| Mithridates II 𐭌𐭄𐭓𐭃𐭕 | |
|---|---|
| King of Kings | |
 | |
| King of theParthian Empire | |
| Reign | 124 – 91 BC |
| Predecessor | Artabanus I |
| Successor | Gotarzes I |
| Died | 91 BC |
| Issue | Gotarzes I Mithridates III |
| Dynasty | Arsacid dynasty |
| Father | Artabanus I orPriapatius |
| Religion | Zoroastrianism |
Mithridates II (also spelledMithradates II orMihrdad II;Parthian:𐭌𐭄𐭓𐭃𐭕Mihrdāt) was king of theParthian Empire from 124 to 91 BC. Considered one of the greatest of his dynasty to ever rule, he was known asMithridates the Great in antiquity.
Mithridates II was crowned king after the abrupt death of his predecessorArtabanus I. Inheriting a declining empire that was reeling from military pressure in both the east and west, Mithridates II quickly stabilized the situation in Mesopotamia by gaining the allegiance ofCharacene, and subduing the insurgentKingdom of Elymais and also theArabs, who had continuously raidedBabylonia. Mithridates II was the first Parthian king to extend Parthian rule into theCaucasus, where the kingdoms ofArmenia,Iberia, and possiblyCaucasian Albania became Parthian vassal states. To the east, he defeated and conquered the nomadic tribes inBactria who had killed both of his predecessors.Sakastan was also reconquered, which was given as a fiefdom to theHouse of Suren. In 114/113 BC, he seizedDura-Europos inSyria from theSeleucids, and by 95 BC, the northern Mesopotamian kingdoms ofAdiabene,Gordyene, andOsrhoene had acknowledged his authority. Under Mithridates II, the Parthian Empire at its zenith extended from Syria and the Caucasus toCentral Asia andIndia. It was under Mithridates II that the Parthian Empire for the first time established diplomatic relations withRome andHan China.
A champion ofAchaemenid traditions, Mithridates II was determined to emphasize the association of the ruling Arsacid dynasty with the Iranian Achaemenid Empire. He was the first Parthian monarch to regularly use the titleKing of Kings, and portray himself with an Iraniantiara on the obverse of hiscoins, contrary to theHellenisticdiadem used by his earlier predecessors. He also replaced theomphalos on the reverse of his coins with a highbacked throne of Achaemenid origin.
"Mithridates" is theGreek attestation of theIranian nameMihrdāt, meaning "given byMithra", the name of the ancient Iranian sun god.[1] The name itself is derived fromOld IranianMiθra-dāta-.[2] Mithra is a prominent figure inZoroastrian sources, where he plays the role of the patron ofkhvarenah, i.e. kingly glory.[3] Mithra played an important under the late IranianAchaemenid Empire, and continued to grow throughout the GreekSeleucid period, where he was associated with the Greek godsApollo orHelios, or theBabylonian godNabu.[4] The role of Mithra peaked under the Parthians, which according to the modern historian Marek Jan Olbrycht, "seems to have been due to Zoroastrian struggles against the spread of foreign faiths in theHellenistic period."[4]
The identity of Mithridates II's father is uncertain. According to 2nd-century Roman historianJustin, Mithridates II was a son of his predecessor,Artabanus I.[5] Acuneiform tablet from 119 BC, however, cites Mithridates II; "of the Gutians who killed my brother Artabanus, and I set up (troops) opposite them and fought it with them; a great killing I performed among them; except two men."[5]
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At the time of his succession, the Parthian Empire was reeling from military pressures in the West and East. Several humiliating defeats at the hands of eastern nomads had sapped the strength and prestige of the kingdom.[8] Mithridates II quickly gained the allegiance of theCharacenean rulerHyspaosines, who had originally fought the Parthians, and briefly seizedBabylon in 127 BC.[9] Hyspaosines returned the wooden throne ofArsaces[clarification needed] to Mithridates II as a gift to the godBel.[10] Mithridates II now turned his eyes onElymais, which had been originally under direct Parthian rule, but had been seized by the independentElamite king Pittit after Artabanus I's death.[11] Mithridates II invaded Elymais and capturedSusa.[12] Then he confronted Pittit in a final battle, where he defeated him and conquered Elymais.[13] Around the same time, Hyspaosines died, and the Parthian commander Sindates was appointed as the governor of Characene.[14]
It was first under Mithridates II that Parthian rule extended into theCaucasus.[15] He noticed the strategic position ofArmenia betweenAsia Minor, the Caucasus, and Iran.[15] Inc. 120 BC, Mithridates II invaded Armenia and made its kingArtavasdes I acknowledge Parthian suzerainty.[15] Artavasdes I was forced to give the ParthiansTigranes as a hostage, who was either his son or nephew.[15][16] Control over Armenia would remain one of the most essential objectives in Parthian policy till the end of the dynasty.[15] Other Caucasian kingdoms such asIberia most likely also became a Parthian vassal state, and possibly alsoCaucasian Albania.[17] Massive circulation of Parthian coins into Iberia, along with Armenia and Caucasian Albania, indicates that these kingdoms had been swayed by the influence of the Parthians.[18] According to Babylonian documents,Babylonia was constantly suffering from raids byArabs, which had agitated Mithridates II considerably.[19] In the spring of 119 BC, a Parthian force inflicted a defeat on the Arabs, which was heavy enough to make them stop their raids for a period.[20] It is unclear whether the force was led by Mithridates II or a Parthian commander.[20] The Parthian force most likely left forMedia afterwards, seemingly in order to join the upcoming expedition against the nomads in the east.[20]
Parthian interests were also directed towardsSyria, which had first been demanded by the Parthians afterPhraates II (r. 132–127 BC) defeated theSeleucid king (basileus)Antiochus VII Sidetes (r. 138–129 BC) in 129 BC.[15] In 114/113 BC, Mithridates II captured the important Seleucid city ofDura-Europos, which was situated on theEuphrates.[15] The Seleucid realm was at this time frail and entangled in ceaseless internal strifes and struggles for power against theNabataeans, various local kings, Jews, and Greek cities in Syria andPhoenicia.[15]
According to Justin, Mithridates II avenged the death of his "parents or ancestors" (ultor iniuriae parentum), which indicates that he fought and defeated theTocharians, who had killed Artabanus I and Phraates II.[6][21] Mithridates II also reconquered westernBactria from theScythians.[6]Parthian coinage and scattered reports imply that Mithridates II ruledBactra, Kampyrtepa, andTermez, which means that he had reconquered the very lands that been conquered by his namesakeMithridates I (r. 171 – 132 BC).[22] Control over the middleAmu Darya includingAmul was vital for the Parthians, in order to thwart incursions by nomads fromTransoxiana, particularly fromSogdia.[23] Parthian coins continued to be minted in western Bactria and in the middle Amu Darya until the reign ofGotarzes II (r. 40–51 AD).[23]
Nomadic invasions had also reached the eastern Parthian province ofDrangiana, where strongSaka dominions had been established,[24] thus giving the rise to the nameSakastan ("land of the Saka").[25][26] These nomads had probably migrated to the area due to the pressure that Artabanus I and Mithridates II had been putting against them in the north.[27] Sometime between 124 and 115 BC, Mithridates II sent an army led by a general of theHouse of Suren to recapture to the region.[28] After Sakastan was incorporated back into the Parthian realm, Mithridates II rewarded the region to the Surenid general as his fiefdom.[28] The eastern extent of the Parthian Empire under Mithridates II reached as far asArachosia.[27]
Tigranes remained a hostage at the Parthian court untilc. 96/95 BC, when Mithridates II released him and appointed as the king of Armenia.[29][30] Tigranes ceded an area called "seventy valleys" in theCaspiane to Mithridates II, either as a pledge or because Mithridates II demanded it.[31] Tigranes' daughterAriazate had also married a son of Mithridates II, which has been suggested by the modern historian Edward Dąbrowa to have taken place shortly before he ascended the Armenian throne as a guarantee of his loyalty.[30] Tigranes would remain a Parthian vassal until the end of the 80s BC.[32] The following year, Mithridates II attackedAdiabene,Gordyene andOsrhoene and conquered thesecity states, shifting the western border of the Parthian realm to the Euphrates.[33] There the Parthians encountered theRomans for the first time. In 96 BC Mithridates II sent one of his officials,Orobazus, as an envoy toSulla. As the Romans were increasing in power and influence, the Parthians sought friendly relations with the Romans and thus wanted to reach an agreement that assured mutual respect between the two powers.[34] Negotiations followed in which Sulla apparently gained the upper hand, which made Orobazus and the Parthians look like supplicants. Orobazus would later be executed.[35][34]
In 121 BC the Chinese underEmperor Wu of Han had defeated theXiongnu in the east and were expanding westwards in force. InFerghana the Chinese encountered the sphere of influence of the Parthians. A Chinese delegation to the Parthian court is attested for the year 120 BC. In the following year theSilk Road was opened up to trade.[37] The strength and welfare of the empire under Mithridates II has been described by one Chinese traveler as the following:
"Anxi [Parthia] is situated several thousandli west of the region of the Great Yuezhi. The people are settled on the land, cultivating the fields and growing rices and wheat. They also make wine out of grapes. They have walled cities like the people of Dayuan [Farghana], the region containing several hundred cities of various sizes. The kingdom, which borders the Gui [Oxus River], is very large, measuring several thousandli square. Some of the inhabitants are merchants who travel by cart or boats to neighbouring countries, sometimes journeying several thousandli. The coins of the country are made of silver and bear the face of the king. When the king dies, the currency is immediately changed and new coins issued with the face of his successor. The people keep records by writing horizontally on strips of leather. To the west lies Tiaozhi [Mesopotamia] and to the north Yancai and Lixuan [Hyrcania]. Tiaozhi [Mesopotamia] is situated several thousandli west of Anxi [Parthia] and borders the western sea [the Persian Gulf]. It is hot and damp, and the people live by cultivating the fields and planting rice. In this region live great birds which lay eggs as large as pots. The people are very numerous and are ruled by many petty chiefs. The ruler of Anxi [Parthia] gives orders to these chiefs and regards them as his vassals. The people are very skillful at performing tricks that amaze the eye."
Mithridates II's last years of rule took place in a period coined in scholarship as the "Parthian Dark Age", which refers to a period of three decades in the history of Parthian Empire starting from the death (or last years) of Mithridates II. It is referred to as a "Dark Age" due to the lack of clear information on the events of this period in the empire, except a series of, apparently overlapping, reigns.[39] It is only with the beginning of the reign ofOrodes II inc. 57 BC, that the line of Parthian rulers can again be reliably traced.[40] Coins, reliefs andBabylonian astronomical diaries labelGotarzes as the son and heir of Mithridates II.[41][42] According to a heavily damaged relief atBehistun, Gotarzes had served as "satrap of satraps" under his father.[41][42] After the death of Mithridates II in 91 BC, Gotarzes was proclaimed king atBabylon.[43]
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AtMount Behistun in western Iran, there is arock relief which depicts four figures paying respect to a fifth figure.[44] The relief, along with its Greek inscription, heavily damaged, was partly reconstructed by the German archaeologistErnst Herzfeld (d. 1948), and reads the following:[45]
"Kophasates, Mithrates, [...] Gotarzes the satrap of satraps, and the great king Mithradates."
Rahim M. Shayegan (2011), has suggested, contrary to other scholars, that the rock relief was not constructed during the reign of Mithridates II, but during that of his son and successor Gotarzes, perhaps as an attempt to stress the legitimacy of his sovereignty by portraying the prestigious status of himself and his officers during Mithridates II's kingship.[46] He identifies the first figure with the Parthian satrap Kofzad;[47] the second figure with the Parthian commander Mitratu, who first rose to a distinguished position under Gotarzes;[48] the third figure with Gotarzes' son and heirOrodes;[46] and the fourth with Gotarzes himself, who served as "satrap of satraps" under his father.[49]
Since the early 2nd-century BC, the Arsacids had begun adding obvious signals in their dynastic ideology, which emphasized their association with the heritage of the ancientAchaemenid Empire. Examples of these signs included a fictitious claim that the first Arsacid king,Arsaces I (r. 247 – 217 BC) was a descendant of the AchaemenidKing of Kings,Artaxerxes II (r. 404 – 358 BC).[50] Achaemenid titles were also assumed by the Arsacids, including the title of "King of Kings" byMithridates I (r. 171 – 132 BC). However, the title was only infrequently used by Mithridates I, and it was first under Mithridates II, from c. 109/8 BC onwards, that the use of the title became a regular feature.[50][37] The new title was used both on coins and engravings (attested in Greek as BAΣIΛEΥΣ BAΣIΛEΩN), and also Babylonian accounts, where it is attested asšar šarrāni.[15] Mithridates II was more determined than his predecessors as heir and guardian of Achaemenid heritage.[15]
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At the start of his reign, Mithridates II briefly used the Greek titleSoter ("Saviour"), which was used on his coin mints inEcbatana andRhages.[51] The reason behind his use of the title is uncertain. Olbrycht (2010) has proposed that he adopted the title due to his victory over the nomads, while Grenet (2006) has proposed thatSoter could be seen as a Mithraic title from an Iranian point of view, in connection to Mithra's role as a saviour in Zoroastrianism.[51]
The early Arsacid monarchs are depicted on the obverse of their coins with a soft cap, known as thebashlyk, which had also been worn by Achaemenidsatraps.[50] From Mithridates I, the Hellenisticdiadem was used by the Arsacid kings. The diadem was also used during the early reign of Mithridates II, until he later started using a tall bejewelledtiara orkolah (tall hat).[52] The tiara was ofMedian origin; in the Achaemenid era, high ranking Median officers wore a tall, domed headdress, which was part of the Median national dress.[53] Media, a region in central Iran which neighboured Parthia, was an important part of the Parthian realm under Mithridates II.[54]
According to Justin, theParthian language shared many features withMedian.[54] The Parthians admired Median customs,[53] and seemingly got familiar with Achaemenid heritage through Media.[54] The tiara would be used by many Parthian kings, particularly in the late Parthian period.[55] This type of tiara was also later used by the vassal kings of the Parthians, such as theKings of Persis.[50][56] The founder of theSasanian Empire,Ardashir I (r. 224–242 AD), also used this tiara.[57] Like Artabanus I, Mithridates II is depicted on the obverse of his coins wearing an Iranian rider garb—theParthian trouser-suit.[5]
The reverse of Mithridates II's coin mints also see a major chance during his reign. Since the start of the Arsacid dynasty, the reverse of the coins had depicted a seated bowman wearing abashlyk, which greatly resembled the coins of the Achaemenid satrapDatames (d. 362 BC).[58][57] The bowman was originally depicted seated on adiphros, however, under Mithridates I this was changed to anomphalos.[59][57]Tetradrachms minted at Seleucia and Susa under Mithridates II, including his early coin mints from central Iran andMarw in Margiana, maintained the same style.[57] However, on the coins minted in Ecbatana and Rhages, a tail-like piece of fabric has been added on the back of the bowman.[57] In 117–111 BC, theomphalos was replaced by a highbacked throne, which was originally used in the Achaemenid era.[57] The long piece of fabric has also been removed.[57] During military assemblies and campaigns, a horse orgorytos was depicted on the reverse of his coins.[60]
Mithridates II is viewed favourably by both ancient and modern historians, who consider him one of the greatest and successful Parthian monarchs to ever rule.[61] Justin says the following about him;
"He was succeeded by his son Mithridates, to whom his achievements procured the surname of Great; for, being fired with a desire to emulate the merit of his ancestors, he was enabled by the vast powers of his mind to surpass their renown. He carried on many wars, with great bravery, against his neighbours, and added many provinces to the Parthian kingdom. He fought successfully, too, several times, against the Scythians, and avenged the injuries received from them by his forefathers."
— Justin, XLI, 2,[62]
false.
Mithridates II of Parthia Died: 91 BC | ||
| Preceded by | King of the Parthian Empire 124–91 BC | Succeeded by |
