled there from either the north or the south would receive sanctuary for thirty-seven days, indicating that the Community of St. Cuthbert had some juridical autonomy. Based on their positioning and this right of sanctuary, this community probably acted as a buffer between the Norse in southern Northumbria and the Anglo-Saxons who continued to hold the north.[44][45]
North of theTyne, Northumbrians maintained partial political control in Bamburgh. The rule of kings continued in that area withEcgberht I acting as regent around 867 and the kingsRicsige andEcgberht II immediately following him.[46] According to twelfth-century historianSymeon of Durham, Ecgberht I was a client-king for the Norse. The Northumbrians revolted against him in 872, deposing him in favour of Ricsige.[47] Although the A and E recensions of theAnglo-Saxon Chronicle report that Halfdan was able to take control of Deira and take a raiding party north of the River Tyne to impose his rule on Bernicia in 874, after Halfdan's death (c. 877) the Norse had difficulty holding on to territory in northern Bernicia.[48][49] Ricsige and his successor Ecgberht were able to maintain an English presence in Northumbria. After the reign of Ecgberht II,Eadwulf "King of the North Saxons" (r. 890–912) succeeded him for control of Bamburgh, but after Eadwulf's death rulership of this area switched over to earls who were possible kinsmen or direct descendants of the royal Northumbrian house.[50]
Æthelfrith was the first Anglo-Saxon leader to hold the thrones of bothDeira andBernicia,[51] and so he ruled over all the people north of theHumber. His rule was notable for his numerous victories over theBritons and theGaels.[52]
Edwin, like Æthelfrith, was king of both Deira and Bernicia and ruled them from 616 to 633. Under his reign, theIsle of Man and the lands ofGwynedd in Northern Wales were incorporated into Northumbria. Edwin marriedÆthelburh, a Christian Princess fromKent in 625. He converted to Christianity two years later after a period of heavy consideration and after consulting numerous advisors.[53] Edwin fell in battle in 633 againstCadwallon of Gwynedd and the paganPenda of Mercia.[54] He was venerated as a saint and martyr after his death.[55]
Oswald was a king of Bernicia, who regained the kingdom of Deira after defeatingCadwallon in 634. Oswald then ruled Northumbria until his death in 642. A devout Christian, Oswald worked tirelessly to spread the faith in his traditionally pagan lands. It was during his reign that the monastery atLindisfarne was created. Oswald fell in the Battle ofMaserfield againstPenda of Mercia in 642 but his influence endured because, like Edwin, Oswald was venerated as a saint after his death.[56]
Oswiu was the brother of Oswald and succeeded him after the latter's defeat inMaserfield. Oswiu succeeded where Edwin and Oswald failed as, in 655, he slew Penda during theBattle of the Winwaed, making him the first Northumbrian King also to control the kingdom ofMercia.[57] During his reign, he presided over theSynod of Whitby, an attempt to reconcile religious differences between Roman and Celtic Christianity, in which he eventually backed Rome.[58] Oswiu died from illness in 670 and divided Deira and Bernicia between two of his sons.[59] His sonAldfrith of Northumbria took over the throne upon his death.
Eadberht of Northumbria, the brother ofEcgbert,Archbishop of York, is seen by some historians as a return to the imperial ambitions of seventh-century Northumbria and his reign may represent a period of economic prosperity. He faced internal opposition from rival dynasties and at least two actual or potential rivals were killed during his reign. In 758 he abdicated in favour of his sonOswulf and became a monk at York. Oswulf was murdered the next year andÆthelwald Moll of Northumbria seized the throne, which he occupied for seven years until he was deposed byAlhred.Æthelred I of Northumbria, son of Æthelwald, reigned for 10 interrupted years to 796.
Halfdan Ragnarsson was a Viking leader of the Great Heathen Army which invaded England in 865.[60] He allegedly wanted revenge against Northumbria for the death of his father, who was supposedly killed byÆlla of Northumbria.[61] While he himself only ruled Northumbria directly for about a year in 876, he placedEcgberht on the throne as a client-king, who ruled from 867 to 872.[62] Halfdan was killed in Ireland in 877 whilst trying to regain control overDyflin (Dublin), a land he had ruled since 875. There were no further Viking kings in Northumbria untilGuthfrith took over in 883.[63]
Æthelstan ruled asKing of the Anglo-Saxons from 924 to 927 andKing of the English from 927 to 939. The shift in his title reflects that in 927, Æthelstan conquered the Viking Kingdom ofYork, previously part of the Northumbrian Kingdom.[64] His reign was quite prosperous and saw great strides in many fields such as law and economics, but was also characterized by frequent clashes with theScots and the Vikings.[64] Æthelstan died in 939, which led to the Vikings' retaking of York. Æthelstan is widely considered one of the greatest Anglo-Saxon kings for his efforts to consolidate the English kingdom and the prosperity his reign brought.[65]
In the early twentieth century, historians identified Eric of York with the Norwegian king Eric Bloodaxe, although more recent scholarship has challenged this association.[citation needed] He held two short terms as King of Northumbria, from 947 to 948 and 952 to 954.[b] Historical documentation on his reign is scarce, but it seems Eric pushed out the joint English-Viking rulers of Northumbria in 947,[66] who then regained the land in 948 or 949. Eric took back the throne in 952, only to be deposed again in 954.[67] Eric was the last Viking king of Northumbria and his authority only extended to the southernkingdom of York. In 954 he was murdered, allegedly with the connivance ofOswulf, the Anglo-Saxon ruler of the northern Northumbrian territory of Bamburgh.[68]
King Eadred was the half-brother ofÆthelstan and full brother ofEdmund, all of whom were sons of KingEdward the Elder. Eadred inherited the rule of Northumbria, but like Edmund lost it soon afterwards. When Eadred finally regained control in 954, he appointed Oswulf earl of the whole of Northumbria.[69]
Between 737 and 806, Northumbria had ten kings,[70] all of whom were murdered, deposed, or exiled or became monks. BetweenOswiu, the first king of Northumbria in 651, andEric Bloodaxe, the last king of Northumbria in 954, there were forty-five kings, meaning that the average length of reign during the entire history of Northumbria is only six and a half years. Of the twenty-five kings before the Danish rule of Northumbria, only four died of natural causes. Of those that did not abdicate for a holy life, the rest were either deposed, exiled, or murdered. Kings during the Danish rule of Northumbria (seeDanelaw) were often either kings of a larger North Sea or Danish empire, or were installed rulers.[71]
Succession in Northumbria was hereditary,[72] which left princes whose fathers died before they could come of age particularly susceptible to assassination and usurpation. A noteworthy example of this phenomenon is Osred, whose father Aldfrith died in 705, leaving the young boy to rule. He survived one assassination attempt early in his rule, but fell victim to another assassin at the age of nineteen. During his reign he was adopted by Wilfrid, a powerful bishop.[73] Ecclesiastical influence in the royal court was not an unusual phenomenon in Northumbria, and usually was most visible during the rule of a young or inexperienced king. Similarly, ealdorman, or royal advisors, had periods of increased or decreased power in Northumbria, depending on who was ruling at the time.[74]
Warfare in Northumbria before the Danish period largely consisted of rivalries with thePicts to the north. The Northumbrians were successful against the Picts until theBattle of Dun Nechtain in 685, which halted their expansion north and established a border between the two kingdoms.[75] Warfare during the Danish period was dominated by warfare between the Northumbrians and other English Kingdoms.
After the English from Wessex absorbed the Danish-ruled territories south of the Tees, Scots invasions reduced the rump Northumbria to an earldom stretching from the Tyne to the Tweed. The surviving Earldom of Northumbria, alongside theHaliwerfolk between the Tyne and Tees, were then disputed between the emerging kingdoms ofEngland andScotland, with the Earldom being split roughly in half along theRiver Tweed.
UnderRoman rule, someBritons north of theHumber practised Christianity. York had abishop as early as the fourth century.[76] After theRomans left Britain in the early fifth century, Christianity did not disappear,[77] but it existed alongside Celtic paganism,[78] and possibly many other cults.[79] Anglo-Saxons brought their own Germanic pagan beliefs and practices when they settled there. AtYeavering, inBernicia, excavations have uncovered evidence of a pagan shrine, animal sacrifice, and ritual burials.[80]
The first King of Northumbria to convert to Christianity wasKing Edwin. He was baptized byPaulinus in 627.[81] Shortly thereafter, many of his people followed his conversion to the new religion, only to return to paganism when Edwin was killed in 633. Paulinus wasBishop of York, but only for a year.[82]
The lasting conversion of Northumbria took place under the guidance of the Irish clericAidan. He convertedKing Oswald of Northumbria in 635, and then worked to convert the people of Northumbria.[83] King Oswald moved the bishopric from York toLindisfarne.[82]
The monastery atLindisfarne was founded by Aidan in 635, and based on the practices of the Columban monastery in Iona, Scotland.[84] The location of the bishopric shifted to Lindisfarne, and it became the centre for religion in Northumbria. The bishopric would not leave Lindisfarne and shift back to its original location at York until 664.[82] Throughout the eighth century, Lindisfarne was associated with important figures. Aidan, the founder,Wilfrid, a student, andCuthbert, a member of the order and a hermit, all became bishops and later Saints. Aidan assistedHieu to found her double monastery atHartlepool.[85] She too came to be venerated as a saint.[86]
The Christianity culture of Northumbria was influenced by the continent as well asIreland. In particular, Wilfrid travelled toRome and abandoned the traditions of theCeltic church in favour of Roman practices. When he returned toEngland, he became abbot of a new monastery atRipon in 660. Wilfrid advocated acceptance of the authority of Rome at theSynod of Whitby. The two-halves of the double monasteryMonkwearmouth–Jarrow were founded by the noblemanBenedict Biscop in 673 and 681. Biscop became the first abbot of the monastery, and travelled to Rome six times to buy books for the library.[87] His successor, AbbotCeolfrith, continued to add to the library until by one estimate the library at Monkwearmouth–Jarrow had over two hundred volumes.[87] One who benefited from this library was Bede.[88]
In the early seventh century in York,Paulinus founded a school and a minster but not a monastery. The School at York Minster is one of the oldest in England.[89] By the late eighth century, the school had a noteworthy library, estimated at one hundred volumes.[90]Alcuin was a student and teacher at York before he left for the court ofCharlemagne in 782.[91]
In 664, KingOswiu called the Synod of Whitby to determine whether to follow Roman or Irish customs. Since Northumbria was converted to Christianity by the Celtic clergy, the Celtic tradition for determining the date ofEaster and Irish tonsure were supported by many, particularly by the Abbey ofLindisfarne. Roman Christianity was also represented in Northumbria, byWilfrid, Abbot ofRipon. By the year 620, both sides were associating the other's Easter observance with the Pelagian Heresy.[92] The King decided at Whitby that Roman practice would be adopted throughout Northumbria, thereby bringing Northumbria in line with Southern England and Western Europe.[93] Members of the clergy who refused to conform, including the Celtic Bishop Colman of Lindisfarne, returned to Iona.[93] The episcopal seat of Northumbria transferred from Lindisfarne to York, which later became anarchbishopric in 735.[94]
Impact of Scandinavian raiding, settlement and culture
TheViking attack on Lindisfarne in 793 was the first of many raids on monasteries of Northumbria. TheLindisfarne Gospels survived, but monastic culture in Northumbria went into a period of decline in the early ninth century. Repeated Viking assaults on religious centres were one reason for the decrease in production of manuscripts and communal monastic culture.[95]
After 867, Northumbria came under control of the Scandinavian forces, and there was an influx of Scandinavian immigrants.[96] Their religion was pagan and had a rich mythology. Within the Kingdom of York, once the raids and war were over, there is no evidence that the presence of Scandinavian settlers interrupted Christian practice. It appears that they gradually adopted Christianity and blended their Scandinavian culture with their new religion. This can be seen in carved stone monuments and ring-headed crosses, such as theGosforth Cross.[97] During the ninth and tenth centuries, there was an increase in the number ofparish churches, often including stone sculptures incorporating Scandinavian designs.[94]
The Irish monks brought with them an ancient Celtic decorative tradition of curvilinear forms of spirals, scrolls, and doubles curves. This style was integrated with the abstract ornamentation of the native pagan Anglo-Saxon metalwork tradition, characterized by its bright colouring andzoomorphic interlace patterns.[100]
Insular art, rich in symbolism and meaning, is characterized by its concern for geometric design rather than naturalistic representation, love of flat areas of colour, and use of complicated interlace patterns.[101] All of these elements appear in the Lindisfarne Gospels (early eighth century). The Insular style was eventually imported to the European continent, exercising great influence on the art of theCarolingian empire.[102]
Sword pommel from theBedale Hoard, inlaid with gold foil.
Usage of the Insular style was not limited to manuscript production and metalwork. It can be seen in and sculpture, such as theRuthwell Cross andBewcastle Cross. The devastatingViking raid on Lindisfarne in 793 marked the beginning of a century of Viking invasions that severely limited the production and survival of Anglo-Saxon material culture.[103] It heralded the end of Northumbria's position as a centre of influence, although in the years immediately following visually rich works like theEasby Cross were still being produced.
The VenerableBede (673–735) is the most famous author of the Anglo-Saxon Period, and a native of Northumbria. HisHistoria ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum (Ecclesiastical History of the English People, completed in 731) has become both a template for later historians and a crucial historical account in its own right,[104] and much of it focuses on Northumbria.[105][106] He's also famous for his theological works, and verse and prose accounts of holy lives.[107] After theSynod of Whitby, the role of the European continent gained importance in Northumbrian culture. During the end of the eighth century, the scriptorium atMonkwearmouth–Jarrow was producing manuscripts of his works for high demand on the Continent.[108]
Northumbria was also home to several Anglo-SaxonChristian poets.Cædmon lived at thedouble monastery of Streonæshalch (Whitby Abbey) during the abbacy (657–680) ofSt. Hilda (614–680). According to Bede, he "was wont to make religious verses, so that whatever was interpreted to him out ofscripture, he soon after put the same into poetical expressions of much sweetness and humility inEnglish, which was his native language. By his verse the minds of many were often excited to despise the world, and to aspire to heaven."[109] His sole surviving work isCædmon's Hymn.Cynewulf, prolific author ofThe Fates of the Apostles,Juliana,Elene, andChrist II, is believed to have been either Northumbrian orMercian.[110][111]
From around 800, there had been waves of Danish raids on the coastlines of the British Isles.[34] These raids terrorized the populace, but exposure to Danish society brought new opportunities for wealth and trade.[112] In 865, instead of raiding, the Danes landed a large army in East Anglia, and had conquered a territory known as theDanelaw, including Northumbria, by 867.[34][113] At first, theScandinavian minority, while politically powerful, remained culturally distinct from the English populace. For example, only a few Scandinavian words, mostly military and technical, became part ofOld English. By the early 900s, however, Scandinavian-style names for both people and places became increasingly popular, as did Scandinavian ornamentation on works of art, featuring aspects of Norse mythology, and figures of animals and warriors. Nevertheless, sporadic references to "Danes" in charters, chronicles, and laws indicate that during the lifetime of the Kingdom of Northumbria, most inhabitants of northeast England did not consider themselves Danish, and were not perceived as such by other Anglo-Saxons.[114]
The synthesis of Anglo-Saxon and Scandinavian and Christian and Paganvisual motifs within the Danelaw can be illustrated by an examination of stone sculpture. However, the tradition of mixing pagan and Christian motifs is not unique to the Danelaw, and examples of such synthesis can be seen in previous examples, such as the Franks Casket. TheFranks Casket, believed to have been produced in Northumbria, includes depictions of Germanic legends and stories of the founding Roman and the Roman Church and is dated to the early eighth century.[115] The Gosforth Cross, dated to the early tenth century, stands at 14 feet (4.4 m) and is richly decorated with carvings of mythical beasts, Norse gods, and Christian symbolism.[116] Stone sculpture was not a practice of native Scandinavian culture, and the proliferation of stone monuments within the Danelaw shows the influence that the English had on Viking settlers. On one side of the Gosforth Cross is a depiction of the Crucifixion; whilst on the other are scenes from Ragnarok. The melding of these distinctive religious cultures can further be seen in the depiction of Mary Magdalene as a valkyrie, with a trailing dress and long pigtail.[117] Although one can read the iconography as the triumph of Christianity over paganism, it is possible that in the process of gradual conversion the Vikings might have initially accepted the Christian god as an addition to the broad pantheon of pagan gods.[118] The inclusion of pagan traditions in visual culture reflects the creation of a distinctiveAnglo-Scandinavian culture. Consequently, this indicates that conversion not only required a change in belief, but also necessitated its assimilation, integration, and modification into existing cultural structures.[119]
Silver sceatta of Aldfrith of Northumbria (686–705). OBVERSE: +AldFRIdUS, pellet-in-annulet; REVERSE: Lion with forked tail standing left.
Northumbria's economy centred around agriculture, with livestock and land being popular units of value in local trade.[120] By the mid 800s, theOpen field system was likely the pre-eminent mode of farming. Like much of eastern England, Northumbria exported grain, silver, hides, and slaves.[121] Imports from Frankia included oil, luxury goods, and clerical supplies in the 700s.[122][123][124] Especially after 793, raids, gifts, and trade with Scandinavians resulted in substantial economic ties across theNorth Sea.
Copper alloy styca of King Osberht (YORYM 2001 3265) obverse
Whencoinage (as opposed to bartering) regained popularity in the late 600s, Northumbrian coins featured kings' names, indicating royal control of currency. Royal currency was unique in Britain for a long time.King Aldfrith (685–705) minted Northumbria's earliest silver coins, likely in York. Later royal coinage bears the name ofKing Eadberht (738–758), as well as his brother, ArchbishopEcgbert of York.[125] These coins were primarily small silversceattas, more suitable to small, everyday transactions than larger gold Frankish or Roman coins.[126] During the reign ofKing Eanred the silver content of the coins declined until they were produced in copper alloy, these coins are commonly known asstycas, but the term is an antiquarian invention.[127] Stycas remains in use throughout the kingdom until at least the 860s and possibly later.[128] Largerbullion values can be seen in the silver ingots found in theBedale Hoard, along with sword fittings and necklaces in gold and silver.[129]
In the time ofBede, there were five languages in Britain:English,British,Irish,Pictish, andLatin.[c][130]Northumbrian was one of four distinct dialects ofOld English, along withMercian,West Saxon, andKentish.[131] Analysis of written texts, brooches, runes and other available sources shows that Northumbrian vowel pronunciation differed from West Saxon.[132] Although loans borrowed from theCeltic Languages, such as theCommon Brittonic language of the Britons, and theOld Irish of theIrish missionaries, into Old English were few, some place-names such asDeira andBernicia derive their names from Celtic tribal origins.[133]In addition to the five languages present in Bede's day,Old Norse was added during the ninth century. This was due to the settlements of theNorse in the north and east of England, an area that became theDanelaw.[134] This language had a strong influence on the dialect of Northumbria.[135] These settlers gave the region many place-names from their language as well as contributing to the vocabulary, syntax, and grammar of Old English. Similarities in basic vocabulary between Old English and Old Norse may have led to the dropping of their different inflectional endings.[136] The number of borrowed words is conservatively estimated to be around nine-hundred instandard English but rises to the thousands in some dialects.[137]
^In addition to Bernicia and Deira, some other British place names are recorded for important Northumbrian locations. Northumbrian scholarBede (c. 731) and Welsh ninth-century chroniclerNennius both provide British place names for centres of power. Nennius, for example, refers to the royal city ofBamburgh as Din Guaire.[10][11][12][9]
^Although the Northumbrian king Eric was conflated with King Eric Bloodaxe of Norway in Icelandic sagas,Clare Downham and others have recently argued that the two were separate people. For a discussion of this shift in identification, see Downham, Clare 2004 "Eric Bloodaxe – Axed? The Mystery of the Last Scandinavian King of York",Medieval Scandinavia, vol. 14, pp. 51–77
^"At the present time, there are five languages in Britain, just as the divine law is written in five books, all devoted to seeking out and setting forth one and the same kind of wisdom, namely the knowledge of sublime truth and of true sublimity. These are the English, British, Irish, Pictish, as well as the Latin languages".
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Arnold, Thomas, ed. (1885).Historia Regum (Anglorum et Dacorum). Symeonis Monachi Opera Omnia. Vol. 2. Translated by Stevenson, J. London. pp. 1–283.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
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