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The termMiddle English literature refers to theliterature written in the form of theEnglish language known asMiddle English, from the late 12th century until the 1470s. During this time theChancery Standard, a form ofLondon-based English, became widespread and theprinting press regularized the language. Between the 1470s and the middle of the following century there was a transition toearly Modern English. In literary terms, the characteristics of the literary works written did not change radically until the effects of theRenaissance andReformed Christianity became more apparent in the reign of KingHenry VIII. There are three main categories of Middle English literature,religious,courtly love, andArthurian, though much ofGeoffrey Chaucer's work stands outside these. Among the many religious works are those in theKatherine Group and the writings ofJulian of Norwich andRichard Rolle.
After theNorman Conquest of England,Law French became the standard language of courts, parliament, and society. TheNorman dialects of the ruling classes mixed with the Anglo-Saxon of the people and becameAnglo-Norman, and Anglo-Saxon underwent a gradual transition intoMiddle English. Around the turn of the thirteenth century,Layamon wrote in Middle English. Other transitional works were popular entertainment, including a variety ofromances andlyrics. With time, the English language regained prestige, and in 1362 it replaced French and Latin inParliament and courts of law. Early examples of Middle English literature are theOrmulum andHavelock the Dane. In the fourteenth century major works of English literature began once again to appear, including the works ofChaucer. The latter portion of the 14th century also saw the consolidation of English as a written language and a shift to secular writing. In the late 15th centuryWilliam Caxton printed four-fifths of his works in English, which helped to standardize the language and expand the vocabulary.
After theNorman Conquest of England, the written form of theOld English language continued in some monasteries but few literary works are known from this period.[citation needed] Under the influence of the new aristocracy,Law French became the standard language of courts, parliament, and polite society.
As the invaders integrated, their language and literature mingled with that of the natives. TheNorman dialects of the ruling classes becameAnglo-Norman, and Old English underwent a gradual transition intoMiddle English. Political power was no longer in English hands, so the West Saxon literary language had no more influence than any other dialect. Middle English literature is written, then, in the many dialects that correspond to the history, culture, and background of the individual writers.
While Anglo-Norman orLatin was preferred for high culture and administration, English literature by no means died out, and a number of important works illustrate the development of the language.
During the writing ofOrmulum (c. 1150 –c. 1180),[1] the blending of both Old English and Anglo-Norman elements in English are highlighted for the first time, marking the beginning of the Middle English period.[2]
Around the turn of the thirteenth century,Layamon wrote hisBrut, based onWace's twelfth centuryAnglo-Norman epic of the same name.
Other transitional works were preserved as popular entertainment, including a variety ofromances andlyrics. With time, the English language regainedprestige, and in 1362 it replaced French and Latin inParliament and courts of law. Early examples of Middle English literature are theOrmulum,Havelock the Dane, andThomas of Hales'sLove Rune.
The Mercian dialect thrived between the 8th and 13th centuries and was referred to byJohn Trevisa, writing in 1387:[3]
"For men of the est with men of the west, as it were undir the same partie of hevene, acordeth more in sownynge of speche than men of the north with men of the south, therefore it is that Mercii, that beeth men of myddel Engelond, as it were parteners of the endes, understondeth better the side langages, northerne and southerne, than northerne and southerne understondeth either other…"
Not much lyrical poetry of the thirteenth century remains, and even fewer secular love poems; "Foweles in the frith" is one exception.[4]
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It was with the fourteenth century that major works of English literature began once again to appear; these include the so-calledPearl Poet'sPearl,Patience,Cleanness, andSir Gawain and the Green Knight;Langland's political and religious allegoryPiers Plowman;John Gower'sConfessio Amantis; and the works ofGeoffrey Chaucer, the most highly regarded English poet of the Middle Ages, who was seen by his contemporaries as an English successor to the great tradition ofVirgil andDante. Far more manuscripts of thePrick of Conscience than any other Middle English poem survive, however.[5]
TheKildare Poems are a rare example of Middle English literature produced in Ireland, and give an insight into the development ofHiberno-English.
The latter portion of the 14th century also saw not only the consolidation of English as a written language, taking over from French or Latin in certain areas, but a large shift from primarily theological or religious subject matter to also include that of a more secular nature. Vernacular book production saw a growth in the number of books being copied, both secular and religious. Thus, the latter portion of the 14th century can be seen as one of the most significant periods in the history of the English language.[6]
The reputation of Chaucer's successors in the 15th century has suffered in comparison with him, thoughLydgate,Thomas Hoccleve, andSkelton are widely studied. At this time the origins of Scottish poetry began with the writing ofThe Kingis Quair byJames I of Scotland. The main poets of this Scottish group wereRobert Henryson,William Dunbar, andGavin Douglas. Henryson and Dunbar introduced a note of almost savage satire, which may have owed something to theGaelicbardic poetry, while Douglas'sversion of Virgil'sAeneid is one of the early monuments of Renaissance literary humanism in English.
It was a vibrant time for religious drama as well: manymorality plays andmiracle plays were produced, and some scripts survive today.Sidrak and Bokkus is another example of late Middle English literature.
In the late 15th century the first English printer,William Caxton, printed four-fifths of his works in English. He translated a large number of works into English; Caxton translated 26 of the titles himself. Caxton is credited with printing as many as 108 books, 87 of which were different titles. However, the English language was changing rapidly in Caxton's time and the works he was given to print were in a variety of styles and dialects. Caxton was a technician rather than a writer and he often faced dilemmas concerning language standardisation in the books he printed. (He wrote about this subject in the preface to hisEneydos.[7]) His successorWynkyn de Worde faced similar problems.
Caxton is credited with standardising the English language (that is, homogenising regional dialects) through printing.[citation needed] This facilitated the expansion of English vocabulary, the development ofinflection andsyntax and the ever-widening gap between the spoken and the written word.[citation needed] However,Richard Pynson, a Frenchman who started printing in London in 1491 or 1492 and who favouredChancery Standard English, was a more accomplished stylist and consequently pushed the English language even further toward standardisation.[citation needed]
