After India gained independence in 1947, Mizoram remained part of Assam as theLushai Hills District. After theAssamese Government's negligence of the Mizos during the famine, insurgency was led by theMizo National Front in the 1960s which culminated in the signing of theMizoram Peace Accord in 1986.[19] On 20 February 1987, Mizoram was granted full statehood, becoming the 23rd state of India.[20]
Mizoram is predominantlyChristian, with about 87% of the population practisingChristianity, mainlyProtestant denominations such asPresbyterian andBaptist. It is one of the three states of India with a Christian majority (87%). Other religions such asBuddhism (8.51%),Hinduism (2.75%), andIslam (1.35%) are also practised in the state.[21] Mizoram's population is predominantly made up of Mizo orZo tribes, comprising about 83.4% of the state's population, with other significant communities including theChakma (8.5%) andTripuri (3%). Due to the prolongedcivil conflict in Myanmar, Mizoram has also seen an influx ofBurmese communities, especially from theChin ethnic group, which have sought refuge in the region, with an estimated 70,000 to 100,000 Burmese refugees residing in the state.[22]
Mizoram is a highly literateagrarian economy.Slash-and-burn farming, also known asjhum, is the most common form of farming in the state.[23] In recent years, the jhum farming practices have been steadily replaced with a significanthorticulture andbamboo products industry.[24][25] The state's gross state domestic product for 2012 was estimated at₹69.91 billion (US$820 million).[6] About 20% of Mizoram's population lives below the poverty line, with 35%rural poverty as of 2014.[26] The state has about 871 kilometres of national highways, with NH–54 and NH–150 connecting it to Assam and Manipur respectively. It is also a growing transit point for trade with Myanmar and Bangladesh.[27]
The name Mizoram is derived from twoMizo words:Mizo andram.Mizo refers to the native inhabitants of the region, withMi (cognate toChinese:民;pinyin:mín) meaning "human" or "civilian" andZo holding varied interpretations. Some suggestZo signifies "highland" or "remote," drawing parallels to Willem van Schendel's concept ofZomia.[28] Others associate it with the feeling of "cool" or "crisp," evoking the climate of the high-altitude region.[29] The term Mizo has evolved into a broad ethnic classification, encompassing various subgroups and clans inhabiting the area, historically known as theLushai Hills. Many speakers ofCentral Kuki-Chin languages have also adopted the Mizo identity.[30]
The second component,ram, means "land" or "forest" (cognate toChinese:林;pinyin:lín). Together, Mizoram translates to "land of the Mizos" or simply "Mizo land."[31]
The Lushais were known as the Ka Lin Kaw or the Kalinko (ကလင်ကော) by the pre-modernBurmans, though detailed etymological studies specific to this name are limited.[32]
According to Lalthangliana, the term Mizo is believed to have originated from an early settlement in present-day Mizoram. WhenChief Lallula established theChiefdom of Zopui ('big town of the Zo") in the 1750s, he gained a formidable reputation through successful raids against theChins and the consolidation of his power. It is suggested that the term Mizo emerged as a way for the inhabitants of Zopui to distinguish themselves as descendants of this settlement under Chief Lallula.[33]
The widespread adoption ofMizo gained momentum by the 1961 census, with over 96% of the population identifying under the term. This surge in popularity is attributed to political developments, particularly the efforts of theMizo Union. Founded to unify various tribes of theLushai Hills, the Mizo Union played a pivotal role in redefining regional identity. In 1954, the organisation successfully advocated for renaming the Lushai Hills District as theMizo District, further solidifying the term Mizo as a collective identity.[34]
Before gaining statehood in 1987, the region was historically known as theLushai Hills District during and after British colonial rule. The term Lushai is ananglicised form of Lusei, one of the prominent clans among the Mizo people. Then, the newstate government of Mizoram had replaced the old name with Mizoram to reflect the broader identity of the Mizo community.[35]
The prehistory and early history of Mizoram are marked by the presence of ancient human settlements, with evidence suggesting that people inhabited the region as early as 2,000 to 3,000 years ago. The archaeological evidence from the Vangchhia site has provided insights into the region's ancient past, with human remains, ornaments,pottery, and burial practices dating back to 600 BCE and extending up to 1750 CE. Excavations at Vangchhia revealed a sophisticated culture with distinct socio-political structures of the Indo–Lushai culturalgenus. Thisnecropolis is considered one of the largest in the world.[36][37]
Similar megalithic stones have been discovered in nearby villages likeFarkawn,Lianpui,Khankawn,Khawbung, andVaphai, suggesting a widespread culture. In addition, remnants of small, man-made cave dwellings, topped with toweringmenhirs, were found at the hilltop village ofDungtlang. These large stones, taller than an average grown man, raise intriguing questions about their purpose, the people who erected them, and how these massive boulders were transported up steep mountain slopes from thevalley below, possibly the region's only apparent stone quarry.[38]
A unique discovery at Vangchhia is thePipute Lamlian (lit. 'grandparents' big path'), or "Ancestors' Pathway," which is a footpath that traverses the site and branches out in three directions—north, south, and east. The path is lined with rocks engraved with images ofbison heads, flowers, and human figures, reminiscent of carvings found at Kawtchhuah Ropui.[39] This suggests that the region's ancient societies developed their own unique cultural practices, separate from other civilisations, withtrade connections extending across the region, includingBangladesh,Mainland India, andMyanmar.[40]
Among the most significant findings is a 200-metre longwater pavilion, a stone structure resembling those found inMughal cities.[41][42] This water pavilion, likely used as a recreational arena, is surrounded by an elevated platform, suggesting its role in entertainment and social gatherings. The discovery of such a feature points to the possibility of a much larger, lost civilisation, and further excavation is essential to draw definitive conclusions about the site's full historical significance.[43]
The Mizos, part of theTibeto-Burman linguistic group, are believed to have embarked on this southward journey between the 16th and 18th centuries, originating from areas in present-dayChina andMyanmar.
TheChhinlung legend, cherished in Mizo folklore, speaks of an ancestral homeland, often associated with a location near theYalong River in China. Linguistic and anthropological evidence suggests that the Mizos passed migrated from theChindwin andIrrawaddy River regions before the 8th century CE through theShan State of Myanmar, theKabaw Valley, settled in theChin Hills, then the Lusei tribe first crossed theṬiau river to settle in theLushai Hills by the 1500s. Following the Luseis, theHmar,Thado,Pawi,Sukte,Mara, and other subgroups occupied different regions of Mizoram by the 1700s.[44][45]
One of the many battles between British troops and British-aligned tribes of Mizoram against a Lusei clan in Mizoram.[46] This sketch is by Lieutenant Cole in 1889 titled "Looshai expedition".
The people living in the Lushai Hills were generally referred to as the Cucis orKukis by their neighbouring ethnic groups which was also a term adopted by the British writers. The claim that 'TheKukis are the earliest known residents of the Mizo hills area,' must be read in this light.[47]
Historically, Mizochiefdoms were primarilysubsistence-based, practising slash-and-burn, locally calledjhum cultivation,[48] but they also engaged in trade due to their proximity to ancienttrade routes linkingYunnan to theBay of Bengal.[49][50][51] Chiefs often demanded tributes from neighbouring kingdoms in the plains and established a barter system within their chiefdoms.[52] Larger transactions relied on themithun (tame bison) as a unit of wealth and compensation, whileelephant tusks served as an alternative currency.[52] Mizo chiefs also employedkarbari or "men of business", who acted as intermediaries between the chiefs and foreign traders. Skilled in jungle navigation and multiple languages, such asBengali, thekarbari facilitated trade, particularly in South Lushai Hills.[53]
The forests of Mizoram provided valuable resources such as elephant hides and bones, which were highly sought after by merchants fromSylhet during theMughal Empire. Elephant hides were used for shields in local infantry and cavalry, while the bones were crafted into luxury items and sword parts. Chiefs maintained a rudimentary system for measuring and sorting goods like rice, using specially shaped buckets.[54] The first Mizo chief wasZahmuaka in the 16th century.[52]
TheZawlbuk system was established during the chieftainship era as a cornerstone of Mizo society, blending governance, defence, and cultural education. Originating as adormitory for young men, it was situated at the village entrance to serve as both a sentinel hub and a training ground. Chiefs and elders implemented the Zawlbuk to prepare the youth for communal responsibilities, teaching them skills in warfare, agriculture, and social customs. This system fostered unity, discipline, and loyalty, ensuring that the village thrived under the collective effort and vigilance of its people.[55]
The migration of the Lusei tribe from the neighbouring region, prompted by conflicts with theChins (or "Poi" in Mizo), led to the establishment of this significant site. Around 1720, the tribe, under the leadership of chief Sailova’s sons, Chungnunga and Lianlula, created a refuge in Selesih,[56] forming a confederation of seven chiefs to defend their land. This confederation brought together a diverse range of tribes from the region, including the five major tribes and twelve minor tribes, creating a peaceful coexistence among them. The settlement, with a population estimated to be between 50,000 and 100,000, housed approximately 7,000 homes, making it one of the most prosperous and populous settlements inancient Mizoram.[57][58]
The Selesih Confederation began to decline in the late 18th century, mainly due to socio-political and environmental factors. One of the primary reasons for its fall was the unsustainable agricultural practices, particularlyshifting cultivation (jhum), which required regular migration to maintain fertile land.[57] It is now located betweenSouth Khawbung andZawlsei villages inChamphai district.
Territory of the Sailo clan under the rule of Lallula before his death in 1803.
Lallula inherited the Confederation of Selesih. By the early 1750s, Selesih was home to multiple subtribes that had banded together to withstand the Zahau and Hakha, the ruling tribes of theChins who regularly demanded tribute from the Lusei.[57]: 98
Determined to free his people from this burden, Lallula devised a plan to end Zahau domination. He invited their chief, Thanchhuma, along with three hundred Zahau warriors, elders, and youth, under the pretense of a great feast. For three days, Lallula provided his guests with rice,zu (localrice beer), and meat, ensuring they felt welcome and unsuspecting. On the third night, while the Zahau slept, Lallula and his warriors ambushed them in a massacre known as "Thlanrawn Rawt". Thanchhuma and another leader, Cherkuanga, were captured, while theirchampion fighter, Thanghlianga, barely escaped to report the disaster.[57]: 99
The victory was decisive—Lallula had broken the Zahau's hold over the Lusei, freeing them from the annualtribute system and establishing himself as the dominant power in the region. Since his rule, the Lusei have used theDuhlian dialect as a common language and is thelingua franca of all Mizoram ethnicities till today.[57]: 100
Following the conclusion of theFirst Anglo-Burmese War, the British solidified their presence inAssam andBengal, bringing them closer to the Lushai Hills. The first Anglo–Lushai skirmishes occurred after theLushai Expedition in 1870–71 prompted by the Lushai kidnapping of a British tea owner's daughter,Mary Winchester during a major raid in Alexandrapur.[46] Various Lushai chiefs invadedChittagong,Cachar,Tripura,Sylhet, andManipur between the end of 1870 and the beginning of 1871. These were attributed toVanhnuailiana,Lalbura,Bengkhuaia andSavunga. After the British retaliated, the region remained peaceful until 1888 when chiefs resumed raiding British enterprises and settlements, which saw theChin-Lushai Expedition of 1889–90.[46][59] British historical records on the Mizo Hills state that similar inter-ethnic tribal raids continued for decades after theFirst British Invasion. Such raids would be to seek out loot, slaves, or retaliation for earlier lost battles.[60]
The southern region of the Lushai Hills was occupied first in 1889 and was part of theBengal Presidency. Its capitals wereFort Treagor (1889–1892) andLung Leh (1892–1898). Then, North Lushai Hills was occupied in 1891 and was part of theAssam Province. In 1898, both regions merged into the Lushai Hills ofAssam Province, withAijal as the capital.[61][62] At the time of the British conquest, there were around 60 chiefs.[52]
Zakapa on the day he was captured by John Shakespear.
The annexation of the Lushai Hills saw resistance from the chiefs across separate periods between 1890-1895. A western Lushai Rising was led byKhalkam in 1890.[63] An Eastern Lushai Rising was led byLalbura in 1892.[64] The southern chiefs such asRopuiliani andZakapa were also subdued.[65]
DuringWorld War I, few Lushais initially enlisted, but social pressures and benefits like tax exemptions and travel opportunities boosted recruitment.[66] By April 1917, 2100 Lushai men joined the27th Indian Labour Corps, serving in France,Mesopotamia, and other regions.[67] They faced challenges such as disease and casualties, with 71 deaths recorded. Exposure to foreign cultures influencedmodernisation, introducingEuropean styles andFrench culinary elements. Returning veterans joined Indian military units, and a memorial was built inAijal to honour those who served.[68]
Organised political movements in the Lushai Hills began in 1925 under Telela Ralte, seeking representation in theAssam administration.[69]Supported by Chawngbawia, a schoolteacher, andKhasi leaderJ.J.M. Nichols Roy, the group advocated for administrative change but faced suppression, with arrests by thesuperintendent N.E. Parry halting progress until afterWorld War II. Concurrently, theInner Line Regulation was amended to restrict external influence, preserving cultural and land integrity while ensuring British dominion boundaries.[70]
During SuperintendentAnthony Gilchrist McCall's administration (1933–1943), significant initiatives such asTen Point Code promoted cultural preservation and modernisation, while the Village Welfare System addressed public health and living conditions, managed byRed Cross committees. McCall also supported Lushai Hills Cottage Industries privately and established the Chief's Durbar to coordinate chiefs to prepare the Lushai Hills for self-governance and align them with British administrative policies.[69]
Later, the rise of education and inspiration from theYoung Men's Buddhist Association inBurma led to the formation of theYoung Lushai Association (YLA) in 1935, a cultural organisation initially composed of chiefs' sons but eventually dominated by commoners. The YLA opposedLushai chieftainship, shaping the ideology of future political leaders like Vanlawma. McCall's progressive policies complemented the YLA's cultural influence, which transitioned to political activism with the founding of theMizo Union.[47]
Lushai chiefs pledging allegiance to theUnion Jack during World War IILushai recruits departing for enlistment
In April 1942, during theJapanese occupation of Burma, SuperintendentAnthony Gilchrist McCall of the Lushai Hills implemented the Total Defence Scheme (TDS) to counter the threat of Japanese invasion.[71] He secured the loyalty of 300 tribal chiefs to the British Crown and prepared for asymmetrical warfare, including guerrilla tactics, scorched earth measures, and strategic ambushes.[72] Despite McCall’s recall in 1943, the TDS, aided by Australian trainers like Colonel Parsons, successfully defended the region, contributing to the Japanese retreat from India’s borderlands by late 1944.[73]
The Mizo Union, while largely supporting union withIndia,[74] faced internal divisions as aright-wing faction emerged, favouring alternatives like Prof. Coupland's Crown Colony Scheme, which proposed a unifiedBritish colony forZo-Kuki-Chin areas.[75] This faction later formed the United Mizo Freedom Organization (UMFO) underBurmese Mizo influence, led by Burmese ex-military officer Lalbiakthanga and Lalmawia Khiangte.[74] Known asZalen Pawl ("Party of the Privileged"), the UMFO struggled to gain significant support, failing to counteract the Mizo Union’s push for integration with India.[76]
Lushai chiefs having tea at the superintendent's house
On 15 August 1947, India celebrated itsIndependence Day, but in the Lushai Hills District, no Indian flags were hoisted.[77] This was due to strong opposition from rival factions of the Mizo Union (MU), which resisted recognising Mizoram’s accession to theIndian Union.[78]
Later, theMizo Union (MU) andUnited Mizo Freedom Organisation (UMFO) emerged as political rivals, with the UMFO losing support after Mizoram joined India. The MU opposedchieftainship, while Superintendent L.L. Peters supported the chiefs, leading to acivil disobedience movement in 1948. Protests intensified, with the Mizo Union demanding Peters' removal, resulting in mass arrests and crackdowns until Assam’s government mediated and replaced Peters in 1949 withSatyen Barkataki. Barkataki would be the first Indian superintendent of the district and would establish the Aizawl-Lungleh road via voluntary labour which would be covered widely in Indian newspapers.
The Lushai Hills District gained autonomy in 1951, and by 1954, the institution ofchieftainship was abolished, ending the chiefs' customary rights in exchange for compensation.[52][60] On the same year, the district was renamed as the Mizo District.[79] The1959 Mautam famine devastated the region, killing over a hundred people, which led to the formation of the Mizo National Famine Front, later evolving into theMizo National Front (MNF), which spearheaded Mizoram’s separatist movement.
On 1 March 1966, the Mizo National Front (MNF), led byLaldenga,declared independence from India, marking the beginning of the Mizo Uprising.[80] The movement had been brewing for years, fuelled by grievances such as the 1959 Mautam famine and perceived neglect by the Assam government. Mizo leaders, having gained external support and arms fromEast Pakistan (now Bangladesh), meticulously planned a coordinated attack on government installations across the Mizo District. The MNF launchedOperation Jericho, a surprise offensive targetingAssam Rifles posts, the Aizawl treasury, and key administrative buildings.[81]
By dawn, MNF forces had seized control ofAizawl,Lunglei,Champhai, and other towns, effectively cutting off Indian government authority. In their declaration of independence, they appealed to theUnited Nations for recognition and sought support from neighbouring countries, though no international body formally acknowledged their claim.[citation needed]
An Indian Air Force MD 450 Toofani, the jet used during the 1966 airstrikes on Aizawl, marking the only instance of India bombing its own territory.
The Indian government, caught off guard, responded with unprecedented military force, including the first and only aerial bombing of its own territory, targeting Aizawl on 5 March 1966.[82] TheIndian Air Force usedToofani and Hunter fighter jets to strafe and bomb rebel positions, forcing thousands of Mizos to flee into forests. The overwhelming military retaliation quickly regained control of Aizawl, and MNF forces retreated into the hills, continuing aguerrilla insurgency for the next two decades.[83]
The rebellion resulted in widespread displacement, with the government implementing village regrouping policies to weaken MNF influence. Despite the failure of the initial uprising, the MNF remained active, operating from bases in East Pakistan andMyanmar, eventually leading to peace negotiations in the 1980s.
Following years of unrest and insurgency, Mizoram was grantedUnion Territory status on 21 January 1972, separating it from Assam. This move was part of a larger reorganisation in India'sNortheast, which also saw the creation ofMeghalaya andArunachal Pradesh. Although this provided Mizos with greater autonomy, it fell short of full statehood, and the Mizo National Front (MNF) continued its armed struggle for complete independence.[84]
However, in 1973, the Indian central government expelledforeign missionaries, which unintentionally led to a revival of indigenousMizo culture. One of the most notable revivals wasChapchar Kut, a traditional Mizo new harvest year festival that had faded under Christian influence. In 1973, thefirst Chief MinisterC. Chhunga, wearing traditional Mizo attire, officially inaugurated the festival’s return. While Chapchar Kut was revived, it underwentChristianization, withzu (rice beer) omitted and new elements like dance formations inspired byDavid’s Star introduced.[85]
After years of diplomatic efforts,Prime MinisterRajiv Gandhi and MNF leaderLaldenga signed theMizoram Peace Accord on 30 June 1986. This historic agreement ended two decades of insurgency, with MNF leaders agreeing to disarm and join mainstream politics. As part of the accord, Mizoram was granted full statehood on 20 February 1987, becoming India’s 23rd state.[86][87] Laldenga became the first Chief Minister of the State of Mizoram, and the state was given two seats in theParliament, one each in theLok Sabha and in theRajya Sabha, marking the beginning of a peaceful and democratic era.[88]
Mizoram is a landlocked state inNorth East India whose southern part shares 722[6] kilometres long international borders with Myanmar and Bangladesh, and northern part share domestic borders with Manipur, Assam and Tripura. It is the fifth smallest state of India with 21,087 km2 (8,142 sq mi). It extends from 21°56'N to 24°31'N, and 92°16'E to 93°26'E.[89] Thetropic of cancer runs through the state nearly at its middle. The maximum north–south distance is 285 km, while maximum east–west stretch is 115 km.[89]
Mizoram is a land of rolling hills, valleys, rivers and lakes. As many as 21 major hill ranges or peaks of different heights run through the length and breadth of the state, with plains scattered here and there. The average height of the hills to the west of the state is about 1,000 metres (3,300 ft). These gradually rise up to 1,300 metres (4,300 ft) to the east. Some areas, however, have higher ranges which go up to a height of over 2,000 metres (6,600 ft).Phawngpui Tlang also known as the Blue Mountain, situated in the southeastern part of the state, is the highest peak in Mizoram at 2,210 metres (7,250 ft).[90] About 76% of the state is covered by forests, 8% is fallows land, 3% is barren and considered uncultivable area, while cultivable and sown area constitutes the rest.[91]Slash-and-burn orjhum cultivation, though discouraged, remains in practice in Mizoram and affects its topography.[92][93] A report by Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change in 2021 states that Mizoram has the highest forest cover as a percentage of its geographical area of any Indian state, being 84.53% forest.[94]
Tlawng River (top) and Tuipui river of Mizoram
Mizoram terrain is, according to the Geological Survey of India, an immature topography, and the physiographic expression consists of several almost north–south longitudinal valleys containing series of small and flat hummocks, mostly anticlinal, parallel to sub-parallel hill ranges and narrow adjoining synclinal valleys with series of topographic highs. The general geology of western Mizoram consists of repetitive succession of Neogene sedimentary rocks of the Surma Group and Tipam Formation such as sandstone, siltstone, mudstone and rare pockets of shell limestone. The eastern part is the Barail Group.[95] Mizoram lies inseismic zone V, according to the India Meteorological Department; as with other northeastern states of India, this means the state has the highest risk of earthquakes relative to other parts of India.[96]
The biggest river in Mizoram is Chhimtuipui, also known as Kaladan (or Kolodyne). It originates inChin state in Burma and passes throughSaiha andLawngtlai districts in the southern tip of Mizoram, goes back to Burma's Rakhine state. Although many more rivers and streams drain the hill ranges, the most important and useful rivers are theTlawng,Tut,Tuirial andTuivawl which flow through the northern territory and eventually join theBarak River inCachar District. The rivers have a gentle drainage gradient particularly in the south.[95]
Mizoram has a mild climate, being relatively cool in summer 20 to 29 °C (68 to 84 °F) but progressively warmer, most probably due to climate change, with summer temperatures crossing 30 degrees Celsius and winter temperatures ranging from 7 to 22 °C (45 to 72 °F). The region is influenced bymonsoons, raining heavily from May to September with little rain in the dry (cold) season. The climate pattern is moist tropical to moist sub-tropical, with average state rainfall 254 centimetres (100 in) per annum. In the capital Aizawl, rainfall is about 215 centimetres (85 in) and inLunglei, another major centre, about 350 centimetres (140 in).[95] The state is in a region where cyclones and landslides can cause weather-related emergencies.[97]
Mizoram has the third highest total forest cover with 1,594,000 hectares (3,940,000 acres), and highest percentage area (90.68%) covered by forests, among the states of India, according to 2011 Forest Survey of India.[7] Tropical semi-evergreen, tropical moist deciduous, subtropical broadleaved hill and subtropical pine forests are the most common vegetation types found in Mizoram. Bamboo is common in the state, typically intermixed with other forest vegetation; about 9,245 km2 (44%) of the state's area is bamboo bearing. The state and central governments of India have cooperated to reserve and protect 67% of the land covered by forests, and additional 15% by management. Only 17% of the land is non-forested area for cultivation, industry, mining, housing and other commercial human activity. Satellite data suggests 91% of state's geographical area is covered by forests.[7]
Jhum cultivation, or slash-and-burn practice, was a historic tradition in Mizoram and a threat to its forest cover. This practice has reduced in recent decades, due to a government-supported initiative to support horticultural crops such as pineapple and banana plantations.[7]
The state is also host to a variety of fauna, just like its sister northeastern Indian states. Mammal species observed in the Mizoram forests includeslow loris (Nycticebus coucang),red serow (Capricornis rubidus), which is the state animal,goral (Nemorhaedus goral),tiger (Panthera tigris),leopard (Panthera pardus),clouded leopard ("Neofelis nebulosi"),leopard cat (Prionailurus bengalensis),Bengal fox (Vulpes bengalensis), andAsiatic black bear (Ursus thibetanus). Primates seen includestump-tailed macaque (Macaca arctoides), hoolock gibbon (Hylobates hoolock),Phayre's leaf monkey (Trachypithecus phayrei) andcapped langur (Trachypithecus pileatus). The state is also home to many reptiles, amphibians, fish and invertebrates.[103][104]
The state has two national parks and six wildlife sanctuaries – Blue Mountain (Phawngpui) National Park,Dampa Tiger Reserve (largest), Lengteng Wildlife Sanctuary, Murlen National Park, Ngengpui Wildlife Sanctuary, Tawi Wildlife Sanctuary, Khawnglung Wildlife Sanctuary, and Thorangtlang Wildlife Sanctuary.[105]
Mizoram has a population of 1,091,014 with 552,339 males and 538,675 females.[107] This reflects a 22.8% growth since 2001 census; still, Mizoram is second least populated state ofIndia. The sex ratio of the state is 976 females per thousand males, higher than the national ratio 940. The density of population is 52 persons per square kilometre.[108]
Theliteracy rate of Mizoram in 2011 was 91.58 per cent,[4] higher than the national average 74.04 per cent, and second best among all the states of India. About 52% of Mizoram population lives in urban areas, much higher than India's average. Over one third of the population of Mizoram lives inAizawl district, which hosts the capital.[107][109][110]
The great majority of Mizoram's population consists of several ethnic tribes who are either culturally or linguistically linked. These ethnic groups are collectively known asMizos (Mi means People,Zo meaning the name of a progenitor; Mizo thus is People ofZo origin[60]).
Sometime in the 16th century CE, the first batch of Mizo crossed Tiau River and settled in Mizoram and they were called asKukis byBengalis.[111] The term Kuki mean the inhabitants of the interior and inaccessible mountain tracts. Sometimes grouped asKuki-Chin tribes, The First batch were called Old Kukis, which are theBiate,Ranglong and theHrangkhol, and the second batch that followed includeLushei (or Lusei),Paite,Lai,Mara,Ralte,Hmar,Thadou, Shendus, and several other.[111]
The diversity of tribal groups reflects the historical immigration patterns. Different tribes and sub-tribes arrived in the present Mizoram, in successive waves and settled down in different parts of the state. Further, as they arrived, there were raids, fear of raids and intertribal feuds. The resulting isolation and separation created numerous tribes and sub-tribes.[111]
Other than tribal groups, other ethnic groups inhabit Mizoram includingBengalis andNepalis.[113][114]Nepali Gorkhas, for example, were encouraged to settle inAizawl area and other parts of Mizoram during the British colonial times. Thousands of their descendants are now residents of Mizoram.[114]
According to 2011 census, Mizoram had 1,036,115 people (nearly 95% of total) classified asScheduled Tribe, the highest concentration of protected tribal people in all states of India.[115][116] This demographic classification, given toMizoram tribes since the 1950s, has provided reservations and extra resources in education and government job opportunities, a preferential treatment as a means to accelerate their integration with mainstream society.[117]
The majority (87%) of Mizos areChristians in various denominations, predominantlyPresbyterian. Mizoram has a significantTheravada Buddhist population of 8.5%, who are mainlyChakma people, making them the largest religious minority in the region, followed byHindus at 2.7% according to the 2011 census.[120] There are several thousand people, mostly ethnic Mizo, who have converted toJudaism claiming to be one of the lost Judaic tribe groupBnei Menashe, with descent from the biblicalManasseh.[112]
According to 2011 census report, there are 93,411 people (8.51%) who followBuddhism in Mizoram.[120] TheChakmas andTanchangya have been Buddhist for many centuries[123]
There are also a few Mizos who practiceJudaism (866 according to the 2001 census) and a modernised traditional Mizo religion calledHnam sakhua, which places a special emphasis on Mizo culture and seeks to revive traditional Mizo values while opposing the influence ofChristianity on Mizo people.[124]
A total of 1,367 people practised the Mizo religion according to the 2001 census. This number included, in addition to the original Mizo religion (755 people), adherents of other tribal religions such as Lalchhungkua (279), Lalhnam (122), and Nunna Lalchhungkua (211).[125]
Originally village land, locally calledram, was the property of the tribal chief. The institution ofchieftainship began in the 16th century. Each village behaved like a small state, and the chief was calledLal. The rule was hereditary, and there were no written laws (the first script for Mizo language was developed byChristian Missionaries Lorraine and Savidge about 1895).[60]
After annexation by theBritish in the 1890s, the northern part of Mizoram was administered as theLushai Hills district ofAssam, while southern Mizoram was part ofBengal. In 1898, the southern part was transferred from Bengal to Assam. The colonial power retained the chiefs and Mizo customs, including the socially stratified hereditary transfer of political power. In 1937, under Section 6 of the Scheduled District Act, the British administration[60] consolidated executive and legislative political power to theDeputy Commissioner andDistrict magistrates, with village chiefs in advisory role. The political and judiciary powers of chiefs were neither final nor exclusive, thereafter. Rulings could be appealed to courts staffed with British officials. After India gained independence from the colonial rule, the region was granted autonomous status in 1952, where Mizo people formulated their own laws and delivered judicial decisions. The region was renamed as Mizo District within Assam State in April 1954 and in that year, the institution of hereditary chieftainship was abolished, and instead village courts/council were set up.[60]
The representatives of the Lushai Hills Autonomous District Council and theMizo Union pleaded with theStates Reorganisation Commission (SRC) to integrate the Mizo-dominated areas ofTripura andManipur with the District Council in Assam. The tribal leaders in the northeast were unhappy with the final SRC recommendations and met in Aizawl in 1955 to form a new political party,Eastern India Tribal Union (EITU).[126]
Mizoram Peace Accord was signed in June 1986. The Accord granted political freedoms by making Mizoram a full state of India, and included infrastructure provisions such as a High Court and establishment of Mizoram University (shown).[127]
In the 1950s, the fears ofAssamese hegemony and perceived lack of government concern led to growing discontent among the Mizos. The Mizos were particularly dissatisfied with the government's inadequate response to the 1959–60mautam famine. The Mizo National Famine Front, a body formed for famine relief in 1959, later developed into a new political organisation, theMizo National Front (MNF) in 1961.[128] The Front sought sovereign independence for the Mizo territory, staging an armed insurrection with the28 February 1966 uprising against the government.[126] The revolt was suppressed by the government of India, which carried out airstrikes in Aizawl and surrounding areas.[129][130]
Assam state was split, re-organised into multiple political regions, Mizo hills area was declared Mizoram after the insurgency, and it received status as a Union Territory in 1972.[60] A Peace Accord was signed between central government and insurgent groups of Mizoram on 30 June 1986. Per the accord, insurgents surrendered their arms and Mizoram became the 23rd state of India in 1986, formalised the following year. The first election of Mizoram Legislative Assembly was held on 16 February 1987.[60] Elections have been held at 5-year intervals since then.Elections were held for 40 seats of legislative assembly on 28 November 2018. The voter turnout was 80%. The Mizo National Front led byZoramthanga was elected to power.[131]
V. K. Singh is the governor of Mizoram since December 2024.[132]
The Mizoram State Legislative Assembly has 40 seats and the Village Councils are thegrassroots of democracy and leadership in Mizoram. The state has a chief minister, council of ministers with a portfolio of ministries responsible for different priorities and role of the government.[134]
There are eleven districts in Mizoram. A district of Mizoram is headed by aDeputy Commissioner who is in charge of the administration in that particular district. The Deputy Commissioner is the executive head of the district, responsible for implementing government regulations, the law and order situation in the district, as well as being responsible for tax collection for the government.[135]
A Superintendent of Police is responsible for the police administration of each district.[135]
Mizoramgross state domestic product (GSDP) in 2011-2012 was about₹69.91 billion (US$820 million).[6] The state's gross state domestic product (GSDP) growth rate was nearly 10% annually over 2001-2013 period. As of 2019, the states's provisional GSDP was expected to be₹251.4857 billion (US$2.9 billion).[139] With international borders with Bangladesh and Myanmar, it is an important trade state forsoutheast Asian imports to India, as well as exports from India.[27]
As of 2013, according to theReserve Bank of India, 20.4% of the state population is belowpoverty line, about the same as the 21.9% average for India.Rural poverty is significantly higher in Mizoram, with 35.4% below the poverty line compared to India's rural poverty average of 25.7; while inurban areas of Mizoram, 6.4% are below the poverty line.[26]
Mizoram has a highly literate work force, withliteracy rate of nearly 90% and widespread use of English. The state has a total of 4,300 kilometres of roads of which 927 kilometres are high qualitynational highways and 700 kilometres ofstate highways. The state is developing itsKolodyne River (Chhimtuipui lui) fornavigation andinternational trade.Mizoram's airport is at the capital city ofAizawl. The state is a power deficit state, with plans to develop itshydroelectric potential. After agriculture, the major employer of its people includehandloom andhorticulture industries.Tourism is a growth industry. In 2008, the state had nearly 7,000 registered companies. The state government has been implementingspecial economic zones (SEZs) to encourage economic growth.[25]
Between 55% and 60% of the working population of the state is annually deployed on agriculture.[23][24] The sector's contribution to the gross state domestic product was 30% in 1994, just 14% in 2009 due to economic growth of other sectors.[142]
Agriculture has traditionally been a subsistence profession in Mizoram. It is seen as a means for generate food for one's family, ignoring its potential for commerce, growth and prosperity. Rice remains the largest crop grown in Mizoram by gross value of output.[143] Fruits have grown to become the second largest category, followed by condiments and spices.[142]
Before 1947, agriculture in Mizoram predominantly used to be slash-and-burn drivenJhum cultivation. This was discouraged by the state government, and the practice has been slowly declining.[144] A 2012 report[145] estimates the proportion of shifting cultivation area in Mizoram to be about 30% - predominant part of which was for rice production (56% to 63% depending on the year). Despite dedicating largest amount of labour, jhum cultivated and non-jhum crop area to rice, the yields are low; Mizoram average rice yields per acre is about 70% of India's average rice yield per acre and 32% of India's best yield. Mizoram produces about 26% of rice it consumes every year, and it buys the deficit from other states of India.[24]
The crop area used for jhum cultivation rotates in Mizoram; that is, the area slashed and burnt for a crop is abandoned for a few years and thenjhumias return to slash and burn the same plot after a few years of non-use. The primary reasons for cyclical jhum cultivation includes, according to Goswami et al.[145]
Horticulture
Oil palm in Mamit
In horticulture and floriculture, Mizoram is a significant producer and global exporter ofAnthurium (over 7 million a year) and roses. It is also a significant producer and domestic supplier of banana, ginger,turmeric, passion fruit, orange andchowchow.[25] Mizoram has accomplished this horticulture success and exports in 2009, with just 6% of its cultivated land dedicated to horticulture and floriculture, indicating a large potential for further growth and economic integration with other Indian states as well export driven economy.[146] In 2013, the area dedicated to horticulture and floriculture increased to 9.4% of 1.2 million hectares potential.[6]
The agricultural productivity is very low in Mizoram.[147] The state gets a lot of rain, but its soil is porous and irrigation infrastructure very inadequate; this has affected it crop yield and reliability.[23] The yield issue that can be addressed by building irrigation infrastructure and adoption of better crop technologies. The state also has very low consumption of fertiliser and pesticides, which scholars[147] suggest offers an opportunity for organic farming particularly of vegetables and fruits.
Mizoram is one of the leading producers of bamboo in India, has 27 species of bamboo, and supplies 14% of India's commercial bamboo.[6][27] Forest products contribute about 5% to the state's gross product. The state produces about 5,200 metric tonnes of fish a year, about 12% of potential that can be sustainably achieved.[6] Sericulture is an important handicraft industry engaged by nearly 8,000 families in over 300 Mizo villages.[27]
Mizoram produces over 7 million tonnes of Anthurium (shown), supplying the domestic market as well as exporting it to UAE, UK and Japan. The majority of producers and income earners from this business are Mizoram women.[25][148]
Mizoram has two industrial estates at Zuangtui and Kolasib.[27] Another software technology park is being established in Mizoram University campus.[149] The state government has acquired 127 acres of land in Khawnuam for development of the Indo-Myanmar border trade township.[27]
Mizoram is not self-sufficient in power. In 2012, the state had a demand for 107 MW of power, but had an effective installed capacity of only 29.35 MW. To bridge the gap, it purchased electricity from the national grid.[150]
The hydroelectric power potential of Mizoram was assessed to be about 3600 MW in 2010,[151] and about 4500 MW in 2012.[152] If even half of this is realised, the state could supply all its citizens and industry with 24/7 electricity, as well as earn income by selling surplus power to the national grid. The topography of Mizoram hydroelectric resources is ideal for power projects. The following rivers are suited for hydel projects with minimal impact on its biosphere –Tuivai, Tuivawl, Tlawng, Tut, Serlui, Tuirial, Kolodyne, Tuichang, Tuipui,Tiau and Mat. Beyond the major rivers, Mizoram has many small but perennial streams and rivulets with ideal condition for developing micro/mini and small hydroelectric projects.[151] The state has proposed projects to attract private investments on Build, Own, Operate and Transfer (BOOT) basis with financial assistance in rehabilitating its citizens were they to be affected by the project. The largest proposed project is expected to be on Kolodyne (460 MW), and there are dozens of small to micro projects that have been identified.[151]
Road network: In 2012, Mizoram had a road network of around 8,500 kilometres (5,300 mi) including unsurfaced village roads to surfaced national highways; and there were 106,000 registered motor vehicles.[6] The village roads are primarily single lane or unmetalled tracks that are typically lightly trafficked. Mizoram had 871 kilometres of national highways, 1,663 kilometres of state highways and 2,320 kilometres of surfaced district roads. All of Mizoram's 23 urban centres and 59% of its 764 villages are connected by all weather roads. However, landslide and weather damage to these roads is significant in parts.[156]
Lengpui Airport Building
Airport: Mizoram has an airport,Lengpui Airport (IATA: AJL), near Aizawl and its runway is 3,130 feet long at an elevation of 1,000 feet.[157]
Water ways: Mizoram is in the process of developing water ways with the port of AkyabSittwe in Burma along its biggest river, Chhimtuipui. It drains into Burma's Rakhine state, and finally enters the Bay of Bengal atAkyab, which is a popular port inSittwe, Burma. The Indian government considers it a priority to set up inland water ways along this river to trade with Burma. The project is known as the Kaladan Multi-modal Transit Transport Project.[160] India is investing $103 million to develop the Sittwe port on Burma's northern coast, about 160 kilometres (99 mi) from Mizoram.State Peace and Development Council of Burma has committed $10 million for the venture.[161] The project is expected to be complete in 2015, and consists of two parts.[162] First, river Kaladan (or Kolodyne, Chhimtuipui) is being dredged and widened from the port at Sittwe to Paletwa, in Chin province, adjacent to Mizoram. This 160 km inland waterway will enable cargo ships to enter, upload and offload freight in Paletwa, Myanmar; this is expected to be complete in 2014. As second part of the project, being constructed in parallel, includes a 62 km two-lane highway from Paletwa (also known as Kaletwa or Setpyitpyin) to Lomasu, Mizoram. Additionally, an all weather multilane 100 km road from Lomasu to Lawngtlai in Mizoram is being built to connect it with the Indian National Highway 54. This part of the project is slated to be complete by 2015. Once complete, this project is expected to economically benefit trade and horticulture exports of Mizoram, as well as improve economic access to 60 million people of landlocked northeast India and Myanmar.[162]
The first primary school was set up in 1898 atAijal by Christian missionaries. The state has long enjoyed higher literacy rates than average literacy rates for India. In 1961, the literacy was 51%.[163] By2011 census, it had reached 92%, compared to 74% average for India.[6] Mizoram is second only toKerala.[164]
There were 3,894 schools in Mizoram as of 2012. Of these, 42% are publicly owned and managed by Central/State governments, 28% are private without government subsidies, 21% are private with government subsidies, and the rest are primary and middle schools that are government-financed by run by three Autonomous District Councils of Mizoram. The teacher-pupilratio is about 1:20 for primary, 1:9 for middle School, 1:13 for high, and 1:15 for higher secondary schools.[6]
The growth of Christianity, scholars state,[165] was shaped from a foundation of cultural, religious and socio-political structure.
A consequence of Hnatlang was the culture ofTlawmngaihna, which does not have a direct English translation.Tlawmngaihna as cultural concept incorporates behaviour that is self-sacrificing, self-denying, doing what an occasion demands unselfishly and without concern for inconvenience caused, persevering, stoical, stout-hearted, plucky, brave, firm, independent, loath to lose one's good reputation.[166][167][168]
Several other cultural elements ofancient Mizo tribes, some of which became less prevalent after arrival of Christianity, included:[167][169]
Zawlbuk: a place near the chief's home, which served as defence camp in times of war, as well as "bachelor house" where the youth gathered and centre of village life.[167][169]
Pathian: the term for god, to whom prayers and hymns were recited. The evil spirits were calledramhuai.[169]
Nula-rim: the method of courtship in ancient culture. Courtship, pre-marital sex and polygamy were accepted. The man and the woman could have many partners. If the woman got pregnant, the man was required either marry or pay a substantial sum calledsawnman. If the woman's parents discover the relationship, they had a right to demand a payment calledkhumpuikaiman. While pre-marital sex was accepted, a woman who was virgin at marriage was more highly esteemed than one who was not.[167]
Ramri lehkha: a boundary drawing that identified a chief's tenured land calledram. Only the chief owned the land, and this ownership was hereditary. The tribe and village worked and harvested the land.[167][169]
Darkhuang, Zamluang or jamluang – a traditional musical instrument found in Mizoram.Other instruments include khuang (drum), dar (cymbals), as well as bamboo-based phenglawng, tuium and tawtawrawt.[170]
Traditional festivals in Mizoram often revolved around stages of jhum cultivation or the seasons.[171] Community festivals were calledkut in the local language, and there were major and minor kuts such asChapchar Kut, Thalfavang Kut,Mim Kut andPawl Kut.Chapchar Kut was the festival of spring (February/March), just before jhum started and land was cut-and-burnt for a new crop. Chapchar Kut was most anticipated by youth, a major festival and involved dancing and feasts. Thalfavang Kut celebrated completion of weeding of the jhum crop fields.[172]
Chapchar Kut was reintroduced and revived in 1973 by Mizo people to celebrate their heritage. Before Christianity arrived in Mizoram, home-brewed alcohol and many meat delicacies were part of the Chapchar celebrations. Now, with Mizoram's state law as a dry state, the youth busy themselves with music and community dancing.[173] Along with reviving traditional festivals, the community has been reviving the traditional dances at these festivals, for example, dances such as Cheraw, Khuallam, Chheihlam and Chai.[174]
Chapchar Kutcheraw dance in Mizoram. Chapchar Kut festival is celebrated during March after completion of their most arduous task of Jhum operation i.e., jungle-clearing (clearing of the remnants of burning).
Mizoram has many traditional dances, such as:
Cheraw – a dance that involves men holding bamboo close to the floor. They tap the sticks open and close with the rhythm of the music. Women in colourful dresses dance on top, stepping in between and out of the bamboo with the music. It requires coordination and skill.[167]
Khual Lam – a mixed-gender dance that traditionally celebrated successfully hunting with swaying cloth with singing and music.[175]
Dance of Mizoram
Chheih Lam – typically performed over cool evenings with rice beer, people sit in a circle with two or more dancers in the centre; they sing with impromptu often humorous compositions about recent events or guests between them with music and dancers keeping up. The song was calledChheih Hla. Mizo people have tried to introduce the Chheih Lam during church sermons with controversy.[176]
Chai Lam – an important dance at theChapchar Kut, this places the musicians in the centre while men and women in colourful dresses alternate and form a circle; the women held the men at their waist, while men held the women at their shoulders; they step forward to move in circles while swaying left and right with the music. A song may be sung which is also calledChai.[167]
Mizoram's first football league debuted in October 2012. The Mizoram Premiere League had eight teams during the 2012–2013 season and is the highest level league in Mizoram. The eight clubs include Aizawl, Chanmari, Dinthar, FC Kulikawn, Luangmual, Mizoram, RS Annexe, and Reitlang. The season starts each year in October and wraps up with the finals in March.[177]
Almost all foreign nationals can get the required Protected Area Permit on arrival, and face the same requirements as domestic tourists. However, they additionally have to register themselves with state police within 24 hours of arrival, a formality that most resorts can provide. Citizens ofAfghanistan,China andPakistan and foreign nationals having their origin in these countries are required to get the pass through the Indian consulate or from theMinistry of Home Affairs in New Delhi, before they arrive in Mizoram.[178]
In 1996, the government of Mizoram banned liquor. The church leaders (Mizoram Kohhran Hruaitute Committee) argue that state government should keep the ban and not seek to amend the law, while others argue prohibition should be lifted.[185] However, it has been difficult to enforce the ban due to the high demand for alcohol.[186]
In 2008, the Mizoram Excise and Narcotics (Wine) Rules amended the ban of 1996 to allow the manufacture, export, sale, possession and consumption ofwine in Mizoram made fromgrapes andguava[187] which would help the economy of the state, reduce fruit waste from farms, and encourage large scale commercialisation. In 2011 the bill was amended to includeapple,ginger,passion fruit,peach andpear wine.[188]
In 2013, the state assembly unanimously passed a resolution to study the impact of liquor prohibition.[189] In 2014, the state's narcotics minister noted that the liquor ban had produced some serious problems in Mizo society due to the drinking of spurious and unhealthy (locally made) liquor, known aszu. The government suggested it would introduce an amended liquor bill allowing retail shops to operate in Aizawl and other district headquarters to sell liquor – but not in bars. Furthermore, they would not consult the powerful church on the issue.[186]
The Mizoram Liquor Prohibition and Control bill of 2014 was repealed on 20 March 2019 with the Mizoram Liquor Prohibition Bill 2019,[190] it was a legislation promised by theMizo National Front.[191]
Every 50 years, theMautam bamboo blooms and its high-protein seeds lead to an explosion in theblack rat population in the jungle, also referred to as the rat flood, which has historically destroyed entire villages' food supplies after rats move on to farm fields and devour crops. The 1958–59 plague provoked a rural uprising during which the indigenous Mizo people launched a violent 20-year rebellion against the central government. The dispute only saw final resolution in 1986.[192] The 48-year rat problem recurred in Mizoram in 2006–08.[193] The crops suffered massive damage, with yields at 30-year lows; the crop yields recovered sharply to pre-mautam levels in 2009 after the mautam flowering.[194]
Mizoram's media is growing quickly. Internet access is average, and private television cable channels are popular.[195]Doordarshan, the national television service of India provides terrestrial broadcasting services andAll India Radio broadcast programmes related to the indigenous culture and local news. Broadband access is available. In addition to these, there are several websites in local dialects. Print journalism remains a popular news medium in Mizoram; local newspapers includeVanglaini andZalen.The Mizoram Post, anEnglish-language daily newspaper published fromSilchar (Assam) was the most circulated newspaper in Mizoram, in 2007.[196]
Laldenga (d.1990) - Mizoseparatist, former party leader of the Mizo National Front (MNF) and 4th Chief Minister of Mizoram.
Lalduhawma - politician and party leader of the Zoram People's Movement (ZPM). Former Member of Parliament (Lok Sabha) for Mizoram. 6th and currentChief Minister of Mizoram.
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