TheOxford English Dictionary (OED) is the principalhistorical dictionary of theEnglish language, published byOxford University Press (OUP), aUniversity of Oxford publishing house. The dictionary, which published its first edition in 1884, traces the historical development of the English language, providing a comprehensive resource to scholars and academic researchers, and provides ongoing descriptions of English language usage in its variations around the world.[2]
In 1857, work first began on the dictionary, though the first edition was not published until 1884. It began to be published in unboundfascicles as work continued on the project, under the name ofA New English Dictionary on Historical Principles; Founded Mainly on the Materials Collected by The Philological Society. In 1895, the titleThe Oxford English Dictionary was first used unofficially on the covers of the series, and in 1928 the full dictionary was republished in 10 bound volumes.
In 1933, the titleThe Oxford English Dictionary fully replaced the former name in all occurrences in its reprinting as 12 volumes with a one-volume supplement. More supplements came over the years until 1989, when the second edition was published, comprising 21,728 pages in 20 volumes.[1] Since 2000, compilation of a third edition of the dictionary has been underway, approximately half of which was complete by 2018.[1]
In 1988, the first electronic version of the dictionary was made available, and the online version has been available since 2000. By April 2014, it was receiving over two million visits per month. The third edition of the dictionary is expected to be available exclusively in electronic form; the CEO of OUP has stated that it is unlikely that it will ever be printed.[1][3][4]
As a historical dictionary, theOxford English Dictionary features entries in which the earliest ascertainable recorded sense of a word, whether current or obsolete, is presented first, and each additional sense is presented in historical order according to the date of its earliest ascertainable recorded use.[5] Following each definition are several brief illustrating quotations presented in chronological order from the earliest ascertainable use of the word in that sense to the last ascertainable use for an obsolete sense, to indicate both its life span and the time since its desuetude, or to a relatively recent use for current ones.
The format of theOED's entries has influenced numerous other historicallexicography projects. The forerunners to theOED, such as the early volumes of theDeutsches Wörterbuch, had initially provided few quotations from a limited number of sources, whereas theOED editors preferred larger groups of quite short quotations from a wide selection of authors and publications. This influenced later volumes of this and other lexicographical works.[6]
Diagram of the types of English vocabulary included in theOED, devised byJames Murray, its first editor
According to the publishers, it would take a single person 120 years to "key in" the 59 million words of theOED second edition, 60 years to proofread them, and 540megabytes to store them electronically.[7] As of 30 November 2005, theOxford English Dictionary contained approximately 301,100 main entries. Supplementing the entryheadwords, there are 157,000 bold-type combinations and derivatives;[8] 169,000 italicized-bold phrases and combinations;[9] 616,500 word-forms in total, including 137,000pronunciations; 249,300etymologies; 577,000 cross-references; and 2,412,400 usagequotations. The dictionary's latest, complete print edition (second edition, 1989) was printed in 20 volumes, comprising 291,500 entries in 21,730 pages. The longest entry in theOED2 was for the verbset, which required 60,000 words to describe some 580 senses (430 for the bare verb, the rest inphrasal verbs and idioms). As entries began to be revised for theOED3 in sequence starting from M, the record was progressively broken by the verbsmake in 2000, thenput in 2007, thenrun in 2011 with 645 senses.[10][11][12]
The dictionary began as aPhilological Society project of a small group of intellectuals in London (and unconnected toOxford University):[16]: 103–104, 112 Richard Chenevix Trench,Herbert Coleridge, andFrederick Furnivall, who were dissatisfied with the existing English dictionaries. The society expressed interest in compiling a new dictionary as early as 1844,[17] but it was not until June 1857 that they began by forming an "Unregistered Words Committee" to search for words that were unlisted or poorly defined in current dictionaries. In November, Trench's report was not a list of unregistered words; instead, it was the studyOn Some Deficiencies in our English Dictionaries, which identified seven distinct shortcomings in contemporary dictionaries:[18]
Incomplete coverage of obsolete words
Inconsistent coverage of families of related words
Space wasted on inappropriate or redundant content.
The society ultimately realized that the number of unlisted words would be far more than the number of words in the English dictionaries of the 19th century, and shifted their idea from covering only words that were not already in English dictionaries to a larger project. Trench suggested that a new, trulycomprehensive dictionary was needed. On 7 January 1858, the society formally adopted the idea of a comprehensive new dictionary.[16]: 107–108 Volunteer readers would be assigned particular books, copying passages illustrating word usage onto quotation slips. Later the same year, the society agreed to the project in principle, with the titleA New English Dictionary on Historical Principles (NED).[19]: ix–x
Richard Chenevix Trench (1807–1886) played the key role in the project's first months, but his appointment asDean of Westminster meant that he could not give the dictionary project the time that it required. He withdrew andHerbert Coleridge became the first editor.[20]: 8–9
On 12 May 1860, Coleridge's dictionary plan was published and research was started. His house was the first editorial office. He arrayed 100,000 quotation slips in a 54 pigeon-hole grid.[20]: 9 In April 1861, the group published the first sample pages; later that month, Coleridge died oftuberculosis, aged 30.[19]: x
Thereupon Furnivall became editor; he was enthusiastic and knowledgeable, but temperamentally ill-suited for the work.[16]: 110 Many volunteer readers eventually lost interest in the project, as Furnivall failed to keep them motivated. Furthermore, many of the slips were misplaced.
Furnivall believed that, since many printed texts from earlier centuries were not readily available, it would be impossible for volunteers to efficiently locate the quotations that the dictionary needed. As a result, he founded theEarly English Text Society in 1864 and the Chaucer Society in 1868 to publish old manuscripts.[19]: xii Furnivall's preparatory efforts lasted 21 years and provided numerous texts for the use and enjoyment of the general public, as well as crucial sources for lexicographers, but they did not actually involve compiling a dictionary. Furnivall recruited more than 800 volunteers to read these texts and record quotations. While enthusiastic, the volunteers were not well trained and often made inconsistent and arbitrary selections. Ultimately, Furnivall handed over nearly two tons of quotation slips and other materials to his successor.[21]
In the 1870s, Furnivall unsuccessfully attempted to recruit bothHenry Sweet andHenry Nicol to succeed him. He then approachedJames Murray, who accepted the post of editor. In the late 1870s, Furnivall and Murray met with several publishers about publishing the dictionary. In 1878, Oxford University Press agreed with Murray to proceed with the massive project; the agreement was formalized the following year.[16]: 111–112 20 years after its conception, the dictionary project finally had a publisher. It would take another 50 years to complete.
Late in his editorship, Murray learned that one especially prolific reader,W. C. Minor, was confined to a mental hospital for (in modern terminology)schizophrenia.[16]: xiii Minor was a Yale University–trained surgeon and a military officer in theAmerican Civil War who had been confined toBroadmoor Asylum for the Criminally Insane after killing a man in London. He invented his own quotation-tracking system, allowing him to submit slips on specific words in response to editors' requests. The story of how Murray and Minor worked together to advance theOED was retold in the 1998 bookThe Surgeon of Crowthorne (US title:The Professor and the Madman[16]), which was the basis for a 2019 film,The Professor and the Madman, starringMel Gibson andSean Penn.
During the 1870s, thePhilological Society was concerned with the process of publishing a dictionary with such an immense scope.[1] They had pages printed by publishers, but no publication agreement was reached; both theCambridge University Press and theOxford University Press were approached. The OUP finally agreed in 1879 (after two years of negotiating by Sweet, Furnivall, and Murray) to publish the dictionary and to pay Murray, who was both the editor and thePhilological Society president. The dictionary was to be published as interval fascicles, with the final form in four volumes, totalling 6,400 pages. They hoped to finish the project in ten years.[20]: 1
A quotation slip as used in the compilation of theOED, illustrating the wordflood
Murray started the project, working in acorrugated iron outbuilding called the "Scriptorium" which was lined with wooden planks, bookshelves, and 1,029 pigeon-holes for the quotation slips.[19]: xiii He tracked and regathered Furnivall's collection of quotation slips, which were found to concentrate on rare, interesting words rather than common usages. For instance, there were ten times as many quotations forabusion as forabuse.[22] He appealed, through newspapers distributed to bookshops and libraries, for readers who would report "as many quotations as you can for ordinary words" and for words that were "rare, obsolete, old-fashioned, new, peculiar or used in a peculiar way".[22] Murray had American philologist andliberal arts college professorFrancis March manage the collection in North America; 1,000 quotation slips arrived daily to the Scriptorium and, by 1880, there were 2,500,000.[20]: 15
The first dictionary fascicle was published on 1 February 1884—twenty-three years after Coleridge's sample pages. The full title wasA New English Dictionary on Historical Principles; Founded Mainly on the Materials Collected by The Philological Society; the 352-page volume, words fromA toAnt, cost 12s 6d[20]: 251 (equivalent to $82 in 2023). The total sales were only 4,000 copies.[23]: 169
The OUP saw that it would take too long to complete the work with unrevised editorial arrangements. Accordingly, new assistants were hired and two new demands were made on Murray.[20]: 32–33 The first was that he move fromMill Hill toOxford to work full-time on the project, which he did in 1885. Murray had his Scriptorium re-erected in the back garden of his new property.[19]: xvii
Murray resisted the second demand: that if he could not meet schedule, he must hire a second, senior editor to work in parallel to him, outside his supervision, on words from elsewhere in the alphabet. Murray did not want to share the work, feeling that he would accelerate his work pace with experience. That turned out not to be so, andPhilip Gell of the OUP forced the promotion of Murray's assistantHenry Bradley (hired by Murray in 1884), who worked independently in theBritish Museum in London beginning in 1888. In 1896, Bradley moved to Oxford University.[20]
Gell continued harassing Murray and Bradley with his business concerns – containing costs and speeding production – to the point where the project's collapse seemed likely. Newspapers reported the harassment, particularly theSaturday Review, and public opinion backed the editors.[23]: 182–83 Gell was fired, and the university reversed his cost policies. If the editors felt that the dictionary would have to grow larger, it would; it was an important work, and worth the time and money to properly finish.
Neither Murray nor Bradley lived to see it. Murray died in 1915, having been responsible for words starting withA–D,H–K,O–P, andT, nearly half the finished dictionary; Bradley died in 1923, having completedE–G,L–M,S–Sh,St, andW–We. By then, two additional editors had been promoted from assistant work to independent work, continuing without much trouble.William Craigie started in 1901 and was responsible forN,Q–R,Si–Sq,U–V, andWo–Wy.[19]: xix The OUP had previously thought London too far from Oxford but, after 1925, Craigie worked on the dictionary in Chicago, where he was a professor.[19]: xix [20] The fourth editor wasCharles Talbut Onions, who compiled the remaining ranges starting in 1914:Su–Sz,Wh–Wo, andX–Z.[24]
In 1919–1920,J. R. R. Tolkien was employed by theOED, researching etymologies of theWaggle toWarlock range;[25] later he parodied the principal editors as "The Four Wise Clerks of Oxenford" in the storyFarmer Giles of Ham.[26]
By early 1894, a total of 11 fascicles had been published, or about one per year: four forA–B, five forC, and two forE.[19] Of these, eight were 352 pages long, while the last one in each group was shorter to end at the letter break (which eventually became a volume break). At this point, it was decided to publish the work in smaller and more frequent instalments; once every three months beginning in 1895 there would be a fascicle of 64 pages, priced at 2s 6d. If enough material was ready, 128 or even 192 pages would be published together. This pace was maintained until World War I forced reductions in staff.[19]: xx Each time enough consecutive pages were available, the same material was also published in the original larger fascicles.[19]: xx Also in 1895, the titleOxford English Dictionary was first used. It then appeared only on the outer covers of the fascicles; the original title was still the official one and was used everywhere else.[19]: xx
The 125th and last fascicle covered words fromWise to the end ofW and was published on 19 April 1928, and the full dictionary in bound volumes followed immediately.[19]: xx William Shakespeare is the most-quoted writer in the completed dictionary, withHamlet his most-quoted work.George Eliot (Mary Ann Evans) is the most-quoted female writer. Collectively, theBible is the most-quoted work (in many translations); the most-quoted single work isCursor Mundi.[7]
Additional material for a given letter range continued to be gathered after the corresponding fascicle was printed, with a view towards inclusion in a supplement or revised edition. A one-volume supplement of such material was published in 1933, with entries weighted towards the start of the alphabet where the fascicles were decades old.[19] The supplement included at least one word (bondmaid) accidentally omitted when its slips were misplaced;[27] many words and senses newly coined (famouslyappendicitis, coined in 1886 and missing from the 1885 fascicle, which came to prominence whenEdward VII's 1902 appendicitis postponedhis coronation[28]); and some previously excluded as too obscure (notoriouslyradium, omitted in 1903, months before its discoverersPierre andMarie Curie won theNobel Prize in Physics[29]). Also in 1933 the original fascicles of the entire dictionary were re-issued, bound into 12 volumes, under the title "The Oxford English Dictionary".[30] This edition of 13 volumes including the supplement was subsequently reprinted in 1961 and 1970.
In 1933, Oxford had finally put the dictionary to rest; all work ended, and the quotation slips went into storage. However, the English language continued to change and, by the time 20 years had passed, the dictionary was outdated.[31]
There were three possible ways to update it. The cheapest would have been to leave the existing work alone and simply compile a new supplement of perhaps one or two volumes, but then anyone looking for a word or sense and unsure of its age would have to look in three different places. The most convenient choice for the user would have been for the entire dictionary to be re-edited andretypeset, with each change included in its proper alphabetical place; but this would have been the most expensive option, with perhaps 15 volumes required to be produced. The OUP chose a middle approach: combining the new material with the existing supplement to form a larger replacement supplement.
Robert Burchfield was hired in 1957 to edit the second supplement;[32]Charles Talbut Onions turned 84 that year but was still able to make some contributions as well. The work on the supplement was expected to take about seven years.[31] It actually took 29 years, by which time the new supplement(OEDS) had grown to four volumes, starting withA,H,O, andSea. They were published in 1972, 1976, 1982, and 1986 respectively, bringing the complete dictionary to 16 volumes, or 17 counting the first supplement.
Burchfield emphasized the inclusion of modern-day language and, through the supplement, the dictionary was expanded to include a wealth of new words from the burgeoning fields of science and technology, as well as popular culture and colloquial speech. Burchfield said that he broadened the scope to include developments of the language inEnglish-speaking regions beyond the United Kingdom, including North America, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, India, Pakistan, and the Caribbean. Burchfield also removed, for unknown reasons, many entries that had been added to the 1933 supplement.[33] In 2012, an analysis by lexicographer Sarah Ogilvie revealed that many of these entries were in fact foreign loanwords, despite Burchfield's claim that he included more such words. The proportion was estimated from a sample calculation to amount to 17% of the foreignloan words and words from regional forms of English. Some of these had only a single recorded usage, but many had multiple recorded citations, and it ran against what was thought to be the establishedOED editorial practice and a perception that he had opened up the dictionary to "World English".[34][35][36]
By the time the new supplement was completed, it was clear that the full text of the dictionary would need to be computerized. Achieving this would require retyping it once, but thereafter it would always be accessible for computer searching—as well as for whatever new editions of the dictionary might be desired, starting with an integration of the supplementary volumes and the main text. Preparation for this process began in 1983, and editorial work started the following year under the administrative direction of Timothy J. Benbow, withJohn A. Simpson andEdmund S. C. Weiner as co-editors.[37] In 2016, Simpson published his memoir chronicling his years at the OED:The Word Detective: Searching for the Meaning of It All at the Oxford English Dictionary – A Memoir (New York: Basic Books).
Editing an entry of theNOED usingLEXXA printout of the SGML markup used in the computerization of theOED, showing pencil annotations used to mark corrections
Thus began theNew Oxford English Dictionary (NOED) project. In the United States, more than 120 typists of the International Computaprint Corporation (nowReed Tech) started keying in over 350,000,000 characters, their work checked by 55 proof-readers in England.[37] Retyping the text alone was not sufficient; all the information represented by the complextypography of the original dictionary had to be retained, which was done bymarking up the content inSGML.[37] A specializedsearch engine and display software were also needed to access it. Under a 1985 agreement, some of this software work was done at theUniversity of Waterloo, Canada, at theCentre for the New Oxford English Dictionary, led byFrank Tompa andGaston Gonnet; this search technology went on to become the basis for theOpen Text Corporation.[38] Computer hardware, database and other software, development managers, and programmers for the project were donated by the British subsidiary ofIBM; the colour syntax-directed editor for the project,LEXX,[39] was written byMike Cowlishaw of IBM.[40] TheUniversity of Waterloo, in Canada, volunteered to design the database.A. Walton Litz, an English professor atPrinceton University who served on the Oxford University Press advisory council, was quoted inTime as saying "I've never been associated with a project, I've never even heard of a project, that was so incredibly complicated and that met every deadline."[41]
By 1989, theNOED project had achieved its primary goals, and the editors, working online, had successfully combined the original text, Burchfield's supplement, and a small amount of newer material, into a single unified dictionary. The word "new" was again dropped from the name, and the second edition of theOED, or theOED2, was published. The first editionretronymically became theOED1.
TheOxford English Dictionary 2 was printed in 20 volumes.[1] Up to a very late stage, all the volumes of the first edition were started on letter boundaries. For the second edition, there was no attempt to start them on letter boundaries, and they were made roughly equal in size. The 20 volumes started withA,B.B.C.,Cham,Creel,Dvandva,Follow,Hat,Interval,Look,Moul,Ow,Poise,Quemadero,Rob,Ser,Soot,Su,Thru,Unemancipated, andWave.
The content of theOED2 is mostly just a reorganization of the earlier corpus, but the retypesetting provided an opportunity for two long-needed format changes. Theheadword of each entry was no longer capitalized, allowing the user to readily see those words that actually require a capital letter.[42] Murray had devised his own notation for pronunciation, there being no standard available at the time, whereas theOED2 adopted the modernInternational Phonetic Alphabet.[42][43] Unlike the earlier edition, all foreign alphabets except Greek weretransliterated.[42]
Following page 832 of Volume XXWave-Zyxt there's a 143-page separately paginated bibliography, a conflation of the OED 1st edition's published with the 1933 Supplement and that in Volume IV of the Supplement published in 1986.[44]
The British quiz showCountdown awarded the leather-bound complete version to thechampions of each series between its inception in 1982 and Series 63 in 2010.[45] The prize was axed after Series 83, completed in June 2021, due to being considered out of date.[46]
The supplements and their integration into the second edition were a great improvement to theOED as a whole, but it was recognized that most of the entries were still fundamentally unaltered from the first edition. Much of the information in the dictionary published in 1989 was already decades out of date, though the supplements had made good progress towards incorporating new vocabulary. Yet many definitions contained disproven scientific theories, outdated historical information, and moral values that were no longer widely accepted.[49][50] Furthermore, the supplements had failed to recognize many words in the existing volumes as obsolete by the time of the second edition's publication, meaning that thousands of words were marked as current despite no recent evidence of their use.[51]
Accordingly, it was recognized that work on a third edition would have to begin to rectify these problems.[49] The first attempt to produce a new edition came with theOxford English Dictionary Additions Series, a new set of supplements to complement theOED2 with the intention of producing a third edition from them.[52] The previous supplements appeared in alphabetical instalments, whereas the new series had a full A–Z range of entries within each individual volume, with a complete alphabetical index at the end of all words revised so far, each listed with the volume number which contained the revised entry.[52]
However, in the end only threeAdditions volumes were published this way, two in 1993 and one in 1997,[53][54][55] each containing about 3,000 new definitions.[7] The possibilities of theWorld Wide Web and new computer technology in general meant that the processes of researching the dictionary and of publishing new and revised entries could be vastly improved. New text search databases offered vastly more material for the editors of the dictionary to work with, and with publication on the Web as a possibility, the editors could publish revised entries much more quickly and easily than ever before.[56] A new approach was called for, and for this reason it was decided to embark on a new, complete revision of the dictionary.
Oxford English Dictionary Additions Series Volume 1 (ISBN978-0-19-861292-6): Includes over 20,000 illustrative quotations showing the evolution of each word or meaning.
Oxford English Dictionary Additions Series Volume 3 (ISBN978-0-19-860027-5): Contains 3,000 new words and meanings from around the English-speaking world. Published by Clarendon Press.
Beginning with the launch of the firstOED Online site in 2000, the editors of the dictionary began a major revision project to create a completely revised third edition of the dictionary (OED3), expected to be completed in 2037[57][58][59] at a projected cost of about£34 million.[60][1]
Revisions were started at the letterM, with new material appearing every three months on theOED Online website. The editors chose to start the revision project from the middle of the dictionary in order that the overall quality of entries be made more even, since the later entries in theOED1 generally tended to be better than the earlier ones. However, in March 2008, the editors announced that they would alternate each quarter between moving forward in the alphabet as before and updating "key English words from across the alphabet, along with the other words which make up the alphabetical cluster surrounding them".[61] With the relaunch of theOED Online website in December 2010, alphabetical revision was abandoned altogether.[62]
The revision is expected roughly to double the dictionary in size.[4][63] Apart from general updates to include information on new words and other changes in the language, the third edition brings many other improvements, including changes in formatting and stylistic conventions for easier reading and computerized searching, more etymological information, and a general change of focus away from individual words towards more general coverage of the language as a whole.[56][64] While the original text drew its quotations mainly from literary sources such as novels, plays, and poetry, with additional material from newspapers and academic journals, the new edition will reference more kinds of material that were unavailable to the editors of previous editions, such as wills, inventories, account books, diaries, journals, and letters.[63]
John Simpson was the first chief editor of theOED3. He retired in 2013 and was replaced byMichael Proffitt, who is the eighth chief editor of the dictionary.[65]
The production of the new edition exploits computer technology, particularly since the inauguration in June 2005 of the "PerfectAll-Singing All-DancingEditorial andNotationApplication", or "Pasadena". With thisXML-based system, lexicographers can spend less effort on presentation issues such as the numbering of definitions. This system has also simplified the use of the quotations database, and enabled staff in New York to work directly on the dictionary in the same way as their Oxford-based counterparts.[66]
Other important computer uses include internet searches for evidence of current usage and email submissions of quotations by readers and the general public.[67]
Wordhunt was a 2005 appeal to the general public for help in providing citations for 50 selected recent words, and producedantedatings for many. The results were reported in a BBC TV series,Balderdash and Piffle. TheOED's readers contribute quotations: the department currently receives about 200,000 a year.[68]
OED currently contains over 500,000 entries.[69] The onlineOED is updated on a quarterly basis, with the addition of new words and senses, and the revision of existing entries.[70]
Compact Edition of the Oxford English Dictionary, with included magnifying glassA view inside the Compact Edition of the Oxford English Dictionary, showing the four pages per page format
In 1971, the 13-volumeOED1 (1933) was reprinted as a two-volumeCompact Edition, by photographically reducing each page to one-half its linear dimensions; each compact edition page held fourOED1 pages in afour-up ("4-up") format. The two-volume letters wereA andP; the first supplement was at the second volume's end. TheCompact Edition included, in a small slip-case drawer, aBausch & Lomb magnifying glass to help in reading reduced type. Many copies were inexpensively distributed throughbook clubs. In 1987, the second supplement was published as a third volume to theCompact Edition.
The 20-volumeOED2 (1989) was republished in 1991 as a compact edition (ISBN978-0-19-861258-2). The format was re-sized to one-third of original linear dimensions, a nine-up ("9-up") format requiring a stronger magnifying glass (included), but allowing publication of a single-volume dictionary. This version include definitions of 500,000 words, in 290,000 main entries, with 137,000 pronunciations, 249,300 etymologies, 577,000 cross-references, and 2,412,000 illustrative quotations. It is accompaniedA User's Guide to the "Oxford English Dictionary" by Donna Lee Berg.[71] After this version was published, however, book club offers commonly continued to sell the two-volume 1971Compact Edition.[26]
TheCompact Oxford English Dictionary (second edition, 1991)
Part of an entry in the 1991 compact edition, with a centimetre scale showing the very small type sizes used
A screenshot of the first version of theOED second edition CD-ROM softwareOED2 4th Edition CD-ROM
Once the dictionary was digitized and online, it was also available to be published onCD-ROM. The text of the first edition was made available in 1987.[72] Afterward, three versions of the second edition were issued. Version 1 (1992) was identical in content to the printed second edition, and the CD itself was not copy-protected. Version 2 (1999) included theOxford English Dictionary Additions of 1993 and 1997. These CD-ROM editions are forMicrosoft Windows only.
Version 3.0 was released in 2002 with additional words from theOED3 and software improvements. Version 3.1.1 (2007) added support for hard disk installation, so that the user does not have to insert the CD to use the dictionary. It has been reported that this version will work on operating systems other than Windows, usingemulation programs.[73][74] Version 4.0 of the CD was released in June 2009 and has applications for both Windows (7 and later) and MacOS X (10.4 and later).[75] This version uses the CD drive for installation, running only from the hard drive.
On 14 March 2000, theOxford English Dictionary Online (OED Online) became available to subscribers.[76] The online database containing theOED2 is updated quarterly with revisions that will be included in theOED3 (see above). The online edition is the most up-to-date version of the dictionary available. TheOED website is not optimized for mobile devices, but the developers have stated that there are plans to provide an API to facilitate the development of interfaces for querying theOED.[77]
The price for an individual to use this edition is £100 or US$100 a year; consequently, most subscribers are large organizations such as universities. Some public libraries and companies have also subscribed, including public libraries in the United Kingdom, where access is funded by theArts Council,[78] and public libraries in New Zealand.[79][80] Individuals who belong to a library which subscribes to the service are able to use the service from their own homes without charge.
Oxford English Dictionary Second edition on CD-ROM Version 3.1:
Oxford English Dictionary Second edition on CD-ROM Version 4.0: Includes 500,000 words with 2.5 million source quotations, 7,000 new words and meanings. Includes Vocabulary from OED 2nd Edition and all 3 Additions volumes. Supports Windows 2000-7 and Mac OS X 10.4–10.5). Flash-based dictionary.
A selection of various Oxford English Dictionaries: pocket, paperback, compact and concise versions.
TheOED's utility and renown as a historical dictionary have led to numerous offspring projects and other dictionaries bearing the Oxford name, though not all are directly related to theOED itself.
TheShorter Oxford English Dictionary, originally started in 1902 and completed in 1933,[82] is an abridgement of the full work that retains the historical focus, but does not include any words which were obsolete before 1700 except those used byShakespeare,Milton,Spenser, and theKing James Bible.[83] A completely new edition was produced from theOED2 and published in 1993,[84] with revisions in 2002 and 2007.
TheConcise Oxford Dictionary is a different work, which aims to cover current English only, without the historical focus. The original edition, mostly based on theOED1, was edited byFrancis George Fowler andHenry Watson Fowler and published in 1911, before the main work was completed.[85] Revised editions appeared throughout the twentieth century to keep it up to date with changes in English usage.
The Pocket Oxford Dictionary of Current English was originally conceived by F. G. Fowler and H. W. Fowler to be compressed, compact, and concise. Its primary source is the Oxford English Dictionary, and it is nominally an abridgement of the Concise Oxford Dictionary. It was first published in 1924.[86]
In 1998 theNew Oxford Dictionary of English (NODE) was published. While also aiming to cover current English,NODE was not based on theOED. Instead, it was an entirely new dictionary produced with the aid ofcorpus linguistics.[87] OnceNODE was published, a similarly brand-new edition of theConcise Oxford Dictionary followed, this time based on an abridgement ofNODE rather than theOED;NODE (under the new title of theOxford Dictionary of English, orODE) continues to be principal source for Oxford's product line of current-English dictionaries, including theNew Oxford American Dictionary, with theOED now only serving as the basis for scholarly historical dictionaries.
TheOED lists British headword spellings (e.g.,labour,centre) with variants following (labor,center, etc.). For the suffix more commonly spelt-ise in British English,OUP policy dictates a preference for the spelling-ize, e.g.,realize vs.realise andglobalization vs.globalisation. The rationale is etymological, in that the English suffix is mainly derived from the Greek suffix-ιζειν, (-izein), or the Latin-izāre.[88] However,-ze is also sometimes treated as anAmericanism insofar as the-ze suffix has crept into words where it did not originally belong, as withanalyse (British English), which is speltanalyze in American English.[89][90]
British prime ministerStanley Baldwin described theOED as a "national treasure".[91] AuthorAnu Garg, founder of Wordsmith.org, has called it a "lex icon".[92]Tim Bray, co-creator of Extensible Markup Language (XML), credits theOED as the developing inspiration of thatmarkup language.[93]
However, despite its claims of authority,[60] the dictionary has been criticized since the 1960s because of its scope, its claims to authority, its British-centredness and relative neglect of World Englishes,[94] its implied but unacknowledged focus on literary language and, above all, its influence. TheOED, as a commercial product, has always had to steer a line between scholarship and marketing. In his review of the 1982 supplement,[95] University of Oxford linguistRoy Harris writes that criticizing theOED is extremely difficult because "one is dealing not just with a dictionary but with a national institution", one that "has become, like the English monarchy, virtually immune from criticism in principle". He further notes that neologisms from respected "literary" authors such asSamuel Beckett andVirginia Woolf are included, whereas usage of words in newspapers or other less "respectable" sources hold less sway, even though they may be commonly used. He writes that theOED's "[b]lack-and-white lexicography is also black-and-white in that it takes upon itself to pronounce authoritatively on the rights and wrongs of usage", faulting the dictionary'sprescriptive rather thandescriptive usage.
To Harris, this prescriptive classification of certain usages as "erroneous" and the complete omission of various forms and usages cumulatively represent the "social bias[es]" of the (presumably well-educated and wealthy) compilers. However, theGuide to the Third Edition of the OED has stated that "Oxford English Dictionary is not an arbiter of proper usage, despite its widespread reputation to the contrary" and that the dictionary "is intended to be descriptive, not prescriptive".[96] The identification of "erroneous and catachrestic" usages is being removed from third edition entries, sometimes in favour of usage notes describing the attitudes to language which have previously led to these classifications.[97] Another avenue of criticism is the dictionary's non-inclusion ofetymologies for words ofAAVE or African language origin such asjazz,dig orbadmouth (the latter two are possibly ofWolof andMandinka languages, respectively).[98][99] As of 2022, OUP is preparing a specializedOxford Dictionary of African American English in collaboration withHarvard University'sHutchins Center for African and African American Research, with literary criticHenry Louis Gates Jr. being the project's editor-in-chief.[100][101]
Harris also faults the editors' "donnish conservatism" and their adherence to prudishVictorian morals, citing as an example the non-inclusion of "various centuries-old 'four-letter words'" until 1972. However, no English dictionary included suchprofanity, for fear of possible prosecution under British obscenity laws, until after the conclusion of theLady Chatterley's Lover obscenity trial in 1960. ThePenguin English Dictionary of 1965 was the first dictionary that included the wordfuck.[102]Joseph Wright'sEnglish Dialect Dictionary had includedshit in 1905.[103]
TheOED's claims of authority have also been questioned by linguists such as Pius ten Hacken, who notes that the dictionary actively strives toward definitiveness and authority but can only achieve those goals in a limited sense, given the difficulties of defining the scope of what it includes.[104]
Founding editor James Murray was also reluctant to include scientific terms, despite their documentation, unless he felt that they were widely enough used. In 1902, he declined to add the wordradium to the dictionary.[105]
TheOED has been used to support research in fields such as linguistics, psycholinguistics, and psychology. Examples include the extension of word meanings via metaphor,[106] the evolution of measurement terms like "foot" from concrete to abstract meanings,[107] and the identification of systematic patterns inword blends (e.g., "brunch" from a blend of "breakfast" and "lunch").[108]
The 2020 novelThe Dictionary of Lost Words byPip Williams centres on the creation of theOED, the fictional narrator spending much time in the Scriptorium as a child, the daughter of a fictional widowed lexicographer, and later becoming an assistant there. It has been adapted for the stage, and a television series is planned.[109]
^"About".Oxford English Dictionary.Archived from the original on 21 August 2019. Retrieved13 November 2021.As a historical dictionary, the OED is very different from those of current English, in which the focus is on present-day meanings.
^Osselton, Noel (2000). "Murray and his European Counterparts". In Mugglestone, Lynda (ed.).Lexicography and the OED: Pioneers in the Untrodden Forest. Oxford: Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-158346-9.
^Winchester, Simon (28 May 2011)."A Verb for Our Frantic Time".The New York Times.Archived from the original on 9 January 2015. Retrieved26 December 2013.
^abcdefghijklmCraigie, W. A.; Onions, C. T. (1933).A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles: Introduction, Supplement, and Bibliography. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
^Simpson, John (2002). "The Revolution in English Lexicography".Dictionaries: Journal of the Dictionary Society of North America.23:1–15.doi:10.1353/dic.2002.0004.S2CID162931774.
^"Countdown".UKGameshows.Archived from the original on 16 January 2021. Retrieved2 June 2014.
^"Series 83".The Countdown Wiki.Archived from the original on 24 June 2021. Retrieved25 June 2021.
^Fisher, Dan (25 March 1989). "20-Volume English set costs $2,500; New Oxford Dictionary – Improving on the ultimate".Los Angeles Times.Here's novelist Anthony Burgess calling it 'the greatest publishing event of the century'. It is to be marked by a half-day seminar and lunch at that bluest of blue-blood London hostelries, Claridge's. The guest list of 250 dignitaries is a literary 'Who's Who'.
^Boston, Richard (24 March 1989). "The new, 20-volume Oxford English Dictionary: Oxford's A to Z – The origin".The Guardian. London.TheEncyclopaedia Britannica and theDictionary of National Biography are indeed yet mighty, but not quite what they used to be, whereas the OED has gone from strength to strength and is one of the wonders of the world.
^Willen Brown, Stephanie (26 August 2007)."From Unregistered Words to OED3".CogSci Librarian.Archived from the original on 10 October 2007. Retrieved23 October 2007 – via BlogSpot.
^Durkin, Philip N. R. (1999). "Root and Branch: Revising the Etymological Component of the Oxford English Dictionary".Transactions of the Philological Society.97 (1):1–49.doi:10.1111/1467-968X.00044.
^Thompson, Liz (December 2005)."Pasadena: A Brand New System for theOED".Oxford English Dictionary News. Oxford University Press. p. 4.Archived from the original on 6 January 2014. Retrieved6 January 2014.
^"About".Oxford English Dictionary Online.Archived from the original on 21 August 2019. Retrieved9 June 2020.
^"Updates".Oxford English Dictionary. Retrieved12 August 2024.
^The Compact Oxford English Dictionary (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. 1991.ISBN978-0-19-861258-2.
^Logan, H. M. (1989). "Report on a New OED Project: A Study of the History of New Words in the New OED".Computers and the Humanities.23 (4–5):385–395.doi:10.1007/BF02176644.JSTOR30204378.S2CID46572232.
^Holmgren, R. J. (21 December 2013)."v3.x under Macintosh OSX and Linux".Oxford English Dictionary (OED) on CD-ROM in a 16-, 32-, or 64-bit Windows environment. Archived fromthe original on 6 July 2014. Retrieved7 June 2014.
^Harris, Roy (1982). "Review of RW Burchfield A Supplement to the OED Volume 3: O–Scz".TLS.3:935–936.
^"Guide to the Third Edition of the OED". Oxford University Press. Archived fromthe original on 6 September 2015. Retrieved30 August 2014.TheOxford English Dictionary is not an arbiter of proper usage, despite its widespread reputation to the contrary. The Dictionary is intended to be descriptive, not prescriptive. In other words, its content should be viewed as an objective reflection of English language usage, not a subjective collection of usage 'dos' and 'don'ts.
^"fuck, v.".Oxford English Dictionary Online. September 2024 [Original date March 2008].Archived from the original on 3 May 2015. Retrieved14 October 2024.
^Gross, John,The Oxford Book of Parodies, Oxford University Press, 2010, pg. 319
^Xu, Yang; Malt, Barbara; Srinivasan, Mahesh (2017). "Evolution of word meanings through metaphorical mapping: Systematicity over the past millennium".Cognitive Psychology.96:41–53.doi:10.1016/j.cogpsych.2017.05.005.PMID28601710.
Gleick, James (5 November 2006)."Cyber-Neologoliferation".James Gleick. Archived fromthe original on 20 April 2020. Retrieved16 April 2020.First published inThe New York Times Magazine 5 November 2006
Full title of each volume:The Oxford English Dictionary: Being a Corrected Re-issue with an Introduction, Supplement and Bibliography, of A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles: Founded Mainly on the Materials Collected by the Philological Society
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