InGreek mythology andancient religion,Nike (Ancient Greek:Νίκη,lit. 'Victory') is the personification of the abstract concept of victory. She was thegoddess of victory in battle, as well as in other kinds of contests. According toHesiod'sTheogony, she is the daughter ofStyx and theTitanPallas, and the sister of similar personifications:Zelus,Kratos, andBia (i.e. Rivalry, Strength, and Force).
What little mythology she had involved her close association with the godsZeus andAthena. She was one of the first gods to support Zeus in his overthrow of theTitans, and because of this Zeus always kept Nike with him. Nonnus makes her the attendant of Athena, and gives her a role in Zeus' victory overTyphon. In Athens, she was particularly associated with Athena, and the cult of Athena Nike. In art Nike is typically portrayed as winged and moving at great speed. Her Roman equivalent is the goddessVictoria.[2]
Stone carving of the goddess Nike at the ruins of the ancient city ofEphesus.
The name derives from the Greek nounνίκηníkē meaning "victory", "upper hand [in battle or contest]". The word is of uncertain origin,[3] probably related toAncient Greek:νεῖκοςneîkos "strife" and the verbνεῖκεινneîkein "to quarrel"; ultimately also of uncertain, possiblypre-Greek, etymology.[4]R. S. P. Beekes finds the word unrelated toProto-Indo-European*ni-h₃kʷo- and sees no strong evidence for the proposed relation withνεῖκος and the Lithuanianap-ni̇̀kti "to attack".[3] In theDoric Greek dialect, the name was alternatively spelled asΝίκαNíka. The word gave several compounds in Ancient Greek, including the nameΝικηφόροςNikephoros "carrying away victory" and, through the verbνικάωnikáo "to win", it gave theepithetνικάτωρnikator "victor".[3]
Hesiod, in hisTheogony, has Nike as the daughter ofStyx and theTitanPallas, and the sister ofZelus,Kratos, andBia.[5] In one of theHomeric Hymns,Ares the god of war is said to be the "father of warlike Victory [Nike]".[6] According toDionysius of Halicarnassus, the Arcadians had a legend that Nike was the daughter ofPallas (the son of their legendary kingLycaon), to whom Zeus gave Athena when she was born to be raised by him, and so was Athena's foster-sister.[7] Or like Athena, Nike could be thought of as the daughter of Zeus himself.[8]
Nike had little to no independent mythology.[9] She was closely associated with both Zeus and Athena, and can appear as a constant companion or attribute of either god.[10] In her earliest mention, by Hesiod, Nike is said to have received honors from Zeus for her support of Zeus in his overthrow of theTitans, but no details are given. Following Hesiod, Nike's next several mentions occur, not in connection with military victory, but rather in the granting of victory in other kinds of contests (agones), including athletic or theatrical competitions. The fifth-century AD Greek poetNonnus gave Nike a minor role in Zeus' battle withTyphon.
The first mention of Nike occurs in theTheogony ofHesiod (c. 730–700 BC).[11] According to Hesiod's account, in preparation for theTitanomachy, the Olympians' war against the Titans, Zeus called all the gods toMount Olympus to determine their allegiance. He declared that any god that chose to align with him againstCronus would receive his honor and favor. The first to do so was Styx, who brought Zeus her children: Nike, the personification of victory, and her brothersZelus,Kratos, andBia, the personifications of glory, power and strength. Nike and her brothers all represented qualities which would be invaluable to Zeus in the coming war. As a result Zeus forever honored Nike and her brothers keeping them always with him.[12] And as such, the qualities represented by Nike and her brothers would become attributes of Zeus himself.[13]
Nike holding a helmet and a shield with a snake, possibly theAegis, 5th century BC
In Nonnos'Dionysiaca, Nike comes to aid Zeus in his battle against the many snake-headed giantTyphon, who has stolen Zeus' weapons the thunderbolts and begun a concerted attack on the heavens and the seas.[14] When Thyphon discovers that Zeus has, through trickery, retrieved his thunderbolts, Typhon renews his attack, laying waste to the earth.[15] The day ends with Typhon unchallenged, while Zeus waits through the night for the approaching dawn.[16]
Nike, in the form ofLeto, finds Zeus alone waiting in the dark and reproaches him saying:[17]
Lord Zeus! stand up as champion of your own children! Let me never see Athena mingled with Typhon, she who knows not the way of a man with a maid! Make not a mother of the unmothered! Fight, brandish your lightning, the fiery spear of Olympos! Gather once more your clouds, lord of the rain! For the foundations of the steadfast universe are already shaking under Typhon's hands ...![18]]
— Nonnus'Dionysiaca, translation by W. H. D. Rouse
Nike expresses here her particular concerns (as her attendant) for Athena, the motherless maiden daughter of Zeus. She goes on to tell Zeus that many gods have already given up and fled the battle including Ares,Hermes,Apollo,Aphrodite, andHephaestus. She also reminds Zeus of the terrible consequences if Typhon were to win, mentioning again the rape and enslavement of Athena, as well as that of Zeus' other maiden daughterArtemis.[19]
When in the morning Typhon again issued his challenge, Zeus gathered the clouds around himself for armor and answered the monster's threats. Nike leads Zeus into battle, asEris (Strife) leads Typhon.[20] During the fighting, Nike "lifted her shield and held it before Zeus", while Zeus, armed with "hisaegis-breastplate", attacked with his thunderbolts. After a long and cataclysmic battle, Zeus is able to defeat the monster and claim victory.[21] As the victorious Zeus rides off the battlefield in his golden chariot, Nike is "by his side" driving "her father's team with the heavenly whip".[22]
In Hesiod'sTheogony, this battle is described differently. There is no indication of Zeus being hesitant or fearful and Nike makes no appearance to encourage or aid Zeus in his battle with Typhon.[23]
Nike is next encountered several times in the early fifth-century BCGreek lyric poetry ofBacchylides andPindar.[24] Bacchylides describes Nike as the "giver of sweet gifts", and standing next to Zeus judging "the achievement of excellence (arete)" for both gods and men.[25] For both these poets, Nike is the giver of victory in athletic contests.[26] Pindar has the victorious athlete collapse "into Victory's arms"[27] or fall "on the knees of golden Victory".[28] While Bacchylides has athletes winning honor and fame "by the will of Victory",[29] or by "glory-bringing Victory".[30]
Nike, invoked together with Zeus, could also occur in the context of war and battle.[31] The first mention of this is by mid-fifth-century historianHerodotus. In his description of the decisiveBattle of Salamis (480 BC), he quotes an oracle which supposedly had predicted the victory of the Greeks over the Persians by the agency of "Zeus and august Victory (Nike)".[32] And the names of Zeus and Nike continued to be used together as a military invocation through at least the end of the fourth-century BC.Xenophon reports that the watchword "Zeus Saviour and Victory [Nike]" was used at theBattle of Cunaxa (401 BC),[33] while, according toPlutarch the similar watchword "Zeus and Victory [Nike]" was used at theBattle of Ipsus (301 BC).[34]
Nike could also be invoked in theatrical competitions, such as Athens'City Dionysia andLenaia. Competitors, including the late fifth-century BC tragic playwrightEuripides, and the late fourth-century BC comedic playwrightMenander would sometimes included appeals to Nike at the close of their plays.[35] Euripides concludes three of his plays with the appeal:
Victory, may you have my life in your charge and never cease garlanding my head![36]
Three of Menander's plays contain a similar formulaic ending:
Winged Nike, wearing longchiton holding a wreath in left hand; silverstater ofElis, Berlin, Münzkabinett derStaatliche Museen 18214833 (c. 471-452 BC).[38]Temple of Athena Nike on the Acropolis in Athens, Greece.[39]
Evidence for a cult of Nike exists for several locations in Greece andMagna Graecia.[40] The so-called "Decree of Themistocles" (the authenticity of which has been debated) mentions sacrifices offered to Zeus, Athena, Nike, and Poseidon.[41] Vase paintings from the late Archaic show Nike in front of an altar or together with a sacrificial bull.[42] Nike may also have been assimilated into the cult of other gods, such as Zeus at Olympia, and most prominently the cult of Athena Nike at Athens.[43]
According to the geographerPausanias there was an altar to Nike in Olympia between an altar of Zeus Katharsios ("Zeus Purifier") and Zeus Chthonios ("Zeus Underground").[44] From as early as 500 BC, Nike is a frequent appearance on the coinage ofElis.[45] Such coins were minted atOlympia, and are assumed to be temple-coins.[46] And, as such, are considered to be connected with the cult of Zeus at Olympia.[47] The earliest of these (c. 510/490–471), show a flying eagle on the obverse, and, on the reverse, a winged Nike, wearing a longchiton, moving swiftly holding a wreathe in the hand of her outstretched arm.[48]
Athena Nike is a cult title of the goddess Athena, with whom Nike was closely associated and was perhaps popularly confused.[50] The exact relationship between Nike and Athena Nike is uncertain. However, a cult title, such as Athena Nike, which joins the name of a major god with that of a more minor one known to have had their own independent cult suggests that such a fused title arose from the assimilation of an existing local cult by the major god.[51]
Athena Nike had a sanctuary on the Acropolis of Athens from as early as the beginning of the sixth century BC.[52] The title Athena Nike is first attested by an inscription on a block from an Archaic altar (dated 580–560 BC) found as part of the excavation and rebuilding of the southwest bastion upon which the current Classical (c. 420 BC)Temple of Athena Nike rests.[53] This seems to have been the official title of the temple's goddess through the fifth and fourth centuries continuing into theHellenistic period, although less formal texts, from as early as the fifth century BC, often refer to Athena Nike as simply Nike.[54] In fact, the late fifth-century BC tragedianEuripides could refer to Athena herself as Nike.[55]
Ancient sources refer to a cult image of Athena Nike in connection with the temple at Athens which, unlike the normally winged Nike, was wingless (apteros).[56]Heliodorus (150 BC?) is said to have written in his bookConcerning the Akropolis that the Athenians venerated a wingless statue of Nike Athena which held a pomegranate in the right hand and a helmet in the left.[57] Pausanias, writing in the second century AD, refers to the temple of Athena Nike as a temple of Nike Apteros, "Wingless Victory",[58] which is the name he gives to an image of the goddess, without wings, which he says the Athenians had placed there.[59] He explains that "the Athenians think that Victory, having no wings, will always remain where she is."[60]
This cult image was part of the early sixth-century BC sanctuary which was destroyed by the Persians in 480–479 BC, although the image was preserved. It was later reinstalled inside the Classical Ionic temple which was surrounded on three sides by a sculpted parapet.[61] Carved into the parapet, one on each of the sides of the bastion (north, west, and south), were three sets of winged Nikes (Nikai), although the remains of the parapet sculptures are fragmentary, they are thought to form three votive processions each moving toward a seated Athena.[62] The three processions depicted Nikes, in the presence of Athena, erecting trophies and bringing sacrificial bulls.[63]
The sanctuary of the Classical Temple of Athena Nike was the most lavishly decorated of any in Athens.[64] It was adorned with many depictions of battle and war, both historical and mythical, illustrating the subject of military victory under Athena's guidance.[65] These sculptural themes establish that Athena Nike was worshipped as a goddess of war and the overseer of military victory by at least the fifth-century BC. However, it is possible that previously she had been primarily associated with victory in Athletic competitions.[66] The description, by Heliodorus, of the cult image holding a pomegranate suggests that, in the sixth century BC, Athena Nike was also associated with some aspect of fertility.[67]
The earliest evidence for a priestess of Athena Nike is provided by a decree,IG I3 35, passed by the AthenianDemos in third quarter of the fifth century BC. The decree orders the building of a temple and an altar stone for Athena Nike, and instituted the first "democratic priesthood", that is one that was funded by the state and with the priest or priestess (as in this case) being chosen by lot, a significant departure from Athenian tradition. The degree also orders that the priestess be paid a stipend of fiftydrachmae, as well as a share of the sacrifices. A later decree,IG I3 36, orders that the fifty drachmae stipend was to paid for by thekolakretai.[68] Whether there was already a priestess of Athena Nike prior to this degree is unknown.[69] A verse epitaph on a marblestele funerary monument (IG I3 1330) names Myrrhine, daughter of Kallimachos, as "the first to serve the sanctuary (ἔδος) of Athena Nike, and, out of all, she was chosen by theluck of the draw."[70]
Nike of Delos (c. 550 BC). Marble sculpture of a winged Nike (wings broken off) wearing a long belted robe moving quickly to the left inknielauf (kneeling-run) pose. Found atDelos,Athens National Archaeological Museum 21.[71]Winged Nike moving quickly left; bronze device crown,British Museum 491 (c. 525-20 BC).[72]
In art Nike is typically portrayed as winged, wearing a long robe, and moving at great speed.[73] Figures identified as likely to be depictions of Nike appear from the early sixth century BC on vases and as freestanding sculptures oracroteria.[74] Nike images also appear on small bronzes (from c. 550 BC),[75] and coins (from 510/490 BC).[76]
In the Archaic period, Nike does not yet have a specific fixed iconography.[77] Consequently she cannot always be reliably distinguished from other winged female figures, particularly the messenger-goddessIris.[78] Although some figures considered to be Nike are shown with acaduceus (kerykeion or herald's staff) orvictory wreath, the caduceus is the primary attribute of Iris, and other winged female figures other than Nike can also be shown with wreaths.[79]
Some early depictions of winged women have been identified as Nike based upon their juxtaposition with other images representing victory in athletic competition. Perhaps the earliest of these is found on thetondo of aSiana cup, by theC Painter, dated to the 2nd quarter of the 6th century BC. Its exterior depicts the return of a victorious athlete, while its interior depicts a winged women in the traditionalknielauf (kneeling-run) pose heading right.[80] This knielauf pose is the standard device in the Achaic period for representing speed, and is characteristic of the figures identified as Nike in this period,[81] particularly inAttic vase painting.[82]
Such depictions lacking definitive attributes remain characteristic throughout the Archaic period. Nike's most important attribute, the victory wreath, gradually emerges in the second half of the sixth century BC, but remains rare. Other attributes associated with victory, the branch andtainia (head ribbon), also begin to appear in this period, while attributes associated with cultic acts, such as thephiale (libation bowl),oenochoe (wine jug), andthymiaterion (standing incense burner) appear sporadically as early as the turn of the fifth century BC.[83]
Sculptural depictions of Nike in the Archaic period served primarily asvotive offerings oracroteria. Two of these, the Nike of Delos (c. 550 BC), attributed toArchermus, and theNike of Callimachus (c. 480 BC), mark the beginning and the end of the period, and are considered representative. The Arcermus Nike, a marble sculpture found atDelos, is generally considered the earliest sculptural Nike identified by inscription. It depicts a winged figure moving in swift flight to the left in knielauf posture. The upper torso faces frontally toward the viewer, and the head is crowned with adiadem.[84] In the Callimachus Nike, a marble monument probably erected for the victory atMarathon (490 BC), the upper body, rather than being frontally oriented as in the Archermus Nike, is slightly turned to the right in the direction of flight, with the head looking backward. A second probably related fragment depicts a lower body in a very loose knielauf posture.[85]
Also of significance are a collection of small bronzes that were found primarily on the Acropolis of Athens, and are associated with the cult of Athena-Nike (see above). Such bronzes typically were used as the crowns or supports for various implements.[86]
Although Nike was already in close cultic association with Zeus and Athena, depictions of Nike in the company of these gods during the Archaic period (unlike subsequent periods) are rare. Probable examples include several amphorae (dating from c. 550 BC) which depict a small winged women, at the birth of Athena, standing (or running) beneath Zeus' throne.[87] More frequently Nike was depicted among men in what can be interpreted as athletic or martial contexts.[88]
As time goes on Nike's legs begin to straighten and her movement becomes a more subtle alighting movement with a slight forward component.[89] An example of a transitional phase in movement from the "kneeling run" to the alighting and striding pose isPaionios's statue of Nike discovered in theTemple of Zeus atOlympia. This statue of Nike was made of Parian marble and was dedicated to Zeus by theMessenians and Naupaktians around 420 BCE during theClassical period.[90] The statue originally stood near the temple of Zeus on an 8.45m high, three sided pillar. The statue itself was roughly two meters high and was orientated to face the east. Instead of flying sideways, Paionios's Nike advances forward with feet just alighting upon the ground.[91] At her feet an eagle is shown to fly to the viewer's left as Nike moves forward with left leg stepping down to touch the earth. Her left arm is raised and once held herhimation, or outer robe, as it blew out behind her in the wind. Fragments of Nike's face, forearms, and wings are missing, however, pieces of her wings can still be seen attached to her shoulders.[91] In this statue of Nike from the fifth century the goddess's alighting motion is towards the viewer as opposed to the sideways running motion of earlier statues.[91] Additionally, Paionios's Nike has adopted a striding stance as opposed to a pinwheel-type running stance. By changing Nike's stance, Paionios has relinquished depiction of Nike's swift speed in favor of depicting her in a forward alighting motion that directly engages the viewer.[89]
Pheidias's statue of Zeus at Olympia. Artistic rendering by the Quatremère de Quincy (1815).[92]
By the mid Classical period and the start of theHellenistic period, statues of Nike begin to portray her with legs almost completely straight in an alighting pose meant to evoke an appearance out of nothing rather than a hurtling into view.[89] This slight forward and downward motion is illustrated in the Capitoline Nike (460 BCE) from Magna Grecia. This statue was made ofThasian marble and showed the goddess standing almost completely straight with a slight lean forwards to indicate Nike's downward and slight forward alighting motion. Although her wings are lost, the roots of them can still be seen behind her shoulders. The straight lines of her garments imply weightiness and the pull of gravity during her gentle descent.[89] The slight overfold of her peplos across the midsection also evokes the sense of a small wind blowing upwards from her soft descent. Additionally, both of her feet are placed side by side in a standing pose rather than a striding pose. All these details suggest Nike is appearing and making a graceful descent to the earth rather than dashing sideways into view.[89]
The statue of Nike from theTemple of Neptune at Corfu also implies a gentle appearance out of nothing rather than a hurtling from somewhere. This statue is speculated to be from the Hellenistic period according to Andrew Parkin.[93] The statue is made of white marble and is seventy-three centimeters tall. Nike herself is posed atop a globe, which is acting as the base. While Nike's forearms and wings are missing the sockets for attaching her wings can be seen on her back. The goddess is standing with both legs straight and together.[94] Her head is bent downwards slightly so that her gaze rests on the ground rather than the viewer. As a result of this, her body also leans slightly downwards. Her winged, straight, and slightly bent posture evokes the appearance that she is looking down at where to place her feet as she descends.[94] The Nike of Corfu also has a hollowed out back which has resulted in Parkin, C. Vermeule, and D. Von Bothmer to hypothesize that the statue was originally mounted on another base or the statue was intended to fit into the hand of a larger deity.[94]
During the Classical period, statuettes of Nike were often placed in the hands of larger deities. One such example is Pheidias's statue of Zeus at Olympia. According to Pausanias'sDescription of Greece, the statue of Zeus "...holds Victory in ivory and gold..." in his right hand and a scepter with an eagle perched atop it in his left hand.[95] Pheidias's cult statue of Athena from the Parthenon in Athens also held a smaller Nike statuette in one hand and a spear in the other. According to Pausanias, this Nike statue was roughly four cubits tall (about seventy-two inches). Both Nike statues in Zeus's and Athena's hands were winged.[96] Nike typically appears without wings in Greek sculpture when she is being represented as an attribute of another deity, such as Athena. The Athena Nike statue within theTemple of Athena Nike on theAthenian Acropolis depicts the Greek goddess wingless[97] and seated with a pomegranate in her right hand and her helmet in her left hand. According to Andrew Stewart the doffed helmet and pomegranate are symbols of assistance, fertility, and peace.[98] According to theSuda, Athena Nike without wings represents calm civility, the pomegranate represents prosperity and the doffed helmet represents peace.[99] In hisDescription of Greece Pausanias claims that Athena Nike's depiction as "Wingless Victory" was meant to keep the goddess in Athens.[100]
As on many early Attic vases, Nike is depicted on the second-century BCPergamon Altar alongside Athena, Zeus and their championHeracles in theGigantomachy, the war against theGiants. On the right side of the East frieze, the first encountered by a visitor, a winged Giant, usually identified asAlcyoneus, fights Athena.[101] Below and to the right of Athena, his motherGaia rises from the ground, touching Athena's robe in supplication. Flying above Gaia, a winged Nike crowns the victorious Athena. To the left of this grouping a snake-leggedPorphyrion battles Zeus[102] and to the left of Zeus is Heracles.[103]
Nike andAthena are both associated with victory, which has resulted in contestation over the origins of Nike.[104] According to a paper by Harrison (as cited in Sikes, 1895) Nike was once a facet of the Greek goddess Athena, who was composed of Boulaia (good council), Ergane (skilled handcraft), and Nike (victory). According to this theory, Nike eventually broke off from Athena to form her own distinct personality. Baudrillart, in another paper (as cited in Sikes, 1895), shares a similar view that Nike was once a part of Athena and separated from her around the 5th century. However, he holds that the Athena Nike personality continued to exist alongside the distinct Nike personality.[105] In contrast to Harrison and Baudrillart's views, E.E. Sikes believed that Nike was always a distinct personality from Athena.[105] According to Sikes, Nike existed as an independent deity from Athena since Nike represented victory in musical, athletic, and military competitions and Athena's authority was limited to strictly military victories.[105] Sikes postulates that the theory that Nike first originated from Athena arose from the confusion of the two goddesses at Athens where Athena Nike and Nike existed alongside each other.[105]
^Paionios of Mende.Nike of Olympia, c.425-420 BC. Parian marble statue of Nike, 2.115m but once reached a height of 10.92m. Olympia Archeological Museum, Olympia, Greece. Photograph by Carole Raddato, 23 April 2014. Accessed December 9, 2021.
^Arafat,s.v. Nike: "Nike has no mythology of her own"; Scherf,s.v. Nike, I. Mythology: "In mythology, [Nike] is rather inconspicuous"; Tripp, s.v. Nike: "Nike ... was more a symbol than a mythological character".
^Sikes, pp. 280—283; Tripp, s.v. Nike: "she was a constant companion—that is, an attribute—of Zeus"; Moussaka, Goulaki-Voutira, and Grote,p. 850: "Nike kann als Begleiterin oder als Attribut zu allen siegspendenden Gottheiten auftrenten. Sie ist besonders eng mit Athena verbunden und erscheint sehr häufig in Szenen, die erfolgreiche Heldentaten dartsellen".
^Arafat,s.v. Nike. For theTheogony's date of composition see West 1966, p. 45.
^Hard,p. 49; West 1988, p. 68, n. 384–385, which describes Styx's children as "personifications of qualities inseparably associated with Zeus as king of the gods."
^Mark,pp. 127–128; Falaschi, p. 77. Such examples given by Mark,p. 127, (and repeated by Falaschi) include AresEnyalios, ArtemisEukleia, ArtemisHekate, AthenaHygieia, and PoseidonErechtheus. As noted by Mark,p. 128 n. 17, while early scholarship has proposed that Athena's cult title preceded the personification, later scholarship, following Sikes 1895, has argued the opposite, that the joint cult title arose as the fusion of Athena with a preexisting Nike. See Mark and Falaschi for additional scholarship concerning this issue.
^Laughy, p. 420; Arafat,s.v. Nike; Stewart, p. 53. For comprehensive reviews of the ancient literary and epigraphic evidence for Athena Nike at Athens, see Mark,93–114, and Falaschi 2018.
^Mark,p. 94: "indeed this short form, seemingly colloquial at first, appears to have become increasinglyaccepted and to have led even to the popular confusion of Athena Nike, a form of Athena,and Nike, the personification"; Falaschi, p. 76.
^Stewart, p. 56, 58 (figs. 2, 5, 12–14, 27, 28). As Stewart, p. 58, describes the three processions: "Though for the most part the details of the composition are a matter of conjecture, it is clear that on the north and south sides the array of Nikai moved toward seated Athenas at the west end of each (fig. 12), while on the west side itself, Athena was probably seated at the center with two streams of worshiping Nikai approaching her from either side."
^Pollitt,p. 115; Stewart, p. 55 fig. 5 ("two Nikai erecting a trophy", from the north side of the parapet), p. 59 fig. 14 ("two Nikai and a bull" from the north side of the parapet), pp. 66–67 fig. 27 ("two Nikai and a bull" from the south side of the parapet).
^Laughy, p. 421, with n. 23. For discussions of this possibility, and arguments against it, see: Mark,pp. 126–127; Parker,p. 90; Blok,para. 11.
^Mark,p. 126; Stewart, p. 53; Laughy, p. 421 n. 24. Compare withEuripidesIon454–471, where the Chorus appeals to Athena, calling her Nike, to helpCreusa "win" the gift of child birth.
^Laughy, pp. 418–419. For the text, translation and discussion ofIG I3 35, andIG I3 36, see Blok 2014. As Laughy, p. 419, notes "Familyclans, calledgene, traditionally controlled a number of the most prominent priesthoods. The priestess of Athena Polias on the Athenian Acropolis, for example, was, and always had to be, chosen by lot from the Eteoboutidai genos, The institution of democratic priesthoods was a remarkable innovation that exemplified increasing state involvement in the religious life of Athens during the fifth century".
^For the text, translation, and discussion ofIG I3 1330, see Lougovaya-Ast 2006. As noted by Lougovaya-Ast, p. 213, "... it has been debated what is meant by 'the first priestess.' Was she the first priestess ever of Athena Nike? Or the first chosen by lot? Or the first of the temple?".
^Moussaka, Goulaki-Voutira, and Grote, pp.857 (Nike 61–64)897 (regarding these small winged women, "mit ziemlicher Sicherheit", as Nike);LIMC VI.2,p. 563 (Nike 64); British Museum1837,0609.27.
^Olga, Palagia. "Art as a Trophy: the Nike of Paionios."The Ancient City and its Significance During the Peloponnesian War and the Hellenistic Period. D. and A. Botsaris Foundation. (2016): p.73-75.
^Pausanias.Description of Greece: The Temple of Zeus at Olympia. Translation by Arthur Richard Shilleto. (The Library of the World's Best Literature, Warner et al. comp.,1917). Accessed 9 December 2022.https://www.bartleby.com/library/prose/3952.html
^Stewart, Andrew (1985). "History, Myth, and Allegory in the Program of the Temple of Athena Nike, Athens".Studies in the History of Art.16:53–57.JSTOR42617835.
^Pausanias,Description of Greece Attica ch.22, section 4.
^Cunningham,p. 113; Kleiner,p. 156 FIG. 5-79; Queyrel, pp. 52–53; Ridgway, Brunilde Sismondo 2000,p. 39,pp. 59–60 n. 59. Supporting the identification of this Giant as Alcyoneus, is the fragmentary inscription "neus", that may belong to this scene, for doubts concerning this identification, see Ridgway.
^Ridgway, Brunilde Sismondo 2000,p. 54 n. 35; Queyrel, pp. 53–54.
^Ridgway, Brunilde Sismondo 2005. Though virtually nothing of Heracles remains, only part of a linonskin, and a left hand holding a bow, the location of the hero is identified by inscription, see Queyrel, pp. 54–55.
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