The Mitanni Empire was a strong regional power limited by the Hittites to the north, Egyptians to the west, Kassites to the south, and later by the Assyrians to the east. At its maximum extent Mitanni ranged as far west asKizzuwatna by theTaurus Mountains,Tunip in the south,Arraphe in the east, and north toLake Van.[8] Their sphere of influence is shown in Hurrian place names, personal names and the spread through Syria and theLevant of a distinct pottery type,Nuzi ware.[9]
Andrea Trameri (15 October 2024), along with Gernot Wilhelm (1997: 290), regards thatMaitani means "of M(a)itta," the name of "an individual leader (or clan), and not a territory or population."[13]
Ḫani-Rabbat
The Mitanni kingdom was firstly known asḪabingalbat before 1600 BC in Babylonia, during the reign ofAmmi-Saduqa, attested asḫa-bi-in-gal-ba-ti-i, andḫa-bi-in-ga-al-ba-at, in two texts of the lateOld Babylonian period.[1][7] Egyptians referred to it asNaharin andMitanni,[10][11] it wasḪurri to the Hittites, andḪanigalbat orḪani-Rabbat to the Assyrians. These names seem to have referred to the same kingdom and were often used interchangeably, according to Michael C. Astour.[14] Hittite annals mention a people calledHurri (Ḫu-ur-ri), located in northeastern Syria. A Hittite fragment, probably from the time ofMursili I, mentions a "King of the Hurri," and theAssyro-Akkadian version of the text renders "Hurri" asHanigalbat. Tushratta, who styles himself "king of Mitanni" in hisAkkadian Amarna letters, refers to his kingdom as Hanigalbat.[15]
The earliest attestation of the termḪanigalbat can be read inAkkadian, along with theHittite version mentioning "the Hurrian enemy,"[16] in a copy from the 13th century BC of the "Annals ofḪattušili I,"[17] who possibly reigned after 1630 BC.[18]
The reading of the Assyrian termḪanigalbat has a history of multiple renderings. The first portion has been connected to, "𒄩𒉡Ḫa-nu," "Hanu" or "Hana," first attested inMari to describe nomadic inhabitants along the southern shore of the northernEuphrates region, near the vicinity ofTerqa (capital of theKingdom of Hana) and theKhabur River. The term developed into more than just a designation for a people group, but also took on a topographic aspect as well. In theMiddle Assyrian period, a phrase "𒌷𒆳𒄩𒉡𒀭𒋫" "URUKUR Ḫa-nu AN.TA," "cities of the Upper Hanu" has suggested that there was a distinction between two different Hanu's, likely across each side of the river. This northern side designation spans much of the core territory of Mitanni state.
The two signs that have led to variant readings are "𒃲gal" and its alternative form "𒆗gal9". The first attempts at decipherment in the late 19th century rendered forms interpreting "gal," meaning "great" in Sumerian, as a logogram for Akkadian "rab" having the same meaning; "Ḫani-Rabbat" denoting "the Great Hani".J. A. Knudtzon, andE. A. Speiser after him, supported instead the reading of "gal" on the basis of its alternative spelling with "gal9", which has since become the majority view.
There is still a difficulty to explain the suffix "-bat" if the first sign did not end in "b," or the apparent similarity to the Semitic feminine ending "-at," if derived from a Hurrian word. More recently, in 2011, scholar Miguel Valério,[19] then at theNew University of Lisbon provided detailed support in favor of the older readingHani-Rabbat.[20] The re-reading makes an argument on the basis of frequency, where "gal" not "gal9," is far more numerous; the later being the deviation found in six documents, all from the periphery of the Akkadian sphere of influence. It is additionally argued that although they are graphically distinct, there is a high degree of overlap between the two signs, as "gal9" denotes "dannum" or ""strong"" opposed to "great", easily being used as synonyms. Both signs also represent correlative readings; alternative readings of "gal9" include "rib" and "rip," just like "gal" being read as "rab."
The situation is complicated by there being, according to linguists, three separate dialects of Hurrian, central-western, northern, and eastern.[21]
The Egyptians considered the Euphrates River to form the boundary between Syria andNaharain.[22]
As early asAkkadian times, Hurrians are known to have lived east of the river Tigris on the northern rim of Mesopotamia, and in the Khabur Valley. The group which became Mitanni gradually moved south into Mesopotamia before the 17th century BC. It was already a powerful kingdom at the end of the 17th century or in the first half of the 16th century BC, and its beginnings date to well before the time ofThutmose I, dating actually to the time of the Hittite sovereignsHattusili I andMursili I.[23]
Hurrians are mentioned in the privateNuzi texts, inUgarit, and the Hittite archives inHattusa (Boğazköy).Cuneiform texts fromMari mention rulers of city-states in upper Mesopotamia with bothAmurru (Amorite) and Hurrian names. Rulers with Hurrian names are also attested forUrshum andHassum, and tablets fromAlalakh (layer VII, from the later part of the OldBabylonian period) mention people with Hurrian names at the mouth of theOrontes. There is no evidence for any invasion from the North-east. Generally, theseonomastic sources have been taken as evidence for a Hurrian expansion to the South and the West.
A Hittite fragment, probably from the time ofMursili I, mentions a "King of the Hurrians" (LUGAL ERÍN.MEŠ Hurri). This terminology was last used for King Tushratta of Mitanni, in a letter in the Amarna archives. The normal title of the king was 'King of the Hurri-men' (without the determinativeKUR indicating a country).
The Egyptian official astronomer and clockmaker Amenemhet (Amen-hemet) apparently ordered to be written on his tomb that he returned from the "foreign country calledMtn (Mi-ti-ni),"[24][25] but Alexandra von Lieven (2016) and Eva von Dassow (2022) consider that the expedition to Mitanni could have taken place in pharaohAhmose I's reign (c. 1550–1525 BC), actually by Amenemhet's father.[26][27] During the reign of pharaohThutmose I (1506–1493 BC), the names Mitanni and Naharin are among the reminiscences of several of the pharaoh's officers. One of them, Ahmose si-Abina, wrote: "...His Majesty arrived at Naharin..." Another one, Ahmose pa-Nekhbit, recorded: "...when I captured for him in the land of Naharin..."[28]
After theBattle of Megiddo, an officer of pharaohThutmose III (1479–1425 BC), in the pharaoh's 22 regnal year, reported: "That [wretched] enemy of Kadesh has come and has entered into Megiddo. He is [there] at this moment. He has gathered to him the princes of [every] foreign country [which had been] loyal to Egypt, as well as (those) as far as Naharin and M[itanni], them of Hurru, them of Kode, their horses, their armies."[29] In several later military campaigns theAnnals of Thutmose III mention Naharin, in particular those of his regnal years 33, 35, and 42.[30] After that time, records become more available from local sources until the empire's end in the mid-13th century BC.[31]
The first known use of Indo-Aryan names for Mitanni rulers begins withShuttarna I who succeeded his father Kirta on the throne.[32] KingBarattarna of Mitanni expanded the kingdom west toAleppo and made theAmorite[33] kingIdrimi ofAlalakh his vassal,[34] and five generations seems to separate this king (also known as Parattarna) from the rise of Mitanni kingdom.[35] The state ofKizzuwatna in the west also shifted its allegiance to Mitanni, and Assyria in the east had become largely a Mitannian vassal state by the mid-15th century BC. The nation grew stronger during the reign ofShaushtatar, but the Hurrians were keen to keep the Hittites inside the Anatolian highland. Kizzuwatna in the west andIshuwa in the north were important allies against the hostile Hittites.
Mitanni's major rival was Egypt under theThutmosids. However, with the ascent of theHittite Empire, Mitanni and Egypt struck an alliance to protect their mutual interests from the threat of Hittite domination. After a few successful clashes with the Egyptians over the control of Syria, Mitanni sought peace with them, and an alliance was formed. During the reign ofShuttarna II, in the early 14th century BC, the relationship was very amicable, and he sent his daughterGilu-Hepa to Egypt for marriage with PharaohAmenhotep III. Mitanni was now at its peak of power.
However, by the reign ofEriba-Adad I (1390–1366 BC) Mitanni influence over Assyria was on the wane. Eriba-Adad I became involved in a dynastic battle betweenTushratta and his brotherArtatama II and after this his sonShuttarna II, who called himself king of theHurri while seeking support from the Assyrians. A pro-Hurri/Assyria faction appeared at the royal Mitanni court. Eriba-Adad I had thus loosened Mitanni influence over Assyria, and in turn had now made Assyria an influence over Mitanni affairs.[36] KingAshur-uballit I (1365–1330 BC) ofAssyria attacked Shuttarna and annexed Mitanni territory in the middle of the 14th century BC, making Assyria once more a great power.[37]
At the death of Shuttarna, Mitanni was ravaged by a war of succession. Eventually Tushratta, a son of Shuttarna, ascended the throne, but the kingdom had been weakened considerably and both the Hittite and Assyrian threats increased. At the same time, the diplomatic relationship with Egypt went cold, the Egyptians fearing the growing power of the Hittites and Assyrians. The Hittite kingSuppiluliuma I invaded the Mitanni vassal states in northern Syria and replaced them with loyal subjects.
Great Syrian War
The War waged by Suppiluliuma on Tushrata's Mitanni was called 'the Great Syrian War'. The war goals were the Destruction of the Mitanni Heartlands and conquest of its Syrian vassal states. This included persuading Ugarit to join the side of Suppiluliuma. Mukish and Nuhašši retaliated against Ugarit, but once Suppiluliuma arrived, they were defeated by the Hittite-Ugaritic alliance, and Ugarit got a significant portion of their lands annexed to it. Suppiluliuma then crossed the Euphrates and sacking Washukanni, Tushrata escaping with some of his troops before the sack. After which Suppiluliuma turned back to Syria and subjugated Aleppo, Mukish, Niya, Arahtu, Qatna and Nuhašši. This campaign was fought in 1345 BC. A number of years later in 1327 BC Carchemish too was taken after an siege and Tushratta got murdered sometime after the war by Mitannians.[38]
After the war
In the capitalWashukanni, a new power struggle broke out. The Hittites and the Assyrians supported different pretenders to the throne. Finally a Hittite army conquered the capital Washukanni and installedShattiwaza, the son of Tushratta, as their vassal king of Mitanni in the late 14th century BC.[39] The kingdom had by now been reduced to theKhabur Valley. The Assyrians had not given up their claim on Mitanni, and in the 13th century BC,Shalmaneser I annexed the kingdom.
With the final decline of the Mitanni Empire the western portions of its territory came under direct control of the Hittites and the eastern portions came under direct control of the Assyrians. The middle part continued on as therump state of Hanigalbat. Eventually, under Shalmaneser I, that remaining part of the former Mitanni territory came under direct Assyrian control. This continued until the decline of Middle Assyrian power after the death of Tukulti-Ninurta I.[41][42]
While under direct Assyrian control Hanigalbat was ruled by appointed governors such as the Assyrian grand-vizierIlī-padâ, father ofNinurta-apal-Ekur (1191–1179), who took the title ofKing of Hanigalbat.[43] He resided in the newly built (over an existing Mitanni tower and residence) Assyrian administrative centre atTell Sabi Abyad.[44]
The Babylonian Kings List A names the Assyrian rulerSennacherib (705–681 BC) and his sonAshur-nadin-shumi (700–694) as being "Dynasty of Ḫabigal".[45][46]
The name Hanigalbat was still in use as late as the later portion of the 1st millennium BC.[47][48]
A number of theonyms, proper names and glosses (technical terminology) of the Mitanni are ofIndo-Aryan orProto-Indo-Aryan origins.[49] Starting fromShuttarna I who is the first Mitanni ruler historically attested to have existed, the Mitanni had Indo-Aryanthrone names.[32] TheKikkuli's horse training text includes technical terms of Indo-Aryan origin,[50] and the Indo-Aryan deitiesMitra,Varuna,Indra, andNasatya (Ashvins) are listed and invoked in two treaties found inHattusa, between the kingsSattiwaza of Mitanni andŠuppiluliuma I the Hittite: (treaty KBo I 3) and (treaty KBo I 1 and its duplicates).[51][52] The toponym of the Mitanni capital ofWashukanni is also "unanimously accepted" to have been derived from an Indo-Aryan dialect.[49] Annelies Kammenhuber (1968) suggested that this vocabulary was derived from the still undividedIndo-Iranian language,[53][54] butMayrhofer has shown that specifically Indo-Aryan features are present.[55][56]
It is generally believed thatIndo-Aryan peoples settled inUpper Mesopotamia and northernSyria, and established the Kingdom of Mitanni following a period of political vacuum, while also adopting Hurrian. This is considered a part of theIndo-Aryan migrations.[57][58][59] Since the late 20th century, the view that the Mitanni kingdom was ruled by royal house and aristocracy of Indo-Aryan origin has been prevalent among the scholars;[d] accordingly, a branch of Indo-Aryans separated from the other Indo-Iranians around the turn of second millennium BCE and migrated intoWest Asia, hence giving rise to the Mitanni kingdom, while also adopting Hurrian language.[66][67][58] Some of the recent studies such as those by Eva von Dassow (2022) and Cotticelli-Kurras and Pisaniello (2023), while noting the modern identification of Mittani as Indo-Aryan and the role of Indo-Aryan speakers in establishing its dynasty, have disputed the significance of Indo-Aryan vocabulary in an otherwise Hurrian-speaking state stating that it does not indicate any Indo-Aryan origins for Mitanni kings.[7][49] According toAlexander Lubotsky (2023), however, the military elite of the Mitanni kingdom (seeMaryannu) was of Aryan descent and their language displays a clear Indo-Aryan character.[64]
Jasper Eidem in 2014 reported on Farouk Ismail's earlier study,[68] in reference to the wordmarijannu that was found in a letter fromTell Leilan in northeastern Syria dating to a period slightly before 1761 BC, which is the time when the reign ofZimri-Lim ended in the region ofMari. Kroonen et al. (2018) consider this as an early Indo-Aryan linguistic presence in Syria two centuries prior to the formation of the Mitanni realm, asmariannu is generally seen as a Hurrianized form of the Indo-Aryan*marya, which means 'man' or 'youth', associated to military affairs and chariots.[69]
Archaeology
A concept known as "Dark Age" was applied, until recently, to the archaeological gap between the Middle and Late Bronze Age on Northern Mesopotamian sites, but Costanza Coppini considers it a "transition" instead, which can be called "Late Bronze Age 0," attested from the Tell Leilan's end caused bySamsu-iluna during his 23rd year of reign, c. 1728 BCE [Middle Chronology], to Mitanni's predominance (c. 1600-1550 BCE). These are the first traces of what, in the Late Bronze Age I, was Mitanni in historical terms, at the emergence of the third phase ofKhabur ware.[70]
The archaeological core zone of Mitanni isUpper Mesopotamia and the Trans-Tigridian region (Northeastern Iraq).
Upper Mesopotamia
Sites with Mitannian remains were found mainly in three regions of Upper Mesopotamia: Northeastern SyriaJazira Region, Northern Syria, and Southeastern Turkey (Upper Tigris).
Northeastern Syria (Jazira Region)
Jazira region in light green, Northeastern Syria.
Mitanni's first phase in Jazira Region features LateKhabur Ware from around 1600 to 1550 BC; this pottery was a continuity from the previous non-Mitannian Old Babylonian period.[71] From around 1550 to 1270 BC, PaintedNuzi Ware (the most characteristic pottery in Mitanni times) developed as a contemporary to Younger Khabur Ware.[71][72]
Mitanni had outposts centred on its capital,Washukanni, whose location has been determined by archaeologists to be on theheadwaters of theKhabur River, most likely at the site ofTell Fekheriye as recent German archaeological excavations suggest. The city ofTaite was also known to be a Mitanni "royal city" whose current location is unknown.[73]
The oldest tablet issued by an unknown Mitannian king was found in the site ofTell Hammam et-Turkman, dated to c. 1500 BCE.[78]Mitanni period occupation, between 1400 and 1200 BC (radiocarbon) was found at the site ofTell Bazi.[79][80] Finds included a Mitanni cylinder seal and several ritual bowls. Two cuneiform tablets of the Mitanni period sealed by Mitanni rulerSaushtatar, one byArtatama I were also found.[81] There is also a record of Mitanni governance atTell Hadidi (Azu).[82]
Southeastern Turkey (Upper Tigris)
The (2017) salvage excavations at theIlısu Dam in the right bank of upperTigris, southern Turkey, have shown a very early beginning of Mitanni period, as in the ruins of a temple in Müslümantepe, ritual artefacts and a Mitannian cylinder seal were found, radiocarbon-dated to 1760–1610 BC.[83] Archaeologist Eyyüp Ay, in his (2021) paper, describes the second phase of the temple as an "administrative center, which had craftsmen working in its workshops as well as farmers, gardeners and shepherds, [that] might have been ruled by a priest bound to a powerful Mitannian leader."[83]
Trans-Tigridian region (Northeastern Iraq)
To the east of upperTigris river, Trans-Tigridian region in northern Iraq, a site now calledBassetki was excavated, which in all likelihood was the ancient town ofMardama with Mitanni layers from 1550 to 1300 BC, as its Phase A9 (in trench T2) may alternatively represent a Middle Bronze/Late Bronze transitional, or Proto-Mitanni occupation within 16th century BC.[84] In a subsequent excavation season, the deeper Phase A10 was identified as having a mix of Middle Bronze and Mitanni potteries, considered to be in the turn of the Middle to the Late Bronze Age transitional period (late 17th – early 16th century BC).[85]
The three phases of Mitanni atKurd Qaburstan, were obtained as c. 1538–1505 BC for Phase three, with Phase two beginning c. 1512–1491 BC and ending c. 1501–1479 BC, and with Phase One beginning c. 1489–1463 BC and ending c. 1475–1435 BC. The data suggests a two century abandonment between the MBA destruction and the Mitanni re-occupation.[89]
Pottery and other characteristics
At least since around 1550 BC, at the beginning of Late Bronze Age, Painted Nuzi Ware was identified as a characteristic pottery in Mitanni sites.[90] The origin of this decorated pottery is an unsolved question, but a possible previous development asAegeanKamares Ware has been suggested by Pecorelia (2000); S. Soldi claims that Tell Brak was one of the first centers specializing in the production of this Painted Nuzi Ware, and analyses on samples support the assumption that it was produced locally in various centers throughout the Mitanni kingdom. It was particularly appreciated inUpper Mesopotamia, but appears only sporadically in western Syrian cities such asAlalakh andUgarit.[90]
At the height of its power, during the 15th and the first half of 14th century BC, a large region from North-West Syria to the Eastern Tigris was under Mitanni's control.[91]
Mitanni rulers
Mitanni, which first rose to power before 1550 BC,[92][93] presents the following known kings:
King Barattarna is known from a cuneiform tablet in Nuzi and an inscription byIdrimi ofAlalakh.[95] He reignedc. 1500–1480 BC.[96] Egyptian sources do not mention his name; that he was the king of Naharin whomThutmose III (1479 – 1425 BC) fought against, can only be deduced from assumptions. This king, also known as Parratarna is considered, by J. A. Belmonte-Marin quoting H. Klengel, to have reignedc. 1510–1490 BC (middle chronology).[97] Parsha(ta)tar, known from another Nuzi inscription (HSS 13 165), an undated inventory list which mentions his death, is considered a different king than Barattarna by M. P. Maidman, Eva von Dassow, and Ian Mladjov.
Thutmose III again waged war in Mitanni in the 33rd year of his rule. The Egyptian army crossed the Euphrates atCarchemish and reached a town called Iryn (maybe present day Erin, 20 km northwest of Aleppo.) They sailed down the Euphrates toEmar (Maskanah) and then returned home via Mitanni. A hunt forelephants at Lake Nija was important enough to be included in the annals.
Victories over Mitanni are recorded from the Egyptian campaigns inNuhašše (middle part of Syria). Barattarna or his son Shaushtatar controlled the North Mitanni interior up toNuhašše, and the coastal territories fromKizzuwatna to Alalakh in the kingdom of Mukish at the mouth of the Orontes. Idrimi of Alalakh, returning from Egyptian exile, could only ascend his throne with Barattarna's consent. While he got to rule Mukish and Ama'u,Aleppo remained with Mitanni.
The central section of Shaushtatar's royal seal. The cuneiform legend reads "DUMU Par-sa-ta-tar" and "LUGAL Ma-i-ta-ni"
Shaushtatar reigned as King of Mitannic. 1480–1460 BC.[96] He sacked the Assyrian capital ofAssur some time in the 15th century during the reign ofNur-ili, and took the silver and golden doors of the royal palace toWashukanni.[98] This is known from a later Hittite document, the Suppililiuma-Shattiwaza treaty. After the sack of Assur, Assyria may have paid tribute to Mitanni up to the time ofEriba-Adad I (1390–1366 BC).
The states ofAleppo in the west, andNuzi andArrapha in the east, seem to have been incorporated into Mitanni under Shaushtatar as well. A letter (HSS 9 1) sealed with the seal of Shaushtatar was discovered in the house (Room A26) of Prince Šilwa-teššup in Nuzi which lay just north of the main mound. The letter is addressed to Ithia, vassal ruler of Arrapha under Mitanni. Because Šauštatar is not mentioned in the letter and dynastic seals were often used after the reign of a ruler, especially in the periphery of empire, it is difficult to date this letter. Stein, based on various factors, puts the date atc. 1400 BC. Hisseal shows heroes and winged geniuses fighting lions and other animals, as well as awinged sun. This style, with a multitude of figures distributed over the whole of the available space, is taken as typically Hurrian.[99] A second seal, belonging to Shuttarna I and found in Alalakh, used by Shaushtatar in two letters (AT 13 and 14) shows a more traditional Post-Akkadian - Ur III style.[100]
During the reign of Egyptian PharaohAmenhotep II, Mitanni seems to have regained influence in the middle Orontes valley that had been conquered by Thutmose III. Amenhotep II fought in Syria in 1425 BC, presumably against Mitanni as well, but did not reach the Euphrates.
Later on, Egypt and Mitanni became allies, and KingShuttarna II himself was received at the Egyptian court. Amicable letters, sumptuous gifts, and letters asking for sumptuous gifts were exchanged. Three Amarna letters (EA 182 EA 183 and EA 185) were sent by Shutarna with two being sent from "Mušiḫuna".[101] Mitanni was especially interested in Egyptian gold. This culminated in a number of royal marriages: the daughter of KingArtatama I was married toThutmose IV. Kilu-Hepa, orGilukhipa, the daughter of Shuttarna II, was married to PharaohAmenhotep III, who ruled in the early 14th century BC. In a later royal marriage Tadu-Hepa, orTadukhipa, the daughter of Tushratta, was sent to Egypt.
WhenAmenhotep III fell ill, the king of Mitanni sent him a statue of the goddessShaushka (Ishtar) ofNineveh that was reputed to cure diseases.[102] A more or less permanent border between Egypt and Mitanni seems to have existed nearQatna on the Orontes River;Ugarit was part of Egyptian territory.
The reason Mitanni sought peace with Egypt may have been trouble with the Hittites. A Hittite king calledTudḫaliya I conducted campaigns againstKizzuwatna,Arzawa,Ishuwa, Aleppo, and maybe against Mitanni itself. Kizzuwatna may have fallen to the Hittites at that time.
Cuneiform tablet containing a letter from Tushratta of Mitanni to Amenhotep III (of 13 letters of King Tushratta).British Museum
Artašumara, reignedc. 1360-1358 BC,[103] is known only from a single mention in a tablet found in Tell Brak: "Artassumara the king, son of Shuttarna the king," and a mention inAmarna letter 17.[76][104] According to the later, after the death ofShuttarna II he briefly took power but was then murdered (by someone named Tuhi) and succeeded by his brotherTushratta,[105] who reignedc. 1358-1335 BC.[103]
Knowledge of Tushratta comes from two sources, the Amarna letters and the texts of the Suppiluliuma-Shattiwaza treaties between Hittite ruler Suppiluliuma I and a son of Tushratta named Shattiwaza. These pair of treaties found at the ancient Hittite capital ofHattusa codify the Mitanni Shattiwaza, probable son of Tushratta, entering the status of vassal to Suppiluliuma I. One (CTH 51, also known as KBo I 1) includes a historical prologue from the Hittite point of view which is complete,[106] this tablet also confirms that the existing Hittite treaty with Artatama II is still in effect so perhaps Suppiluliuma was hedging his bets.[107] The other (CTH 52) includes a historical prologue from the Mitanni point of view which is partially lost though another fragment to this tablet was found in recent years.[108] These prologues provide information about the events of the time of Tushratta but must be considered under the self interest of the two treaty parties.[106] While the preambles of the treaties are a later retrospective and are filtered through the interests of the treaty parties, the tablets found in Egypt provide direct information. Eight Amarna letters were sent to pharaoh Amenhotep III (includingEA 19 andEA 23) and four to pharaoh Akhenaten (includingEA 27). A single Amarna letter was sent by Tushratta toQueen Tiye, wife of Amenhotep III, mother of Akhenaten and grandmother of Tutankhamun (EA 26). A note inhieratic on the tablet stated that EA 23 arrived in the 36th year of Amenhotep III reign or roughly 1350 BC in the standard Egyptian Chronology.[109]
Some of the Amarna letters covered minor matters between Tushratta and the pharaohs. Amenhotep III asked for Tushratta's daughterTadukhipa in marriage and after some back and forth over bride-price she traveled to Egypt and became a wife of the pharaoh. And when that pharaoh was ill near the end of his reign Tushratta sent (EA 23) the Hurrian goddessŠauška of Nineveh (actually her cult statue) to him as had been done in the time of Shuttarna II.[110] The main focus of the Amarna letters, though, was a consequence of the realignment of power in Syria with the decline of Egyptian influence and rise of Hittite power, with a number of lesser powers caught in the middle.[111] In the first letter from Tusratta he claimed to have destroyed the Hittite forces that had invaded his territory and included a selection of the booty, including a chariot and several slaves. In later letters we see the Hittite ruler working to improve previously poor relations with the pharaoh so as to counterbalance Mitanni.[109] According to other Amarna letters (EA 85, EA86, EA95) fromRib-Hadda, king ofByblos, Tushratta personally joined a large Mitanni raid intoAmurru.[112] In another Amarna letter (EA 75) Rib-Hadda tells Ahkenaten that all the lands of the Mitanni have been conquered by the Hittites but its date is uncertain.
The Suppiluliuma-Shattiwaza treaty says:
When with the Sun, Shubbiluliuma, the great valiant, the king of Hatti, the beloved of Teshub, Artatama king of Harri, made a treaty and thereafter, Tushratta, king of Mitanni, exalted him, the king of Hatti, the valiant, exalted myself against Tushratta, the king of lands on this side of the river I plundered, and Mount Niblani I restored to my domain...When his son waxed strong with his servants, he slew his father Tushratta, the king. And when Tushratta, the king, died, Teshub gave a decision in favor of Artatama, and his son Artatama he spared...But the Harri people had become discontented and Shutatarra with the Marianni tried to kill Mattiuaza, the prince. He escaped and before the Sun, Shubbiluliuma...he came. The great king spoke thus: 'Teshub has rendered a decision in his favor.' Whereupon I took Mattiuaza, son of Tushratta, the king, into my hand, and placed him on the throne of his father."[113]
Tusratta faced a difficult situation, an ascendant Hittite New Kingdom in the west and in the east an Assyrian power beginning to free itself of Mitanni control at the start of the Middle Assyrian Period. A rule book-ended by succession crises. With no Mitanni or Assyrian records we are left with the historical claims of the Hittite king, for better or worse. In summary they are:
Political - With the death of Shutarna II a crisis involving Tushratta and Artashumara resulted in Tushratta taking the throne. To counter this the Hittites entered a treaty with another brother Artatama II, which did not pan out. Then, after a reasonably long reign (based on the timing of Amarna letters), Tushratta is killed by his son (unnamed but generally thought to beShuttarna III) who then allies with the Assyrians to take power in Mitanni with Assyria getting some Mitanni territory in exchange. Another son of Tushratta,Shattiwaza, then becomes a vassal of the Hittite king in exchange for help retaking part of the Mitanni territory (with the rest going to the Suppiluliuma' sonPiyassili made king ofCarchemish).[114] And this comes to pass. Note that the original treaty with Artatama II is specifically kept in force, suggesting he outlived Tushratta.
Military - Tushratta having insulted the Hittite king, perhaps by refusing to be deposed, Suppiluliuma launched two campaigns against Mitanni interests, a "One Year War" and a "Six Year War". The first war is believed to have occurred roughly in the 15th regnal year of Ahkenaten.[115] It is unclear how much time passes between them. Though unsuccessful at defeating Tushratta, the military efforts do manage to seize control of several Mitanni vassals/allies, includingKizzuwatna,Amurru,Aleppo, andNuhašše.[116][117]
Shattiwaza reignedc. 1330–1305 BC,[103] (alternately Šattiwaza, Kurtiwaza, or Mattiwaza). What little is known about his period, like the later parts of the reign of his father, Tushratta, all comes from the partially recovered pair of Hittite texts in which Shattiwaza becomes a vassal of Hittite king Suppiluliuma I. The first text (CTH 51) lays out the condition of vassalage and in the second (CTH 52) Shattiwaza accepts these conditions. The text can be difficult to interpret because of gaps and the obtuse prose. The Suppiluliuma-Shattiwaza treaty reads:
[When ?] (I), Mattiuaza, son of Tushratta, king of Mitanni, handed over to Shuttarna, [rulership] of Mitanni, Artatama, the king, his father, did what was not right. His palace(?) . . . together with his possessions, he wasted; to give them to Assyria and Alshe, he wasted them. Tushratta, the king, my father, built a palace, filled (it) with treasures, but Shuttarna destroyed it, he overthrew it."[113]
Shattuara reignedc. 1305–1285 BC.[103] The royal inscriptions of the Assyrian kingAdad-nirari I (c. 1307–1275 BC) relate how the vassal kingShattuara of Mitanni rebelled and committed hostile acts against Assyria. How this Shattuara was related to the dynasty of Partatama is unclear. Some scholars think that he was the second son of Artatama II, and the brother of Shattiwazza's one-time rival Shuttarna. Adad-nirari claims to have captured King Shattuara and brought him to Ashur, where he took an oath as a vassal. Afterwards, he was allowed to return to Mitanni, where he paid Adad-nirari regular tribute. This must have happened during the reign of the Hittite KingMursili II, but there is no exact date.
According to an inscription (BM 115687) by Assyrian king Adad-nirari I, Shattuara's son Wasashatta (also read Uasašatta), who reignedc. 1285-1265 BC,[103] attempted to rebel. He sought Hittite help which did not come. The Hittites took Wasashatta's money but did not help. The Assyrians expanded further, and conquered the royal city ofTaidu, and tookWashukanni, Amasakku,Kahat, Shuru, Nabula, Hurra and Shuduhu as well. They conqueredIrridu, destroyed it utterly andsowed salt over it. The wife, sons and daughters of Wasashatta were taken toAshur, together with much booty and other prisoners. As Wasashatta himself is not mentioned, he may have escaped capture.[118] There is a letter (KBo. 1, 14) from a Hittite king (to probably the Egyptian king) referring to a "King of Hanigalbat" which was possibly Wasašatta.[119]
According to the royal annals (A.0.77.1) of Assyrian kingShalmaneser I (1270s–1240s) KingShattuara II of Hanigalbat, rebelled against Assyrian control with the help of the Hittites and the nomadicAhlamu around 1250 BC.[120] Shalmaneser I claimed to have defeated the Hittites and Mitanni slaying 14,400 men; the rest were blinded and carried away. His inscriptions mention the conquest of nine fortified temples; 180 Hurrian cities were "turned into rubble mounds," and Shalmaneser "slaughtered like sheep the armies of the Hittites and the Ahlamu his allies." The cities from Taidu toIrridu were captured, as well as all of mount Kashiar to Eluhat and the fortresses of Sudu and Harranu to Carchemish on the Euphrates. Another inscription mentions the restoration of a temple to godAdad inKahat, a city of Mitanni that must have been occupied as well.[121]
^abcvan Koppen, Frans, (2004)."The Geography of the Slave Trade and Northern Mesopotamia in the Late Old Babylonian Period", in: H. Hunger and R. Pruzsinszky (eds.),Mesopotamian Dark Age Revisited, Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Vienna, p. 21, andfootnote 65: "An unpublished Old Babylonian text dated toAmmi-saduqa (circa 1600 B.C.), the knowledge of which I owe to the kindness of Mr. Douglas Kennedy of the Centre National de Recherches de Paris, deals with the issue of beer to the tu-ur-gu-ma-an-ni ša éren ḫa-bi-in-gal-ba-ti-i ‘the dragomans of the Hanigalbatian soldiers/workers’"[quoting Gelb 1968: 97], and "...A personnel register, probably also from the reign of Ammisaduqa, mentions the person ib-ba-tum éren ḫa-bi-in-ga-al-ba-at (BM96955 iii 9)..."
^Buccellati, Giorgio, and Marilyn Kelly-Buccellati, (1997)."Urkesh: The First Hurrian Capital", The Biblical Archaeologist, vol. 60, no. 2, 1997, pp. 77–96.Abstract: "...the sealings provided satisfying proof that Tell Mozan was the site of the third-millennium Hurrian capital city Urkesh..."
^Salvini, Mirjo. "The earliest evidences of the Hurrians before the formation of the reign of Mittanni." Urkesh and the Hurrians Studies in Honor of Lloyd Cotsen. Urkesh/Mozan Studies Bibliotheca Mesopotamica. Malibu: Undena Publications (1998): 99-115
^Lawler, Andrew. "Who Were the Hurrians?" Archaeology, vol. 61, no. 4, 2008, pp. 46–52
^Yakubovich, I. (2011). [Review of Einführung in die hurritsche Sprache, by I. Wegner]. Journal of Near Eastern Studies, 70(2), 337–339
^von Dassow, Eva, (2014). "Levantine Polities under Mittanian Hegemony". In: Eva Cancik-Kirschbaum, Nicole Brisch and Jesper Eidem (eds.).Constituent, Confederate, and Conquered Space: The Emergence of the Mittani State. pp. 11-32.
^Diana L. Stein: Khabur Ware and Nuzi Ware: Their Origin, Relationship, and Significance. Malibu 1984
^De Martino, Stefano, (2018)."Political and Cultural Relations between the Kingdom of Mittani and its Subordinated Polities in Syria and Southeast Anatolia", in Changing Faces of Kingship in Syria-Palestine 1500–500 BCE, Alter Orient und Testament 459, Ugarit Verlag,p. 37: "...The term Ḫanigalbat first occurs in the Akkadian version of the Annals of Ḫattušili I... whereas the Hittite version uses the generic expression 'the Hurrian enemy,' as do two old Babylonian texts... perhaps this term refers to the Hurrian "progenitor" of Mittani..."
^Bryce, Trevor R., (2018)."The Annals and Lost Golden Statue of the Hittite King Hattusili I", in Gephyra 16, November 2018,p. 3: "Like most other Hittite documents, the Annals have survived only in a late 13th century copy, the last in a line of copies made over several centuries. There are generally only minor variations between the Hittite and Akkadian versions of the text. Consistent with van den Hout's proposals, I have suggested that the document was first composed in Akkadian and later translated into Hittite – contra the suggestions that both versions were composed at the same time or that the Akkadian version was translated from an original Hittite one."
^Miguel Valério, Università di Bologna, Dipartimento di Filologia classica e Italianistica (FICLIT).
^Valério, Miguel, (2011)."Hani-Rabbat as the Semitic Name of Mitanni", in Journal of Language Relationship, International Scientific Periodical Nº6 (2011), Russian State University for the Humanities, Institute of Linguistics of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow,p. 174: "...The present essay intends to rehabilitate Hani-Rabbat as the accurate normalization of the Assyrian name of Mitanni, by showing the unmotivated nature of the alternative Hanigalbat as opposed to the more substantiated reading of GAL as rab in the spelling of this toponym..."
^Astour, Michael C.. "A Reconstruction of the History of Ebla (Part 2)". Eblaitica: Essays on the Ebla Archives and Eblaite Language, Volume 4, edited by Cyrus H. Gordon and Gary A. Rendsburg, University Park, USA: Penn State University Press, 2021, pp. 57-196
^Spalinger, Anthony. "A New Reference to an Egyptian Campaign of Thutmose III in Asia." Journal of Near Eastern Studies, vol. 37, no. 1, 1978, pp. 35–41
^Amenemhet's memoir was published in: Borchardt, L., (1930). "Altägyptische Zeitmessung", in E. von Basserman-Jordan,Die Geschichte der Zeitmessung und der Ühre, vol. I., 1930, Berlin/Leipzig, pp 60ff. (Mentioned in Astour 1972:104, footnotes 25,26) transliteratingMtn asMe-ta-ni, although Alexandra von Lieven (2016: 219) mentions it asMi-ti-ni.
^De Martino, Stefano, (2018)."Political and Cultural Relations between the Kingdom of Mittani and its Subordinated Polities in Syria and Southeast Anatolia", in:Changing Faces of Kingship in Syria-Palestine 1500–500 BCE, Alter Orient und Testament 459, Ugarit Verlag,p. 37: "The earliest attestation of the toponym Mittani comes from an Egyptian source, an inscription from Thebes on the grave of a state official called Amen-hemet. The inscription refers to the Syrian military expedition this official had taken part in, which advanced as far as the country ofMtn (Mittani)...we presume that this expedition was the one led by Tuthmosis I..."
^von Lieven, Alexandra, (2016)."The Movement of Time. News from the 'Clockmaker' Amenemhet", in: RICH and GREAT: Studies in Honour of Anthony J. Spalinger, Faculty of Art, Charles University in Prague,p. 220: "The most likely explanation for the preceding story about Mitanni is that it is part of the background of the speaker. This could imply that perhaps Amenemhet's father had risen in rank due to some major feat accomplished during Ahmose's military campaign there."
^von Dassow, Eva, (2022)."Mittani and Its Empire", in: Karen Radner, Nadine Moeller, D. T. Potts (eds.), The Oxford History of the Ancient Near East, Volume III: From the Hyksos to the Late Second Millennium BC, Oxford University Press,p. 466: "...We owe the earliest extant mention of Mittani to the tomb autobiography of Amenemhat, the astronomer and clockmaker who refers to a campaign that may have taken place as early as Ahmose's reign in the late sixteenth century BC..."
^Wilson, John A.. "VII. Egyptian Historical Texts". The Ancient Near East: An Anthology of Texts and Pictures, edited by James B. Pritchard, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2021, pp. 226-245
^Spalinger, Anthony. "A Critical Analysis of the ‘Annals’ of Thutmose III (Stücke V-VI)." Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt, vol. 14, 1977, pp. 41–54
^Leonard, Albert. "Archaeological Sources for the History of Palestine: The Late Bronze Age." The Biblical Archaeologist, vol. 52, no. 1, 1989, pp. 4–39
^Lauinger, Jacob, (2020)."Statue of Idrimi", in The Electronic Idrimi, Open Richly Annotated Cuneiform Corpus (ORACC): "...(1) I am Idrimi, the son of Ilī-ilimma, a servant of IM, Hebat and IŠTAR, the lady of Alalah, the lady, my lady. (3) In Aleppo, the house of my father, a bad thing occurred, so we fled to the Emarites, sisters [o]f my mother, and settled at Emar. Though my older brothers lived with me, none deliberated matters as I did..." [So, Idrimi was an Amorite, son of Ilī-ilimma from Aleppo].
^Van De Mieroop, Marc (2007).A History of the Ancient Near East c. 3000–323BC (2nd ed.). Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing. p. 152.ISBN978-1-4051-4911-2.
^De Martino, Stefano, (2004). "A Tentative Chronology of the Kingdom of Mittani from its Rise to the Reign of Tusratta", in Mesopotamian Dark Age Revisited: Proceedings of an International Conference of SCIEM 2000, Vienna 8th–9th November 2002, Vienna, p. 37.
^George Roux, Ancient Iraq, Penguin Books; 3rd ed. edition (1 March 1993) ISBN 978-0140125238
^Bryce, Trevor (2024).Ancient Syria: a three thousand year history. Oxford University Press. pp. 38–45.ISBN978-0-19-882890-7.
^Devecchi, Elena. "Details That Make the Difference: The Akkadian Manuscripts of the ‘Šattiwaza Treaties.’" Die Welt Des Orients, vol. 48, no. 1, 2018, pp. 72–95
^[1] Akkermans, Peter MMG, José Limpens, and Richard H. Spoor. "On the frontier of Assyria: excavations at Tell Sabi Abyad, 1991.", Akkadica, vol. 84-85, pp. 1-52 (1993).
^Devecchi, Elena. "6 The Governance of the Subordinated Countries". Handbook Hittite Empire: Power Structures, edited by Stefano de Martino, Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter Oldenbourg, 2022, pp. 271-312
^Hagens, Graham. "The Assyrian King List and Chronology: A Critique." Orientalia, vol. 74, no. 1, 2005, pp. 23–41
^[2] Düring, Bleda S., Eva Visser, and Peter MMG Akkermans. "Skeletons in the Fortress: The Late Bronze Age Burials of Tell Sabi Abyad, Syria." Levant 47.1 (2015): 30-50
^Babylonian and Assyrian Historical Texts". Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament with Supplement, edited by James B. Pritchard, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2016, pp. 265-317
^Uncertain Dynasties". Rulers of Babylonia, Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2016, pp. 90-274
^Da Riva, Rocío. "A New Attestation of Ḫabigalbat in Late Babylonian Sources." Die Welt Des Orients, vol. 47, no. 2, 2017, pp. 259–64
^Da Riva, Rocío. "Addendum to Rocío Da Riva, A New Attestation of Ḫabigalbat in Late Babylonian Sources, WdO 47/2 (2017) 259–264." Die Welt Des Orients, vol. 48, no. 1, 2018, pp. 96–98
^Fournet, Arnaud, (2010)."About the Mitanni Aryan Gods", in Journal of Indo-European Studies 38 (1-2), pp. 26-40. See [in this pdf version] pp. 3, 5, and 10.
^Devecchi, Elena, (2018)."Details That Make the Difference: The Akkadian Manuscripts of the ‘Šattiwaza Treaties.’", in: Die Welt Des Orients, vol. 48, no. 1, 2018, pp. 72–95. Seep. 72: "...The so-called 'Šattiwaza treaties' are a set of two documents (CTH 51 and CTH 52) ratifying the subjugation of Šattiwaza of Mittani to the Hittite kingŠuppiluliuma I, an event dated to the 2nd half of the 14th century BCE..."
^Kammenhuber, Annelies (1968). Die Arier im vorderen Orient. Heidelberg: Carl Winter Universitätsverlag. p. 238. On p. 238 she indicates they spoke a "noch ungeteiltes Indo-Iranisch".
^Mayrhofer, M. (1974). "Die Arier im Vorderen Orient – ein Mythos?".Sitzungsberichte der Oesterreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften.294 (3). Vienna.
^Mayrhofer, M. (1986–2000).Etymologisches Wörterbuch des Altindoarischen. Vol. IV. Heidelberg.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
^Eidem, Jasper, (2014)."The Kingdom of Šamšī-Adad and its Legacies", in Eva Cancik-Kirschbaum, Nicole Brisch and Jesper Eidem (eds.),Constituent, Confederate, and Conquered Space: The Emergence of the Mittani State, p. 142, and footnote 16.
^Pfalzner, Peter, (2007)."The Late Bronze Age Ceramic Traditions of the Syrian Jazirah", in al-Maqdissī, Mīšīl; Matoïan, Valérie; Nicolle, Christophe (eds.), Céramique de l'âge du bronze en Syrie, 2, L'Euphrate et la région de Jézireh, Bibliothèque archéologique et historique 180, Beyrouth, pp. 232, 244, and Figure 2.
^Oates, David. "Excavations at Tell Brak, 1983-84." Iraq, vol. 47, 1985, pp. 159–73
^UR, JASON, et al. "THE SPATIAL DIMENSIONS OF EARLY MESOPOTAMIAN URBANISM: THE TELL BRAK SUBURBAN SURVEY, 2003—2006", Iraq, vol. 73, 2011, pp. 1–19
^abFinkel, Irving L. "Inscriptions from Tell Brak 1984." Iraq, vol. 47, 1985, pp. 187–201
^Kessler, Karlheinz, "Neue Tontafelfunde aus dem mitannizeitlichen Taidu – Ein Vorbericht", The Archaeology of Political Spaces: The Upper Mesopotamian Piedmont in the Second Millennium BCE, edited by Dominik Bonatz, Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, pp. 35-42, 2014
^de Martino, Stefano, (2024)."The Mittanian Cuneiform Documents", in: The Ancient World Revisited, Studies in Manuscript Cultures, Vol. 37, De Gruyter, pp. 207- 219.
^A. Otto, "The Late Bronze Age Pottery of the Weststadt of Tall Bazi (North Syria)", in: M. Luciani, A. Hausleitner (Eds.), Recent Trends in the Study of Late Bronze Age Ceramics in Syro-Mesopotamia and Neighbouring Regions. Proceedings of the International Workshop in Berlin, 2 – 5 November 2006, OrA 32, Rahden/Westf., pp. 85-117, 2014
^[3] B. Einwag and A. Otto, "The Late Bronze Age at Tall Bazi: The Evidence of the Pottery and the Challenges of Radiocarbon Dating", in: From Pottery to Chronology: The Middle Euphrates Region in Late Bronze Age Syria. Proceedings of a Workshop in Mainz (Germany), 5–7 May 2012. MAAO 1, Gladbeck, pp. 149–176, 2018
^[4] Otto, Adelheid and Berthold Einwag. "Three ritual vessels from the Mittani-period temple at Tell Bazi." Stories told around the fountain. Papers offered to Piotr Bieliński on the occasion of his 70th birthday (2019): pp. 503-518
^[5] Torrecilla, Eduardo, and Yoram Cohen. "A Mittani letter order from Azu (Had 8) and its implications for the chronology and history of the Middle Euphrates region in the Late Bronze Age." Revue d'assyriologie et d'archeologie orientale 112.1 (2018): 149-158
^Pfälzner, Peter, and Hasan A. Qasim, (2019)."Urban Developments in Northeastern Mesopotamia from the Ninevite V to the Neo-Assyrian Periods: Excavations at Bassetki in 2017", inZeitschrift fur Orient-Archaologie 11, Deutsches Archaologisches Institut-Orient-Abteilung, Berlin, p. 46: "...In Phase A10, a characteristic mix of Middle Bronze and Mittani potteries was recorded, which leads to the dating of this phase at the turn of the Middle to the Late Bronze Age, i.e. in the transitional MB III period (late 17th/early 16th century BC).
^Puljiz, Ivana, et al., (2019)."A New Mittani Centre On the Middle Tigris (Kurdistan Region): Report On the 2018 Excavations At Kemune", in: Zeitschrift Für Orient-Archäologie 12, pp. 10-43. Seep. 33: "...[pottery] dating to the Middle-Trans-Tigridian I A/B period..." Ralf Beutelschieb (2019), and "...Ten texts in Akkadian language and Babylonian cuneiform script from at least four rooms [of the palace]..." Betina Faist (2019).
^Barjamovic, Gojko, (2012)."Mesopotamian Empires", in: P.F. Bang, and W. Scheidel (eds.),The Oxford Handbook of the Ancient State in the Ancient Near East and the Mediterranean, Oxford University Press,p. 125: "...The Mitanni empire covered northern and western Syria and northern Iraq (ca. 1600-1340 BCE) but succumbed to internal strife and the pressure of an expanding Assyrian empire..."
^Barjamovic, Gojko, (2020)."The Empires of Western Asia and the Assyrian World Empire", in: The Oxford World History of Empire: Volume Two: The History of Empires, Oxford University Press,p. 76: "After 1600 BCE the area between Iran and Egypt was united into a dynamic regional system of empires, Mitanni covered northern and western Syria and northern Iraq circa 1550-1340 BCE..."
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^Gestoso Singer, Graciela. "Fortunes and Misfortunes of Messengers and Merchants in the Amarna Letters". Fortune and Misfortune in the Ancient Near East: Proceedings of the 60th Rencontre Assyriologique Internationale Warsaw, 21–25 July 2014, edited by Olga Drewnowska and Malgorzata Sandowicz, University Park, USA: Penn State University Press, 2021, pp. 143-164
^Moran, William L. (1992).The Amarna Letters. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.ISBN0-8018-4251-4.
^Artzi, P., "The Diplomatic Service in Action: The Mitanni File”, in: R. Cohen and R. Westbrook (eds.): Amarna Diplomacy: The Beginnings of International Relations, Baltimore, London: 205–211, 2000
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^Frayne, Douglas R. and Stuckey, Johanna H.. "Š". A Handbook of Gods and Goddesses of the Ancient Near East: Three Thousand Deities of Anatolia, Syria, Israel, Sumer, Babylonia, Assyria, and Elam, University Park, USA: Penn State University Press, 2021, pp. 318-337
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^Altman, Amnon. "The Mittanian Raid of Amurru (EA 85: 51-55) Reconsidered", Altorientalische Forschungen, vol. 30, no. 2, 2003, pp. 345-371
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^Grayson, Albert Kirk. Assyrian Royal Inscriptions: From the beginning to Ashur-resha-ishi I. Vol. 1. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, 1972.
^Skaist, Aaron. "The Chronology of the Legal Texts from Emar", vol. 88, no. 1, 1998, pp. 45-71
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Further reading
Martino, Stefano de (2024). "The Mittanian Cuneiform Documents: The Interplay between Content, Language, Material, Format, and Sealing Practices". In Marilina Betrò; Michael Friedrich; Cécile Michel (eds.).The Ancient World Revisited: Material Dimensions of Written Artefacts. Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter. pp. 207–220.doi:10.1515/9783111360805-007.ISBN978-3-11-136080-5.
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