TheMongol heartland[1] orMongolian heartland[2] refers to the contiguous geographical area in which theMongol people have primarily lived,[3] especially in history books. It is generally considered to comprise theMongolian Plateau and some adjacent territories, although its exact extent has been changing over the course of history—particularly since the rise of theMongol Empire in the 13th century. The area is also described as the heartland of the Mongol Empire during its greatest extent, when it stretched from theSea of Japan in the east to theMiddle East andEastern Europe in the west, making it thelargest contiguous land empire in human history.
The modern area that the Mongols live in approximately includes: the modern state ofMongolia; theInner Mongolia Autonomous Region, along withDzungaria inXinjiang and parts ofManchuria,Qinghai, andNingxia inChina; as well as theBuryatia Republic and a few smaller territories inRussia.[3] TheMongolic peoples in this area share the common traditionalMongol culture as well as theMongol language to varying levels. With the exception of the Mongolian state, all areas in the Mongol heartland have non-Mongol majorities.[4]
The Mongol Empire of the 13th and 14th centuries was thelargest contiguous land empire inhuman history. It originated from the Mongol heartland in theEast Asian Steppe, whenGenghis Khan united thenomadic tribes and became the firstKhagan of the Empire in 1206. TheKhamag Mongol, a loose Mongolictribal confederation on theMongolian Plateau in the 12th century, was founded by Genghis Khan's great-grandfatherKhabul Khan and is sometimes considered to be apredecessor state to the Mongol Empire. By the late 13th century the Mongol Empire spanned from thePacific Ocean in the east to theDanube River and the shores of thePersian Gulf in the west, but the region surrounding theMongolian Plateau is considered the heartland of the Mongol Empire. LaterKublai Khan (Genghis Khan's grandson and founder of theYuan dynasty) shifted the political center of gravity fromKarakorum in the Mongol heartland toKhanbaliq (modernBeijing) inNorth China, but the Mongolian Steppe remained a significant place for the Mongol rulers. After the fall of the empire in 1368 the Mongols retreated to the Mongol heartland and continued to hold much of the area as theNorthern Yuan, although theMing dynasty also controlled parts of Inner Mongolia while fighting with the Mongols, and the Ming built a newGreat Wall to prevent the Mongols' reconquest of China.
In the 17th century, the Manchu-ledQing dynasty gradually conquered the area with the submission ofEjei Khan in 1635, the last Khan of the Northern Yuan, and the submission of the princes of Khalkha atDolon Nor in 1691 during theDzungar–Qing Wars. With the exception ofBuryatia and some neighboring territories under theRussian Empire, the Qing dynasty ruled most of the Mongol heartland for over 200 years. During this period, Qing rulers established separate administrative structures for governingInner Mongolia andOuter Mongolia. While the empire maintained firm control in both Inner and Outer Mongolia, the Mongols in Outer Mongolia (which is further from the capital Beijing) enjoyed a higher degree of autonomy,[5] and also retained their own language andculture during this period.[6] However, the Qing dynasty adopted asinicization policy towards the Mongol heartland (Inner and Outer Mongolia) since the late 19th century, especially in thelate Qing reforms during the last decade of the dynasty, which resulted in drastic change of the Qing policy toward Mongolia from a relatively conservative-protective one to an aggressive-colonial one. Nationalism rose among the Mongols (especially those in Outer Mongolia) by the early 20th century, and with the fall of the Manchu-led Qing dynasty the Mongols in Outer Mongolia declared their independence and established theBogd Khanate of Mongolia in December 1911. Actualindependence from the Republic of China was also achieved in 1921.
In the present day the Mongols primarily live in the Mongolian Plateau, which comprised the majority of the Mongol heartland, in Mongolia, China, and Russia respectively, even though the Mongols now form a minority in most of these areas (except Mongolia). Some Mongols also live inDzungaria (in China'sXinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region), neighbouring but not part of the Mongolian Plateau, and parts ofQinghai andNingxia whereOirats reside, as well as parts ofManchuria orNortheast China bordering toInner Mongolia whereKhorchin Mongols reside. The common traditional Mongolian culture is shared by the Mongolic people in this contiguous geographical area to varying degrees, and they usually speak aMongolic language, which is especially the case for those residing in the state of Mongolia.