The region constituting Morocco has been inhabited since thePaleolithic era over 300,000 years ago. TheIdrisid dynasty was established byIdris I in 788 and Morocco was subsequently ruled by a series of other independent dynasties, reaching its zenith as aregional power in the 11th and 12th centuries, under theAlmoravid andAlmohad dynasties, when it controlled most of theIberian peninsula and the Maghreb.[19] Centuries ofArab migration to the Maghreb since the 7th century shifted the demographic scope of the region. In the 15th and 16th centuries, Morocco faced external threats to its sovereignty, withPortugal seizing some territory and theOttoman Empire encroaching from the east. TheMarinid andSaadi dynasties otherwise resisted foreign domination, and Morocco was the only North African nation to escape Ottoman dominion. The'Alawi dynasty, which rules the country to this day, seized power in 1631, and over the next two centuries expandeddiplomatic and commercial relations with theWestern world. Morocco's strategic location near the mouth of the Mediterranean drew renewed European interest; in 1912, France and Spain divided the country intorespective protectorates, reserving aninternational zone in Tangier. Following intermittent riots and revolts against colonial rule, in 1956, Morocco regained its independence and reunified.
Morocco has also been referred to politically by a variety of terms denoting theSharifi heritage of the 'Alawi dynasty, such asal-Mamlakah ash-Sharīfah (المملكة الشريفة),al-Iyālah ash-Sharīfah (الإيالة الشريفة) andal-Imbarāṭūriyyah ash-Sharīfah (الإمبراطورية الشريفة), rendered in French asl'Empire chérifien and in English as the 'Sharifian Empire'.[33][34]
The area of present-day Morocco has been inhabited since at leastPaleolithic times, beginning sometime between 190,000 and 90,000 BC.[35] A recent publication has suggested that there is evidence for even earlier human habitation of the area:Homo sapiens fossils that had been discovered in the late 2000s near theAtlantic coast inJebel Irhoud were recently dated to roughly 315,000 years ago.[36] During theUpper Paleolithic, theMaghreb was more fertile than it is today, resembling asavanna, in contrast to its modern arid landscape.[37]
DNA studies ofIberomaurusian peoples atTaforalt, Morocco dating to around 15,000 years ago have found them to have a distinctive Maghrebi ancestry formed from a mixture ofNear Eastern and African ancestry, which is still found as a part of the genome of modern Northwest Africans.[38] Later during theNeolithic, from around 7,500 years ago onwards, there was a migration into Northwest Africa ofEuropean Neolithic Farmers from the Iberian Peninsula (who had originated inAnatolia several thousand years prior), as well as pastoralists from theLevant, both of whom also significantly contributed to the ancestry of modern Northwest Africans.[39] Theproto-Berber tribes evolved from these prehistoric communities during the lateBronze- and earlyIron ages.[40]
In the early part ofClassical Antiquity, Northwest Africa and Morocco were slowly drawn into the wider emergingMediterranean world by thePhoenicians, who established trading colonies and settlements there, the most substantial of which wereChellah,Lixus, andMogador.[41] Mogador was established as a Phoenician colony as early as the 6th century BC.[42][page needed]
Morocco later became a realm of the Northwest African civilisation ofancient Carthage, and part of the Carthaginian empire. The earliest known independent Moroccan state was theBerber kingdom of Mauretania, under KingBaga.[43] This ancient kingdom (not to be confused with the modern state ofMauritania) flourished around 225 BC or earlier.Mauretania became aclient kingdom of theRoman Empire in 33 BC. EmperorClaudius annexed Mauretania directly in 44 AD, making it aRoman province ruled by an imperialgovernor (either aprocurator Augusti, or alegatus Augusti pro praetore).
TheMuslim conquest of the Maghreb that had begun during the mid-7th century was completed under theUmayyad Caliphate by 709. The caliphate introduced bothIslam and the Arabic language to the area; this period also saw the beginning of a trend ofArab migration to the Maghreb which would last for centuries and effect a demographic shift in the region. While constituting part of the larger empire, Morocco was initially organised as a subsidiary province ofIfriqiya, with the local governors appointed by the Muslim governor inKairouan.[45]
The indigenous Berber tribes adopted Islam, but retained theircustomary laws. They also paid taxes and tribute to the new Muslim administration.[46] The first independent Muslim state in the area of modern Morocco was theKingdom of Nekor, an emirate in theRif Mountains. It was founded bySalih I ibn Mansur in 710, as a client state to the Umayyad Caliphate. After the outbreak of theBerber Revolt in 739, the Berbers formed other independent states such as theMiknasa ofSijilmasa and theBarghawata.
al-Qarawiyyin, founded inFes in the 9th century, was a major spiritual, literary, and intellectual centre.
The founder of theIdrisid dynasty and the great-grandson ofHasan ibn Ali,Idris ibn Abdallah, had fled to Morocco after the massacre of his family by theAbbasids in theHejaz. He convinced the Awraba Berber tribes to break their allegiance to the distant Abbasid caliphs and he founded the Idrisid dynasty in 788. The Idrisids establishedFes as their capital and Morocco became a centre of Muslim learning and a majorregional power. The Idrisids were ousted in 927 by theFatimid Caliphate and their Miknasa allies. After Miknasa broke off relations with the Fatimids in 932, they were removed from power by theMaghrawa of Sijilmasa in 980.
From the 11th century onward, a series of Berber dynasties arose.[47][48][49] Under theSanhajaAlmoravid dynasty and theMasmudaAlmohad dynasty,[50] Morocco dominated the Maghreb,al-Andalus inIberia, and the western Mediterranean region. From the 13th century onward the country saw amassive migration of theBanu Hilal Arab tribes. In the 13th and 14th centuries theZenata BerberMarinids held power in Morocco and strove to replicate the successes of the Almohads through military campaigns in Algeria and Spain. They were followed by theWattasids. In the 15th century, theReconquista ended Muslim rule in Iberia and many Muslims andJews fled to Morocco.[51]Portuguese efforts to control the Atlantic sea trade in the 15th century did not greatly affect the interior of Morocco even though they managed to control some possessions on the Moroccan coast but not venturing further afield inland.
In 1549, the region fell to successive Arab dynasties claiming descent from the Islamic prophetMuhammad: first theSaadi dynasty who ruled from 1549 to 1659, and then theAlawi dynasty, who have remained in power since the 17th century. Morocco faced aggression fromSpain in the north, and the Ottoman Empire's allies pressing westward.
After a period of political fragmentation and conflict during the decline of the Saadi dynasty, Morocco was finally reunited by the Alawi sultanal-Rashid in the late 1660s, who took Fez in 1666 and Marrakesh in 1668.[18]: 230 [53]: 225 The 'Alawis succeeded in stabilising their position, and while the kingdom was smaller than previous ones in the region, it remained quite wealthy. Against the opposition of local tribesIsmail Ibn Sharif (1672–1727) began to create a unified state.[54] With hisRiffian army, he re-occupiedTangier from the English who had abandoned it in 1684 and drove the Spanish fromLarache in 1689. The Portuguese abandonedMazagão, their last territory in Morocco, in 1769. However, thesiege of Melilla against the Spanish ended in defeat in 1775.
Morocco was the first nation to recognise the fledgling United States as an independent nation in 1777.[55][56][57] In the beginning of theAmerican Revolution, American merchant ships in the Atlantic Ocean were subject to attacks by other fleets. On 20 December 1777, Morocco's SultanMohammed III declared that American merchant ships would be under the protection of the sultanate and could thus enjoy safe passage. The 1786Moroccan–American Treaty of Friendship stands as the United States' oldest unbroken friendship treaty.[58][59]
As Europe industrialised, Northwest Africa was increasingly prized for its potential for colonisation. France showed a strong interest in Morocco as early as 1830, not only to protect the border of its Algerian territory, but also because of the strategic position of Morocco with coasts on the Mediterranean and the open Atlantic.[61] In 1860, a dispute over Spain's Ceuta enclave led Spain to declare war. Victorious Spain won a further enclave and an enlarged Ceuta in the settlement. In 1884, Spain created a protectorate in the coastal areas of Morocco.
Tangier's population in 1956 included 40,000 Muslims, 31,000 Europeans and 15,000 Jews.[62]
In 1904, France and Spain carved out zones of influence in Morocco. Recognition by theUnited Kingdom of France'ssphere of influence provoked a strong reaction from theGerman Empire; and a crisis loomed in 1905. The matter was resolved at theAlgeciras Conference in 1906. TheAgadir Crisis of 1911 increased tensions between European powers. The 1912Treaty of Fez made Morocco aprotectorate of France, and triggered the1912 Fez riots.[63] Spain continued to operate its coastal protectorate. By the same treaty, Spain assumed the role ofprotecting power over the northern coastal and southernSaharan zones.[64]
Tens of thousands of colonists entered Morocco. Some bought up large amounts of rich agricultural land, while others organised the exploitation and modernisation of mines and harbours. Interest groups that formed among these elements continually pressured France to increase its control over Morocco – with some Moroccan tribes allying with the French against other competing tribes from early on in its conquest. The French colonial administrator, Governor general MarshalHubert Lyautey, sincerely admired Moroccan culture and succeeded in imposing a joint Moroccan-French administration, while creating a modern school system. Several divisions of Moroccan soldiers (Goumiers or regular troops and officers) served in theFrench army in bothWorld War I andWorld War II, and in the SpanishNationalist Army in theSpanish Civil War and after (Regulares).[65] The institution ofslavery was abolished in 1925.[66]
Between 1921 and 1926, anuprising in theRif Mountains, led byAbd el-Krim, led to the establishment of theRepublic of the Rif. The Spanish used anti-civilian bombing raids and mustard gas to prevent the Rif republic from gaining independence.[67] They lost more than 13,000 soldiers atAnnual in July–August 1921 alone.[68] The Riffi were eventually suppressed by 1927 by the Franco-Spanish military. The casualties on the Spanish-French side were 52,000 and from the Riffi 10,000 died.[69]
In 1943, theIstiqlal Party (Independence Party) was founded to press for independence, with discreet US support. Moroccan nationalists drew heavily ontransnational activist networks for lobbying to end colonial rule, primarily at the United Nations.[70] The Istiqlal Party subsequently provided most of the leadership for the nationalist movement.
KingMohammed V during a visit to the United States in 1957
France's exile of SultanMohammed V in 1953 toMadagascar and his replacement by the unpopularMohammed Ben Aarafa sparked active opposition to the French and Spanish protectorates.[71] The most notable violence occurred inOujda where Moroccans attacked French and other European residents in the streets.[72] France allowed Mohammed V to return in 1955, and the negotiations that led to Moroccan independence began the following year.[73] In March 1956 Morocco regained its independence from France as the Kingdom of Morocco. A month later Spain forsook its protectorate in Northern Morocco to the new state but kept its two coastal enclaves (Ceuta andMelilla) on the Mediterranean coast which dated from earlier conquests, but over which Morocco still claimssovereignty to this day.
Sultan Mohammed became King in 1957. Upon the death of Mohammed V,Hassan II became King of Morocco on 3 March 1961. Morocco held its firstgeneral elections in 1963. However, Hassan declared a state of emergency and suspended parliament in 1965. In 1971 and 1972, there were two failed attempts to depose the king and establish a republic. A truth commission set up in 2005 to investigate human rights abuses during his reign confirmed nearly 10,000 cases, ranging from death in detention to forced exile. Some 592 people were recorded killed during Hassan's rule according to the truth commission.
In 1963, theSand War was fought between Algerian and Moroccan troops over Moroccan claims to parts of Algerian territory. A formal peace agreement was signed in February 1964; however, relations remained strained between the two countries following the conflict.[74] The Spanishenclave ofIfni in the south was returned to Morocco in 1969.[75]
ThePolisario movement was formed in 1973, with the aim of establishing an independent state in the Spanish Sahara. On 6 November 1975, King Hassan asked for volunteers to cross into the Spanish Sahara. Some 350,000 civilians were reported as being involved in the "Green March".[76] A month later, Spain agreed to leave the Spanish Sahara, soon to become Western Sahara, and to transfer it to joint Moroccan-Mauritanian control, despite the objections and threats of military intervention by Algeria. Moroccan forces occupied the territory.[51]
Moroccan and Algerian troopssoon clashed in Western Sahara. Morocco and Mauritania divided up Western Sahara. Fighting between the Moroccan military and Polisario forces continued for many years. The prolonged war was a considerable financial drain on Morocco. In 1983, Hassan cancelled planned elections amid political unrest and economic crisis. In 1984, Morocco left the Organisation of African Unity in protest at theSADR's admission to the body. Polisario claimed to have killed more than 5,000 Moroccan soldiers between 1982 and 1985.[77] Algerian authorities have estimated the number ofSahrawi refugees in Algeria to be 165,000.[78] Diplomatic relations with Algeria were restored in 1988. In 1991, a UN-monitored ceasefire began in Western Sahara, but the territory's status remains undecided and ceasefire violations are reported. The following decade saw much wrangling over aproposed referendum on the future of the territory but the deadlock was not broken.[79]
Political reforms in the 1990s resulted in the establishment of a bicameral legislature with Morocco's first opposition-led government coming to power. King Hassan II died in 1999 and was succeeded by his son,Mohammed VI.[80] He is a cautious moderniser who has introduced some economic and social liberalisation.[81] Mohammed VI paid a controversial visit to the Western Sahara in 2002.[82] Morocco unveiled an autonomy blueprint for Western Sahara to the United Nations in 2007.[83] The Polisario rejected the plan and put forward its own proposal.[84] Morocco and the Polisario Front held UN-sponsored talks in New York City but failed to come to any agreement.[85] In 2010, security forces stormed a protest camp in the Western Sahara, triggering violent demonstrations in the regional capitalEl Aaiún.[86]
In 2002, Morocco and Spain agreed to a US-brokered resolution over the disputed island ofPerejil. Spanish troops had taken the normally uninhabited island after Moroccan soldiers landed on it and set up tents and a flag.[87] There were renewed tensions in 2005, as dozens of African migrants stormed the borders of the Spanish enclaves of Melilla and Ceuta. In response, Spain deported dozens of the illegal migrants to Morocco from Melilla.[88] In 2006, the Spanish PremierZapatero visited Spanish enclaves. He was the first Spanish leader in 25 years to make an official visit to the territories.[89] The following year, Spanish KingJuan Carlos I visited Ceuta and Melilla, further angering Morocco which demanded control of the enclaves.[90]
During the2011–2012 Moroccan protests, thousands of people rallied in Rabat and other cities calling for political reform and a new constitution curbing the powers of the king. In July 2011, the King won a landslide victory in areferendum on a reformed constitution he had proposed to placate theArab Spring protests.[91] In the firstgeneral elections that followed, the moderate IslamistJustice and Development Party won a plurality of seats, withAbdelilah Benkirane being designated as head of government per the new constitution.[92] Despite the reforms made by Mohammed VI, demonstrators continued to call for deeper reforms. Hundreds took part in a trade union rally in Casablanca in May 2012. Participants accused the government of failing to deliver on reforms.[93]
On 24 August 2021, neighbouring Algeria cut diplomatic relations with Morocco, accusing Morocco of supporting a separatist group and hostile actions against Algeria. Morocco called the decision unjustified. Foreign MinisterRamtane Lamamra accused Morocco of usingPegasus spyware against its officials.[94]Amnesty International found that two phones of Sahraoui human rights defenderAminatou Haidar were infected in November 2021.[95]
On 8 September 2023, a 6.8 magnitudeearthquake hit Morocco killing more than 2,800 people and injuring thousands. Theepicentre of the quake was around 70 km southwest of city of Marrakech.[96]
On 10 December 2020, theIsrael–Morocco normalisation agreement was announced, and Morocco announced its intention to resume diplomatic relations with Israel.[97] Joint Declaration of the Kingdom of Morocco, the United States of America and the State of Israel was signed on 22 December 2020.[98] The agreement was met with criticism due to the October 2023Gaza war. Moroccan Foreign MinisterNasser Bourita argues that maintaining relations does not signify endorsement of Israeli government actions.[99]
A large part of Morocco is mountainous. TheAtlas Mountains are located mainly in the centre and the south of the country. TheRif Mountains are located in the north of the country. Both ranges are mainly inhabited by theBerber people.[102] Its total area is about 446,300 km2 (172,317 sq mi).[103] Algeria borders Morocco to the east and southeast, though the border between the two countries has been closed since 1994.[104] The internationally recognised borders of the country lie between latitudes27° and 36°N, and longitudes 1° and14°W. Morocco's capital city isRabat, a city that is beside theOued Bou Regreg River; its largest city is its main port,Casablanca. Other cities recording a population over 500,000 in the2014 Moroccan census areFes,Marrakesh,Meknes,Salé andTangier.[105]
The Rif mountains stretch over the region bordering the Mediterranean from the northwest to the northeast. The Atlas Mountains run down the backbone of the country,[106] from the northeast to the southwest. Most of the southeast portion of the country is in theSahara Desert and as such is generally sparsely populated and unproductive economically. Most of the population lives to the north of these mountains, with Morocco's largest cities encapsulated by theMiddle Atlas and theHigh Atlas mountain range, while to the south lies the Western Sahara, a former Spanish colony that was annexed by Morocco in 1975 during theGreen March.[f] Morocco claims that the Western Sahara is part of its territory and refers to that as itsSouthern Provinces.[100]
Spanish territory in Northwest Africa neighbouring Morocco comprises five enclaves on the Mediterranean coast:Ceuta,Melilla,Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera,Peñón de Alhucemas, theChafarinas islands and the disputed isletPerejil. Off the Atlantic coast theCanary Islands belong to Spain, whereasMadeira to the north isPortuguese. To the north, Morocco is bordered by the Strait of Gibraltar, where international shipping has unimpededtransit passage between the Atlantic and Mediterranean.
Morocco is represented in theISO 3166-1 alpha-2 geographical encoding standard by the symbolMA.[107] This code was used as the basis for Morocco's internet domain,.ma.[107]
Central mountain ranges and the effects of the coldCanary Current, off theAtlantic coast, are significant factors in Morocco's relatively large variety of vegetation zones, ranging from lush forests in the northern and central mountains, giving way to steppe, semi-arid and desert areas in the eastern and southern regions. The Moroccan coastal plains experience moderate temperatures even in summer.[109]
In the Rif, Middle and High Atlas Mountains, there exist several different types of climates: Mediterranean along the coastal lowlands, giving way to a humid temperate climate at higher elevations with sufficient moisture to allow for the growth of different species of oaks, moss carpets, junipers, and Atlantic fir which is a royal conifer treeendemic to Morocco.[110] In the valleys, fertile soils and high precipitation allow for the growth of thick and lush forests. Cloud forests can be found in the west of the Rif Mountains and Middle Atlas Mountains. At higher elevations, the climate becomes alpine in character, and can sustain ski resorts.[109]
Southeast of the Atlas mountains, near the Algerian borders, the climate becomes very dry, with long and hot summers. Extreme heat and low moisture levels are especially pronounced in the lowland regions east of the Atlas range due to the rain shadow effect of the mountain system. The southeasternmost portions of Morocco are very hot, and include portions of theSahara desert, where vast swathes of sand dunes and rocky plains are dotted with lushoases.[111]
In contrast to the Sahara region in the south, coastalplains are fertile in the central and northern regions of the country, and comprise the backbone of the country's agriculture, in which 95% of the population live. The direct exposure to the North Atlantic Ocean, the proximity to mainland Europe and the long stretched Rif and Atlas mountains are the factors of the rather European-like climate in the northern half of the country. That makes Morocco a country of contrasts.Forested areas cover about 12% of the country while arable land accounts for 18%. Approximately 5% of Moroccan land is irrigated for agricultural use.[112]
In general, apart from the southeast regions (pre-Saharan and desert areas), Morocco's climate and geography are very similar to the Iberian peninsula. Thus Morocco has the following climate zones:
Mediterranean: Dominates the coastal Mediterranean regions of the country, along the (500 km strip), and some parts of the Atlantic coast. Summers are hot to moderately hot and dry, average highs are between 29 °C (84.2 °F) and 32 °C (89.6 °F). Winters are generally mild and wet, daily average temperatures hover around 9 °C (48.2 °F) to 11 °C (51.8 °F), and average low are around 5 °C (41.0 °F) to 8 °C (46.4 °F), typical to the coastal areas of the west Mediterranean. Annual Precipitation in this area varies from 600 to 800 mm in the west to 350–500 mm in the east. Notable cities that fall into this zone areTangier,Tetouan,Al Hoceima,Nador andSafi.
Sub-Mediterranean: It influences cities that show Mediterranean characteristics, but remain fairly influenced by other climates owing to their either relative elevation, or direct exposure to the North Atlantic Ocean. There are thus two main influencing climates:
Oceanic: Determined by the cooler summers, where highs are around 27 °C (80.6 °F) and in terms of the Essaouira region, are almost always around 21 °C (69.8 °F). The medium daily temperatures can get as low as 19 °C (66.2 °F), while winters are chilly to mild and wet. Annual precipitation varies from 400 to 700 mm. Notable cities that fall into this zone areRabat,Casablanca,Kénitra,Salé andEssaouira.[111]
Continental: Determined by the bigger gap between highs and lows, that results in hotter summers and colder winters, than found in typical Mediterranean zones. In summer, daily highs can get as high as 40 °C (104.0 °F) during heat waves, but usually are between 32 °C (89.6 °F) and 36 °C (96.8 °F). However, temperatures drop as the sun sets. Night temperatures usually fall below 20 °C (68.0 °F), and sometimes as low as 10 °C (50.0 °F) in mid-summer. Winters are cooler, and can get below the freezing point multiple times between December and February. Also, snow can fall occasionally. Fès for example registered −8 °C (17.6 °F) in winter 2005. Annual precipitation varies between 500 and 900 mm. Notable cities areFès,Meknès,Chefchaouen,Beni-Mellal andTaza.[111]
Continental: Dominates the mountainous regions of the north and central parts of the country, where summers are hot to very hot, with highs between 32 °C (89.6 °F) and 36 °C (96.8 °F). Winters on the other hand are cold, and lows usually go beyond the freezing point. And when cold damp air comes to Morocco from the northwest, for a few days, temperatures sometimes get below −5 °C (23.0 °F). It often snows abundantly in this part of the country. Precipitation varies between 400 and 800 mm. Notable cities areKhenifra,Imilchil,Midelt andAzilal.
Alpine: Found in some parts of the Middle Atlas Mountain range and the eastern part of the High Atlas Mountain range. Summers are very warm to moderately hot, and winters are longer, cold and snowy. Precipitation varies between 400 and 1200 mm. In summer highs barely go above 30 °C (86.0 °F), and lows are cool and average below 15 °C (59.0 °F). In winters, highs average around 8 °C (46.4 °F), and lows go well below the freezing point. In this part of the country, there are many ski resorts, such asOukaimeden and Mischliefen. Notable cities areIfrane,Azrou andBoulmane.
Semi-arid: This type of climate is found in the south of the country and some parts of the east of the country, where rainfall is lower and annual precipitations are between 200 and 350 mm. However, one usually finds Mediterranean characteristics in those regions, such as the precipitation pattern and thermal attributes. Notable cities areAgadir,Marrakesh andOujda.[111]
South of Agadir and east of Jerada near the Algerian borders, arid and desert climate starts to prevail.
Due to Morocco's proximity to the Sahara desert and the North Sea of the Atlantic Ocean, two phenomena occur to influence the regional seasonal temperatures, either by raising temperatures by 7–8 degrees Celsius whensirocco blows from the east creating heatwaves, or by lowering temperatures by 7–8 degrees Celsius when cold damp air blows from the northwest, creating a coldwave or cold spell. However, these phenomena do not last for more than two to five days on average.[113]
TheBarbary lion, hunted to extinction in the wild, was a subspecies native to Morocco and is a national emblem.[3] The last Barbary lion in the wild was shot in the Atlas Mountains in 1922.[119] The other two primary predators of northern Africa, theAtlas bear andBarbary leopard, are now extinct and critically endangered, respectively. Relic populations of theWest African crocodile persisted in theDraa river until the 20th century.[120] The Barbary macaque, a primate endemic to Morocco and Algeria, is also facing extinction due to offtake for trade[121] human interruption, urbanisation, wood and real estate expansion that diminish forested area—the macaque's habitat.
Trade of animals and plants for food, pets, medicinal purposes, souvenirs and photo props is common across Morocco, despite laws making much of it illegal.[122][123] This trade is unregulated and causing unknown reductions of wild populations of native Moroccan wildlife. Because of the proximity of northern Morocco to Europe, species such as cacti, tortoises, mammal skins, and high-value birds (falcons and bustards) are harvested in various parts of the country and exported in appreciable quantities, with especially large volumes of eel harvested – 60 tons exported to the Far East in the period 2009‒2011.[124]
Following the March 1998 elections, a coalition government headed by oppositionsocialist leaderAbderrahmane Youssoufi and composed largely of ministers drawn from opposition parties, was formed. Prime Minister Youssoufi's government was the first ever government drawn primarily from opposition parties, and also represents the first opportunity for a coalition of socialists, left-of-centre, and nationalist parties to be included in the government until October 2002. It was also the first time in the modern political history of the Arab world that the opposition assumed power following an election. The current government is headed byAziz Akhannouch.
TheConstitution of Morocco provides for a monarchy with aParliament and an independentjudiciary. With the2011 constitutional reforms, the King of Morocco retains less executive powers whereas those of the prime minister have been enlarged.[127][128] The constitution grants the king honorific powers (among other powers); he is both the secular political leader and the "Commander of the Faithful" as a direct descendant of the ProphetMohammed. He presides over the Council of Ministers; appoints the Prime Minister from the political party that has won the most seats in the parliamentary elections, and on recommendations from the latter, appoints the members of the government.
The constitution of 1996 theoretically allowed the king to terminate the tenure of any minister, and after consultation with the heads of the higher and lower Assemblies, to dissolve the Parliament, suspend the constitution, call for new elections, or rule by decree. The only time this happened was in 1965. The King is formally the commander-in-chief of the armed forces.
Legislative branch
The legislature's building in Rabat
Since the constitutional reform of 1996, the bicameral legislature consists of two chambers. TheAssembly of Representatives of Morocco (Majlis an-Nuwwâb/Assemblée des Répresentants) has 395 members elected for a five-year term, 305 elected in multi-seatconstituencies and 90 in national lists consisting of women and youth.
TheAssembly of Councillors (Majlis al-Mustasharin) has 120 members, elected for a six-year term. 72 members are elected at the regional level, 20 members are elected from trade unions, 8 seats from professional organisations and 20 from wage-earners.[129]
The Parliament's powers, though still relatively limited, were expanded under the 1992 and 1996 and even further in the 2011 constitutional revisions and includebudgetary matters, approvingbills, questioning ministers, and establishing ad hoc commissions of inquiry to investigate the government's actions. The lower chamber of Parliament may dissolve the government through avote of no confidence.[130][131][132]
The latest parliamentary elections were held on8 September 2021. Voter turnout in these elections was estimated to be 50.35% of registered voters.[133][134]
Morocco is a member of theUnited Nations and belongs to theAfrican Union (AU),Arab League,Arab Maghreb Union (UMA),Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), theNon-Aligned Movement and theCommunity of Sahel–Saharan States (CEN–SAD). Morocco's relationships vary greatly between African, Arab and Western states. Morocco has had strong ties to the West in order to gain economic and political benefits.[137] France and Spain remain the primary trade partners, as well as the primary creditors and foreign investors in Morocco. From the total foreign investments in Morocco, theEuropean Union invests approximately 73.5%, whereas the Arab world invests only 19.3%. Many countries from thePersian Gulf andMaghreb regions are getting more involved in large-scale development projects in Morocco.[138]
Morocco claims sovereignty over Spanish enclaves ofCeuta andMelilla.
In 2004, theGeorge W. Bush administration granted Morocco the status ofmajor non-NATO ally.[140] Morocco was the first country in the world to recognise US sovereignty, in 1777. After gaining independence,Morocco established strong ties with the United States, receiving significant economic and military aid.[70] This partnership flourished during theCold War, with Morocco becoming a key ally against communist expansion inNorth Africa. In return, the US supported Morocco's territorial ambitions and efforts to modernise its economy. Morocco received more than $400 million in American aid between 1957 and 1963, which elevated it to the fifth-largest recipient of US agricultural assistance by 1966. The long-lasting relationship between the two nations has endured, with the US remaining one of Morocco's top allies. Additionally, Morocco is included in the European Union'sEuropean Neighbourhood Policy (ENP), which aims at bringing theEU and its neighbours closer.[141]
Morocco's membership in theAfrican Union has been marked by significant events. In 1984, Morocco withdrew from the organisation after it admitted theSahrawi Arab Democratic Republic in 1982 without conducting a referendum of self-determination in the disputed territory of Western Sahara.[142][143] This decision was made unilaterally by Morocco. However, in 2017, Morocco rejoined the AU, signaling a shift in its diplomatic stance. In November 2020,Brahim Ghali, leader of the Polisario Front and the Sahrawi president, unilaterally ended a 29-year-old ceasefire agreement with Morocco overseen by the United Nations.[144] In December 2020, Morocco had started to pursue military cooperation with Israel from a normalization agreement. Algeria backs the Polisario Front of Morocco's breakaway state, theWestern Sahara.[145] In August 2021, Algeria severed diplomatic relations with Morocco.[146] Algerian authorities have accused Rabat of supporting theMovement for the Self-Determination of Kabylie (MAK), which it classifies as a terrorist organisation.[146]
The status of theSaguia el-Hamra andRío de Oro regions is disputed. TheWestern Sahara War saw thePolisario Front, the Sahrawi rebel national liberation movement, battling both Morocco and Mauritania between 1976 and a ceasefire in 1991. The Moroccan government has stated that their claimed area of Western Sahara is referred to as the "Southern Provinces".[147] A United Nations mission,MINURSO, is tasked with organising a referendum on whether the territory should become independent or recognised as a part of Morocco.
Part of the territory, theFree Zone, is a mostly uninhabited area that the Polisario Front controls as theSahrawi Arab Democratic Republic. Its administrative headquarters are located inTindouf, Algeria. As of 2006[update], noUN member state had recognised Moroccan sovereignty over Western Sahara.[148] In 2006, the government of Morocco suggestedautonomous status for the region through the MoroccanRoyal Advisory Council for Saharan Affairs (CORCAS). The project was presented to theUnited Nations Security Council in mid-April 2007. The proposal was encouraged by Moroccan allies such as the United States, France, and Spain.[149] The Security Council has called upon the parties to enter into direct and unconditional negotiations to reach a mutually accepted political solution.[150]
In 2020, the United States under theTrump administration became the first Western country to back Morocco's contested sovereignty over the disputed Western Sahara region, on the agreement that Morocco would simultaneously normaliserelations with Israel.[151] The Polisario later declared an end to the ceasefire; this led to occasional clashes between the two.[152]
The UN maintains a small observer force in Western Sahara, where a large number of Moroccan troops are stationed. The SahrawiPolisario Front maintains an active militia of an estimated 5,000 fighters in Western Sahara and has engaged in intermittent warfare with Moroccan forces since the 1970s.
During the early 1960s to the late 1980s, under the leadership ofHassan II, Morocco had one of the worst human rights records in both Africa and the world. Government repression of political dissent was widespread during Hassan II's leadership, until it dropped sharply in the mid-1990s. The decades during which abuses were committed are referred to as theYears of Lead (les années de plomb), and includedforced disappearances, assassinations of government opponents and protesters, and secret internment camps such asTazmamart. To examine abuses committed during the reign ofKing Hassan II (1961–1999), the government under King Mohammed set up anEquity and Reconciliation Commission (IER).[154][155]
According to aHuman Rights Watch annual report in 2016, Moroccan authorities restricted the rights to peaceful expression, association and assembly through several laws. The authorities continue to prosecute both printed and online media which criticises the government or theking (or the royal family).[156] There are also persistent allegations of violence against bothSahrawi pro-independence and pro-Polisariodemonstrators[157] in Western Sahara; a disputed territory which is occupied by and considered by Morocco as part of itsSouthern Provinces. Morocco has been accused of detaining Sahrawi pro-independence activists as prisoners of conscience.[158]
Homosexual acts as well as pre-marital sex are illegal in Morocco, and can be punishable by six months to three years of imprisonment.[159][160] It is illegal toproselytise for any religion other thanIslam (article 220 of the Moroccan Penal Code), and that crime is punishable by a maximum of 15 years of imprisonment.[161][162] Violence against women and sexual harassment have been criminalised. The penalty can be from one month to five years, with fines ranging from $200 to $1,000.[163] It is also a criminal offence in Morocco to undermine the monarchy; in August 2023, a Moroccan resident of Qatar was sentenced to five years' imprisonment for criticising the King's policy decisions on Facebook.[164]
Government reforms and steady yearly growth in the region of 4–5% from 2000 to 2007, including 4.9% year-on-year growth in 2003–2007 helped the Moroccan economy to become much more robust compared to a few years earlier. For 2012, the World Bank forecast a rate of 4% growth for Morocco and 4.2% for following year, 2013.[168] Between 2000 and 2019, the share of Moroccan workers in agriculture declined, while those that are in industry increased.[169]
Tourism is one of the most important sectors in the Moroccan economy.[170] It is a strong tourist industry focused on the country's coast, culture, and history. In 2022, tourism in Morocco had surpassed the average number of visitors in the 2010s, while setting an all-time high in 2023 with 14.5 million international tourist arrivals and MAD 104.7 billion in receipts.[169] In 2010, the government launched its Vision 2020, which plans to make Morocco one of the top 20 tourist destinations in the world and to double the annual number of international arrivals to 20 million by 2020.[171] In November 2024, Morocco had nearly 16 million tourists visiting that contributed to 7% of its GDP.[172][169]
Tourism is increasingly focused on Morocco's culture, such as its ancient cities. The modern tourist industry capitalises on Morocco's ancient and Islamic sites and on its landscape and cultural history. 60% of Morocco's tourists visit for its culture and heritage. Agadir is a major coastal resort and has a third of all Moroccan bed nights.[173] It is a base for tours to the Atlas Mountains.[173] Other resorts in northern Morocco are also very popular.[174][175]
Large government sponsored marketing campaigns to attract tourists advertised Morocco as an inexpensive and exotic, yet safe, place for tourists. Most of the visitors to Morocco continue to be European, with French nationals making up almost 20% of all visitors. Most Europeans visit between April and August.[176] Casablanca is the major cruise port in Morocco, and has a developed market for tourists in Morocco. The Majorelle botanical garden in Marrakech is a popular tourist attraction. It was bought by the fashion designer Yves Saint-Laurent and Pierre Bergé in 1980.[177] As of 2006[update], activity and adventure tourism in the Atlas and Rif Mountains are the fastest growth area in Moroccan tourism. These locations have walking and trekking opportunities from late March to mid-November. The government is investing in trekking circuits. They are also developing desert tourism in competition withTunisia.[178]
Agriculture in Morocco employs about 40% of the nation's workforce. Thus, it is the largest employer in the country. In the rainy sections of the northwest,barley,wheat, and other cereals can be raised without irrigation. On the Atlantic coast, where there are extensive plains,olives,citrus fruits, andwine grapes are grown, largely with water supplied by artesian wells.Livestock are raised and forests yield cork, cabinet wood, and building materials. Part of the maritime population fishes for its livelihood.Agadir,Essaouira,El Jadida, andLarache are among the important fishing harbors.[179] Both the agriculture and fishing industries areexpected to be severely impacted by climate change.[180][181]
Moroccan agricultural production also consists oforanges,tomatoes,potatoes, olives, andolive oil. High quality agricultural products are usually exported to Europe. Morocco produces enough food for domestic consumption except for grains,sugar,coffee andtea. More than 40% of Morocco's consumption of grains and flour is imported from theUnited States andFrance.
The agriculture industry in Morocco enjoyed a complete tax exemption until 2013. Many Moroccan critics said that rich farmers and large agricultural companies were taking too much benefit of not paying the taxes and that poor farmers were struggling with high costs and are getting very poor support from the state. In 2014, as part of the Finance Law, it was decided that agricultural companies with a turnover of greater than MAD 5 million would pay progressive corporate income taxes.[182]
According to theGlobal Competitiveness Report of 2019, Morocco Ranked 32nd in the world in terms of Roads, 16th in Sea, 45th in Air and 64th in Railways. This gives Morocco the best infrastructure rankings in the African continent.[183] To meet the growing domestic demand, the Moroccan government invested more than $15 billion from 2010 to 2015 in upgrading its basic infrastructure.[184] Morocco also has the largest port in Africa and the Mediterranean,Tanger-Med, which is ranked the 18th in the world with a handling capacity of over 9 million containers. It is situated in the Tangier free economic zone and serves as a logistics hub for Africa and the world.[185]
In 2014, Morocco began the construction of the first[186] high-speed railway system in Africa linking the cities of Tangier and Casablanca. It was inaugurated in 2018 by the King following over a decade of planning and construction by Moroccan national railway companyOffice National des Chemins de Fer (ONCF).[187] It is the first phase of what is planned to eventually be a 1,500 kilometeres (930 mi) high-speed rail network in Morocco. An extension of the line to Marrakesh is already being planned. TheMoroccan Ministry of Equipment, Transport and Logistics aims to build an additional 3,380 kilometers of expressway and 2,100 kilometers of highway by 2030 withSNCF; the project came at an expected cost of US$9.6 billion. The project also involved purchasing 18 high-speed trains and 150 multi-service trains.[188]
In 2008, about 56% of Morocco's electricity supply was provided by coal.[189] However, as forecasts indicate that energy requirements in Morocco will rise 6% per year between 2012 and 2050,[190] a new law passed encouraging Moroccans to look for ways to diversify the energy supply, including morerenewable resources. The Moroccan government has launched a project to build asolar thermal energypower plant[191] and is also looking into the use of natural gas as a potential source of revenue for Morocco's government.[190]
Morocco has embarked upon the construction of largesolar energy farms to lessen dependence on fossil fuels, and to eventually export electricity toEurope.[192] On 17 April 2022, Rabat-Moroccan agency for solar energy (Masen) and the ministry of energy transition and sustainable development announced the launch of phase one of the mega project Nor II solar energy plant which is a multi-site solar energy project with a total capacity set at 400megawatts (MN).[193]
Narcotics
Cannabis field at Ketama Tidighine mountain, Morocco
Since the 7th century,cannabis has been cultivated in theRif region.[194] In 2004, according to the UN World Drugs Report, cultivation and transformation of cannabis represents 0.57% of the national GDP of Morocco in 2002.[195] According to a French Ministry of the Interior 2006 report, 80% of the cannabis resin (hashish) consumed in Europe comes from the Rif region in Morocco, which is mostly mountainous terrain in the north of Morocco, also hosting plains that are very fertile and expanding from Melwiyya River andRas Kebdana in the East to Tangier andCape Spartel in the West. Also, the region extends from the Mediterranean in the south, home of the Wergha River, to the north.[196] In addition to that, Morocco is a transit point for cocaine from South America destined for Western Europe.[197]
Water supply and sanitation in Morocco are provided by a wide array of utilities. They range from private companies in the largest city—Casablanca, Rabat, and two other cities—to public municipal utilities in 13 other cities, as well as a national electricity and water company.[198] Morocco's Office National de l’Eau Potable (ONEP) is in charge of bulk water supply in about 500 towns.[199] According to a study by the National Liquid Sanitation Master Plan (SNDAL) that started in 1994, only 15 of their 63 treatment plants are operational, and out of approximately 500million cubic meters of wastewater generated annually, 95% is discharged untreated into natural water bodies.[198]
There have been substantial improvements in access to water supply, and to a lesser extent to sanitation, over the past fifteen years. Remaining challenges include a low level of wastewater treatment (only 13% of collected wastewater is being treated), lack of house connections in the poorest urban neighbourhoods and limited sustainability of rural systems (20% of rural systems are estimated not to function). In 2005, a National Sanitation Programme was approved that aims at treating 60% of collected wastewater and connecting 80% of urban households to sewers by 2020.[200] The issue of lack of water connections for some of the urban poor is being addressed as part of theNational Human Development Initiative, under which residents of informal settlements have received land titles and have fees waived that are normally paid to utilities in order to connect to the water and sewer network. An investment programme of about MAD 15 billion was made to cover the centres managed by ONEP from 2003–2017.[198] Japanese and Canadian cooperators andAFESD have also financed several projects for ONEP.[198]
Though, between 1960 and 2020, the per capita availability ofrenewable water resources went from 2,560m3 to about 620m3 per person annually. The World Bank has reported that they have supported theNoor Solar Power project in Morocco with US$700 million in financing the project "To address water scarcity and its impacts on agriculture".[201]
TheMoroccan government has been implementing reforms to improve the quality of education and make research more responsive to socio-economic needs. In May 2009, Morocco's prime minister,Abbas El Fassi, announced that investment in science and technology would rise from US$620,000 in 2008 to US$8.5 million (69 million Moroccan dirhams) in 2009 to finance the laboratories construction, training courses for researchers and a scholarship programme for science during a meeting at the National Centre for Scientific and Technical Research.[202] Morocco was ranked 66th in theGlobal Innovation Index in 2024,[203] an increase in ranking from 2020 at 75th.[204]
TheMoroccan Innovation Strategy was launched at the country's first National Innovation Summit in June 2009 by the Ministry of Industry, Commerce, Investment and the Digital Economy. TheMoroccan Innovation Strategy fixed the target of producing 1,000 Moroccan patents and creating 200 innovative start-ups by 2014. In 2012, Moroccan inventors applied for 197 patents, up from 152 two years earlier. In 2011, the Ministry of Industry, Commerce and New Technologies created a Moroccan Club of Innovation, in partnership with the Moroccan Office of Industrial and Commercial Property. The idea is to create a network of players in innovation to help them develop innovative projects.[205]
The Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research is supporting research in advanced technologies. TheMoroccan Phosphate Office (Office chérifien des phosphates) has invested in a project to develop asmart city, King Mohammed VI Green City, around Mohammed VI University located between Casablanca and Marrakesh,[206] at a cost of DH 4.7 billion (circa US$479 million).[205][207] In 2012, theHassan II Academy of Sciences and Technologies identified a number of sectors where Morocco has a comparative advantage and skilled human capital, including mining, fisheries, food chemistry and new technologies. It also identified a number of strategic sectors, such as renewable energies, health sectors, the environment and geosciences.[205][208]
On 20 May 2015, less than a year after its inception, the Higher Council for Education, Training and Scientific Research presented a report to the king offering aVision for Education in Morocco 2015–2030. The report advocated making education egalitarian and, thus, accessible to the greatest number. The report also recommended developing an integrated national innovation system which would be financed by gradually increasing the share of GDP devoted to research and development (R&D) from 0.73% of GDP in 2010 to '1% in the short term, 1.5% by 2025 and 2% by 2030'.[205] As of 2015, Morocco had three technoparks. Since the first technopark was established in Rabat in 2005, a second has been set up in Casablanca, followed, in 2015, by a third in Tangers. The technoparks host start-ups and small and medium-sized enterprises specialising ininformation and communication technologies (ICTs), 'green' technologies (namely,environmentally friendly technologies) and cultural industries.[205] According to Office Marocain de la Propriété Industrielle et Commerciale,patent filing in Morocco grew by 167% during the period 2015–2019.[209]
In 2024, Morocco is among the top four most-connected populations of a country to the Internet in Africa by number of population.[210] In 2022, the number of internet users in Morocco reached around 31.6 million.[211] Later, as of January 2024, Morocco had approximately 34.5 million internet users; it has apenetration rate of about 90.7%.[212] Morocco has several Internet-related projects; an example of such is the National Digital Development Strategy 2030.[213] In 2024, as part of another program called the Connected Campus, the American wireless network providerCambium Networks deployed 18,000Wi-Fi access points for public universities in Morocco.[214]
Morocco has a population of around 37,076,584 inhabitants (2021 estimate).[215][216] Morocco's population was 11.6 million in 1960.[217] In 2024, 49.7% of the population is female, while 50.3% of it is male.[212] According to the 2014 Morocco population census, there were around 84,000 immigrants in the country. Of these foreign-born residents, most were ofFrench origin, followed by individuals mainly from various nations in West Africa and Algeria.[218] There are also a number of foreign residents ofSpanish origin. Some of them are descendants of colonial settlers, who primarily work for European multinational companies, while others are married to Moroccans or are retirees. Prior to independence, Morocco was home to half a millionEuropeans, most of whom wereChristians.[219] Also, prior to independence, Morocco was home to 250,000 Spaniards.[220] Morocco's once prominentJewish minority has decreased significantly since its peak of 265,000 in 1948, declining to around 3,500 in 2022.[221]
Morocco has a largediaspora, most of which is located in France, which has reportedly over one million Moroccans of up to the third generation. There are also large Moroccan communities in Spain (about 700,000 Moroccans),[222] the Netherlands (360,000), and Belgium (300,000).[223] Other large communities can be found in Italy, Canada, the United States and Israel, whereMoroccan Jews are thought to constitute the second biggest Jewish ethnic subgroup.[224] Morocco is also the country with the largest Berber population in the world,[225][226] with estimates typically ranging between 40–60% of the population.[227][228]
In Morocco,ethnic identity is deeply intertwined with language and culture, with the population primarily comprising two major groups:Arabs andBerbers.[230][231] However, theHigher Planning Commission, the country’s state statistics bureau, does not collect data on ethnic demographics, citing the historical difficulty of distinguishing between Arabs and Berbers, even among Berber speakers.[232][233]
The religious affiliation in the country was estimated by thePew Forum in 2010 as 99%Muslim, with all remaining groups accounting for less than 1% of the population.[245] Of those affiliated with Islam, virtually all areSunni Muslims, withShia Muslims accounting for less than 0.1%.[246] However, nearly 15% of Moroccans nonetheless describe themselves as non religious according to a 2018 survey conducted by the research network Arab Barometer; the same survey saw nearly 100 percent of respondents identify as Muslims.[247] Another 2021 Arab Barometer survey found that 67.8% of Moroccans identified as religious, 29.1% as somewhat religious, and 3.1% as non religious.[248] The 2015Gallup International poll reported that 93% of Moroccans considered themselves to be religious.[249]
Prior to Morocco's independence in 1956, the country was home to a significantChristian community, numbering over500,000 Christians, predominantly of Spanish and French ancestry.[250] These Catholic settlers had a historic legacy and a powerful presence.[250] However, following Morocco's independence, many of these Christian settlers left to Spain or France.[250] The predominantlyCatholic andProtestant foreign-residentChristian community consists of approximately 40,000 practising members. Most foreign residentChristians reside in theCasablanca,Tangier,Marrakesh andRabat urban areas.[251] Meanwhile, the Moroccan Association of Human Rights estimates there are 25,000 Christian citizens.[251]
Before thefounding of theState of Israel in 1948, there were about265,000 Jews[252] in the country, which gave Morocco the largest Jewish community in theMuslim world. The most recent estimates put the size of the historic Casablanca Jewish community at about 2,500,[253][254] and the Rabat and Marrakesh Jewish communities at about 100 members each. The remainder of the Jewish population is dispersed throughout the country. This population is mostly elderly, with a decreasing number of young people.[255] TheBaháʼí Faith community, located in urban areas, numbers 350 to 400 persons.[255]
Morocco's official languages areArabic andBerber.[7][256] The country's distinctive group of Moroccan Arabic dialects is referred to asDarija.[257] Approximately 92.7% of the whole population can speak Arabic. Berber languages are spoken by 24.8% of the population in three dialects (Tarifit spoken by 3.2%,Tashelhit spoken by 14.2% andCentral Atlas Tamazight spoken by 7.4%).[2] According to the2024 census, 99.2%, or almost the entire literate population of Morocco, could read and write in Arabic, whereas 1.5% of the population could read and write in Berber. The census also reported that 80.6% of Moroccans consider Arabic to be their native language, while 18.9% regard any of the various Berber languages as their mother tongue.[2][258] After Morocco declared independence in 1956, French and Arabic became the main languages of administration and education.[259]
French is widely used in governmental institutions, media, mid-size and large companies, international commerce with French-speaking countries and often in international diplomacy.[260] French is taught as an obligatory language in all schools. According to the 2004 census, 2.19 million Moroccans spoke a foreign language other than French.[261]English, while far behind French in terms of number of speakers, is the first foreign language of choice, since French is obligatory, among educated youth and professionals. In 2010, there were 10,366,000 French-speakers in Morocco, or about 32% of the population.[262][4]
According toEthnologue, as of 2016, there are 1,536,590 individuals (or approximately 4.5% of the population) in Morocco who speakSpanish.[263] Spanish is mostly spoken in northern Morocco and the formerSpanish Sahara because Spain had previously occupied those areas.[264] Meanwhile, a 2018 study by theInstituto Cervantes found 1.7 million Moroccans who were at least proficient in Spanish, placing Morocco as the country with the most Spanish speakers outside the Hispanophone world (unless the United States is also excluded from Spanish-speaking countries).[265] A significant portion of northern Morocco receives Spanish media, television signal and radio airwaves, which reportedly facilitate competence in the language in the region.[259]
Education in Morocco is free and compulsory through primary school. The estimatedliteracy rate for the country in 2012 was 72%.[266] In September 2006, UNESCO awarded Morocco, amongst other countries such asCuba,Pakistan,India andTurkey, the "UNESCO 2006 Literacy Prize".[267]
Morocco has more thanfour dozen universities, institutes of higher learning and polytechnics dispersed at urban centres throughout the country. Its leading institutions includeMohammed V University in Rabat, the country's largest university, with branches in Casablanca and Fès; the Hassan II Agriculture and Veterinary Institute in Rabat, which conducts leading social science research in addition to its agricultural specialties; andAl-Akhawayn University in Ifrane, the first English-language university in Northwest Africa,[268] inaugurated in 1995 with contributions from Saudi Arabia and the United States.
Many efforts are made by countries around the world to address health issues and eradicate disease, Morocco included. Morocco is a developing country that has made many strides to improve these categories. According to research published, in 2005, only 16% of citizens in Morocco had health insurance or coverage.[273] In data from the World Bank, Morocco experiences high infant mortality rates at 20 deaths per 1,000 births (2017)[274] and high maternal mortality rates at 121 deaths per 100,000 births (2015).[275]
The government of Morocco sets up surveillance systems within the already existing healthcare system to monitor and collect data. Mass education in hygiene is implemented in primary education schools which are free for residents of Morocco. In 2005, the government of Morocco approved two reforms to expand health insurance coverage.[273] The first reform was a mandatory health insurance plan for public and private sector employees to expand coverage from 16 percent of the population to 30 percent. The second reform created a fund to cover services for the poor. Both reforms improved access to high-quality care. Infant mortality has improved significantly since 1960 when there were 144 deaths per 1,000 live births, in 2000, 42 per 1,000 live births, and it is 15 per 1,000 live births in 2022.[274] The country's under-five mortality rate dropped by 60% between 1990 and 2011.
According to data from the World Bank,[274] the present mortality rate is still very high, over seven times higher than in neighbouring country Spain. In 2014, Morocco adopted a national plan to increase progress on maternal and child health.[276] The Moroccan Plan was started by the Moroccan Minister of Health, El Houssaine Louardi and Ala Alwan, WHO Regional Director for the Eastern Mediterranean Region, on 13 November 2013 in Rabat.[276] Morocco has made significant progress in reducing deaths among both children and mothers. Based on World Bank data, the nation's maternal mortality ratio fell by 67% between 1990 and 2010.[275]
In 2014, spending on healthcare accounted for 5.9% of the country's GDP.[277] Since 2014, spending on healthcare as part of the GDP has decreased. However, health expenditure per capita (PPP) has steadily increased since 2000. In 2015, the Moroccan health expenditure was $435.29 per capita.[278] In 2016, the life expectancy at birth was 74.3, or 73.3 for men and 75.4 for women, and there were 6.3 physicians and 8.9 nurses and midwives per 10,000 inhabitants.[279] In 2024, according to theWorld Factbook, life expectancy for Morocco is 74.2 years.[280]
A living room with a traditional Moroccan interior
Morocco is a country with a richculture andcivilisation.[281] ThroughMoroccan history, it has hosted many people. Culturally speaking, Morocco has combined its Arabic, Berber and Jewish cultural heritage with external influences such as the French and the Spanish and, during the last decades, the Anglo-American lifestyles.[282][283][284] Since independence, painting and sculpture, music, amateur theatre and filmmaking have developed.[285] The Moroccan National Theatre (founded 1956) offers regular productions of Moroccan and French dramatic works. Art and music festivals take place throughout the country during the summer months, among them theWorld Sacred Music Festival at Fès.
Although Moroccan Amazigh architecture is not strictly separate from the rest of Moroccan architecture, many structures and architectural styles are distinctively associated with traditionally Amazigh or Amazigh-dominated regions such as theAtlas Mountains and the Sahara and pre-Sahara regions.[292] These mostly rural regions are marked by numerouskasbahs (fortresses) andksour (fortified villages) shaped by local geography and social structures, of which one of the most famous isAit Benhaddou.[293] They are typically made oframmed earth and decorated with local geometric motifs. Far from being isolated from other historical artistic currents around them, the Amazigh peoples of Morocco (and across North Africa) adapted the forms and ideas of Islamic architecture to their own conditions[294] and in turn contributed to the formation of Western Islamic art, particularly during their political domination of the region over the centuries ofAlmoravid,Almohad, andMarinid rule.[291][292]
Modern architecture in Morocco includes many examples of early 20th-centuryArt Deco and localneo-Moorish architecture constructed during theFrench andSpanish colonial occupation of the country between 1912 and 1956 (or until 1958 for Spain).[295][296] In the later 20th century, after Morocco regained its independence, some new buildings continued to pay tribute to traditional Moroccan architecture and motifs (even when designed by foreign architects), as exemplified by theMausoleum of King Mohammed V (completed in 1971) and the massiveHassan II Mosque inCasablanca (completed in 1993).[297][298] Modernist architecture is also evident in contemporary constructions, not only for regular everyday structures but also in major prestige projects.[299][300]
Under theAlmohad dynasty Morocco experienced a period of prosperity and brilliance of learning. The Almohad built theKutubiyya Mosque in Marrakesh, which accommodated no fewer than 25,000 people, but was also famed for its books, manuscripts, libraries and book shops, which gave it its name; the first bookbazaar in history. The Almohad CaliphAbu Yakub had a great love for collecting books. He founded a great library, which was eventually carried to theCasbah and turned into apublic library.
Modern Moroccan literature began in the 1930s. Two main factors gave Morocco a pulse toward witnessing the birth of modern literature. Morocco, as aFrench andSpanish protectorate left Moroccan intellectuals the opportunity to exchange and to produce literary works freely with the contact of otherArabic literature and Europe. Three generations of writers especially shaped 20th century Moroccan literature.[301] The first was the generation that lived and wrote during theProtectorate (1912–1956), its most important representative beingMohammed Ben Brahim (1897–1955). The second generation played an important role in the transition to independence, with writers likeAbdelkrim Ghallab (1919–2006),Allal al-Fassi (1910–1974) andMohammed al-Mokhtar Soussi (1900–1963). The third generation is that of writers of the sixties. Moroccan literature had writers such asMohamed Choukri,Driss Chraïbi,Mohamed Zafzaf andDriss El Khouri.
Moroccan music is of Arabic, Berber and sub-Saharan origins. Rock-influencedchaabi bands are widespread, as istrance music with historical origins inIslamic music. Amazigh people have also played music using alotar, a type of lute from the Rwais tribe in the High Atlas mountains. The lotar is usually played by a duo, which may also include arebab.[302] The Berber music is usuallymonodic with a pentatonic scale system.[303]Malḥūn poetry in oral form is also accompanied by traditional instruments, such as lutes, violins, rebabs and small drums.[304][305]
Aita is aBedouin musical style sung in the countryside.Chaabi ("popular") is music consisting of numerous varieties that are descended from the multifarious forms of Moroccan folk music. Chaabi was originally performed in markets, but is now found at any celebration or meeting. Morocco is also home toAndalusian classical music that is found throughout Northwest Africa. It probably evolved under the Moors inCordoba, and the Persian-born musicianZiryab is usually credited with its invention.[306] A genre known as Contemporary Andalusian music is the brainchild ofMorisco visual artist, composer andoudistTarik Banzi, founder of the Al-Andalus Ensemble. Artists likeNass El Ghiwane andJil Jilala mix traditional styles with modern influences. Popular Western forms of music are also becoming increasingly popular in Morocco, such asfusion, rock,country,metal and, in particular,hip hop.Arabic pop artists such asHatim Ammor andElGrandeToto[307] are well-known.
Cinema in Morocco has a long history, stretching back over a century to the filming ofLe chevrier Marocain ("The Moroccan Goatherd") byLouis Lumière in 1897. Between that time and 1944, many foreign movies were shot in the country, especially in theOuarzazate area. In 1944, theMoroccan Cinematographic Centre [fr] (CCM), the nation's filmregulatory agency, was established. Studios were also opened in Rabat.
In 1952,Orson Welles'Othello won thePalme d'Or at theCannes Film Festival under the Moroccan flag. However, the Festival's musicians did not play theMoroccan national anthem, as no one in attendance knew what it was.[308] Six years later, Mohammed Ousfour would create the first Moroccan movie,Le fils maudit ("The Damned Son"). In 1968, the first Mediterranean Film Festival was held in Tangier. In its current incarnation, the event is held inTetouan. This was followed in 1982 with the first national festival of cinema, which was held in Rabat. In 2001, the firstInternational Film Festival of Marrakech (FIFM) was held inMarrakech. Some of Moroccan television channels include2M,Al Aoula (Societe Nationale de Radiodiffusion et de Television) andMedi 1 TV.
Moroccan cuisine is considered one of the most diversified cuisines in the world. This is a result of the centuries-long interaction of Morocco with the outside world.[309] The cuisine of Morocco is mainly a fusion of Moorish, European and Mediterranean cuisines. Spices are used extensively in Moroccan cuisine. While spices have been imported to Morocco for thousands of years, many ingredients such assaffron fromTiliouine,mint andolives fromMeknes, and oranges and lemons from Fez, are home-grown.
Chicken is the most widely eaten meat in Morocco. The most commonly eaten red meat in Morocco is beef;lamb is preferred but is relatively expensive.[310] The main Moroccan dish most people are familiar with iscouscous,[311] the old national delicacy. Beef is the most commonly eaten red meat in Morocco, usually eaten in a tagine with vegetables or legumes. Chicken is also very commonly used in tagines; one of the most famous tagine is the tagine of chicken, potatoes and olives.Lamb is also consumed, but as Northwest African sheep breeds store most of their fat in their tails, Moroccan lamb does not have the pungent flavour that Westernlamb and mutton have. Poultry is also very common, and the use of seafood is increasing in Moroccan food. In addition, there are dried salted meats and salted preserved meats such as kliia/khlia[312] and "g'did" which are used to flavor tagines or used in "el ghraif", a folded savory Moroccan pancake.
Among the most famous Moroccan dishes areCouscous,Pastilla (also spelled Bsteeya or Bestilla),Tajine,Tanjia andHarira. Although the latter is asoup, it is considered a dish in itself and is served as such or withdates especially during the month ofRamadan. Pork consumption is forbidden in accordance withSharia, religious laws of Islam.
A big part of the daily meal is bread. Bread in Morocco is principally from durum wheat semolina known askhobz. Bakeries are very common throughout Morocco and fresh bread is a staple in every city, town and village. The most common is whole grain coarse ground or white flour bread. There are also a number of flat breads and pulled unleavened pan-fried breads. The most popular drink is "atai",green tea with mint leaves and other ingredients.
Football is the country's most popular sport, popular among the urban youth in particular. In 1986, Morocco became the first Arab and African country to qualify for the second round of theFIFA World Cup. Morocco hosted theAfrica Cup of Nations in1988 and will host it again in2025 after original host Guinea was stripped from hosting rights due to inadequacy of hosting preparations. Morocco was originally scheduled to host the2015 Africa Cup of Nations,[313] but refused to host the tournament on the scheduled dates because of fears over theEbola outbreak on the continent.[314] Morocco made six attempts to host the FIFA World Cup but lost five times to the United States, France, Germany, South Africa and a Canada–Mexico–United States joint bid, however Morocco will co-host it in2030 along withPortugal andSpain having finally won the bid in their sixth attempt. In2022, Morocco became the first African and Arab team to reach the semifinals and finished 4th in the tournament.[315]
Spectator sports in Morocco traditionally centred on the art ofhorsemanship until European sports—football,polo,swimming andtennis—were introduced at the end of the 19th century. Tennis andgolf have become popular.[316][317] Several Moroccan professional players have competed in international competition, and the country fielded its firstDavis Cup team in 1999. Morocco established one of Africa's first competitive leagues in basketball.[318]Rugby came to Morocco in the early 20th century, mainly by the French who occupied the country.[319] As a result,Moroccan rugby was tied to the fortunes of France, during the first and secondWorld War, with many Moroccan players going away to fight.[319] Like many other Maghreb nations, Moroccan rugby tended to look to Europe for inspiration, rather than to the rest of Africa.Kickboxing is also popular in Morocco.[320] The Moroccan-DutchBadr Hari, heavyweight kickboxer and martial artist, is a former K-1 heavyweight champion and K-1 World Grand Prix 2008 and 2009 finalist.[321]
^TheFrench language in Morocco is also used in official government documents and by the business community, although it has no official status: "French (often the language of business, government, and diplomacy)..."[3][4]
^The area 446,300 km2 (172,300 sq mi) excludes all disputed territories, while 716,550 km2 (276,660 sq mi) includes the Moroccan-claimed and partially-controlled parts ofWestern Sahara (claimed as theSahrawi Arab Democratic Republic by thePolisario Front). Morocco also claimsCeuta andMelilla, making up about 22.8 km2 (8.8 sq mi) more claimed territory.[8]
^ab"Présentation du Maroc" (in French). Ministère de l'Europe et des Affaires étrangères.Archived from the original on 7 February 2023. Retrieved20 December 2020.
^Hyde, Martin (October 1994). "The teaching of English in Morocco: the place of culture".ELT Journal.48 (4):295–305.doi:10.1093/elt/48.4.295.ISSN0951-0893.
^"Regional Profiles: Morocco".The Association of Religion Data Archives. World Religion Database.Archived from the original on 5 September 2022. Retrieved5 September 2022.
^abConstitution of the Kingdom of Morocco. Translated by Ruchti, Jefri J. Getzville: William S. Hein & Co. 2012.Archived from the original on 6 October 2022. Retrieved6 October 2022. First published in the Official Bulletin on 30 July 2011.
^Gauthier, Christophe (2022)."Horloge de la population".Site Institutionnel du Haut-Commissariat Au Plan du Royaume du Maroc (in French).HCP.Archived from the original on 20 May 2023. Retrieved18 December 2022.
^Bressolette, Henri (2016). "Fondation de Fès El Bali par Idriss Ier et Idriss II".A la découverte de Fès. L'Harmattan.ISBN978-2-343-09022-1.Archived from the original on 20 July 2023. Retrieved17 November 2021.
^Rubella, D. (1984). "Environmentalism and Pi Paleolithic economies in the Maghreb (c. 20,000 to 5000 B.P.)". In J.D. Clark & S.A. Brandt (ed.).From hunters to farmers the causes and consequences of food production in Africa. Berkeley: University of California Press. pp. 41–56.ISBN978-0520045743.
^Asiwaju, A.I. (January 1985).Partitioned Africans: Ethnic Relations Across Africa's International Boundaries. C. Hurst & Co. p. 237.ISBN0-905838-91-2.
^Roberts, Priscilla H. and Richard S. Roberts,Thomas Barclay (1728–1793): Consul in France, Diplomat in Barbary, Lehigh University Press, 2008, pp. 206–223ISBN093422398X.
^Nowell K, Jackson P, ed. (1996)."Panthera Leo"(PDF).Wild Cats: Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN/SSC Cat Specialist Group. pp. 17–21.ISBN978-2-8317-0045-8.Archived(PDF) from the original on 7 August 2007. Retrieved20 March 2011.
^Brooke-Holland, Louisa (29 November 2023)."Western Sahara".House of Commons Library.
^"Paragraph 37".Report of the Secretary-General on the situation concerning Western Sahara (S/2006/249). United Nations Security Council. p. 10.Archived from the original on 18 October 2017. Retrieved29 June 2017.
^"Morocco and Western Sahara: Events of 2015".Morocco and Western Sahara. 12 January 2016.Archived from the original on 29 May 2017. Retrieved3 June 2017.
^"Green City of Benguerir"(PDF).Société D'aménagement & De Développement Vert. Retrieved27 January 2025.
^Agénor, P.R.; El-Aynaoui, K. (2015).Morocco: Growth Strategy for 2025 in an Evolving International Environment. Rabat: Policy Centre of the Office chérifien des phosphates.
^Developing Scientific Research and Innovation to Win the Battle of Competitiveness: an Inventory and Key Recommendations. Rabat: Hassan II Academy of Science and Technology. 2012.
^abcPicard, Louis A.; Buss, Terry F.; Seybolt, Taylor B.; Lelei, Macrina C. (22 April 2015).Sustainable Development and Human Security in Africa: Governance as the Missing Link. CRC Press.ISBN978-1-4822-5543-0.Although the majority of Moroccans are Arabs, the Berbers (or Amazigh) represent 30%. Berbers are spread out in rural areas: the Rif Mountains, Middle High, and Anti-Atlas, and southern Souss Valley, as well as Morocco's major cities.
^abcThe Report: Morocco 2012. Oxford Business Group. 2012.ISBN978-1-907065-54-5.Archived from the original on 7 March 2023. Retrieved28 December 2022.Morocco's population is approximately 67% Arab, 31% indigenous Berber and 2% Sahrawi
^"Who Are the Berber People?".WorldAtlas. 1 August 2017. Retrieved3 September 2024.The majority of the Berber people live in Morocco accounting for at least 35% of the population and in Algeria where they form at least 15% of the population.
^e.g. Khalid Amine and Marvin Carlson,The Theatres of Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia: Performance Traditions of the Maghreb (Dordrecht NL: Springer, 2011), 124–28.ISBN0230358519
^abGaudio, Attilio (1982).Fès: Joyau de la civilisation islamique. Paris: Les Presse de l'UNESCO: Nouvelles Éditions Latines.ISBN2723301591.
^abMarçais, Georges (1954).L'architecture musulmane d'Occident. Paris: Arts et métiers graphiques.
^abParker, Richard (1981).A practical guide to Islamic Monuments in Morocco. Charlottesville, VA: The Baraka Press.
^Touri, Abdelaziz; Benaboud, Mhammad; Boujibar El-Khatib, Naïma; Lakhdar, Kamal; Mezzine, Mohamed (2010).Le Maroc andalou : à la découverte d'un art de vivre (2nd ed.). Ministère des Affaires Culturelles du Royaume du Maroc & Museum With No Frontiers.ISBN978-3902782311.
^Barrucand, Marianne; Bednorz, Achim (1992).Moorish architecture in Andalusia. Taschen.ISBN3822876348.
^Wright, Gwendolyn (1991).The Politics of Design in French Colonial Urbanism. University of Chicago Press.
^Gilson Miller, Susan; Petruccioli, Attilio; Bertagnin, Mauro (2001). "Inscribing Minority Space in the Islamic City: The Jewish Quarter of Fez (1438–1912)".Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians.60 (3):310–327.doi:10.2307/991758.JSTOR991758.
^M. Bloom, Jonathan; S. Blair, Sheila, eds. (2009). "Morocco, Kingdom of".The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture. Oxford University Press.ISBN9780195309911.
^Mohammed Benjelloun Touimi, Abdelkbir Khatibi and Mohamed Kably,Ecrivains marocains, du protectorat à 1965, 1974 éditions Sindbad, Paris and Hassan El Ouazzani,La littérature marocaine contemporaine de 1929 à 1999 (2002, ed. Union des écrivains du Maroc and Dar Attaqafa)
^Hartenberger, Aurelia (5 January 2021)."Morocco 'Lotar' (A)".Hartenberger World Musical Instrument Collection. Retrieved27 January 2025.
^Blench, Roger (1 January 2021)."Reconstructing the history of Berber music".Approches pour l'histoire de la langue berbère: Mise en perspective d'une langue a travers les ages. Retrieved27 January 2025.
Stenner, David.Globalizing Morocco: Transnational Activism and the Postcolonial State (Stanford UP, 2019).online reviewArchived 22 May 2020 at theWayback Machine
1Entirely claimed by both Morocco and theSADR.2Spanish exclaves claimed by Morocco.3Portuguese archipelago claimed by Spain.4Disputed between Egypt and the Sudan.5Unclaimed territory located between Egypt and the Sudan.6Disputed between South Sudan and the Sudan.7Part of Chad, formerly claimed by Libya.8Disputed between Morocco and Spain
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