Melayu Kingdom
before 671–692 1028–1347
Map of early Malay polities locating the Melayu Kingdom nex toJambi
Capital	Minanga Dharmasraya Pagaruyung
Common languages	Old Malay,Sanskrit
Religion	Buddhism,Hinduism
Government	Monarchy
Maharaja
• 1183	Trailokyaraja
• 1286 – 1316	Tribhuwanaraja
• 1316 – 1347	Akarendrawarman
History
• Earliest mention	671
• Annexed bySrivijaya	692
• Independence restored	1028
• Affiliated withMajapahit	1347
Currency	Gold and silver coins
Preceded by Succeeded by Srivijaya Pagaruyung Kingdom Majapahit Empire Kingdom of Singapura
Today part of	Indonesia Singapore Malaysia Thailand

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Prehistoric period Paleolithic  Lenggong Valley c. 2,000,0000 BCE  Mansuli Valley 235,000 BCE Mesolithic  Niah cultures 65,000–40,000 BCE Neolithic  Bewah man/woman 16,000 BCE  Perak man/woman 11,000–200 BCE  Neolithic Klang 500 – 200 BCE
Early kingdoms Ancient Kedah <100 BCE Chi Tu 100 BCE–642 CE Langkasuka 100 BCE–1474 CE Gangga Negara c. 100 CE–1025 Pan Pan 424–775 Old Kedah 170–1135 Old Pahang 449–1454 Srivijaya 700s–1025 Majapahit 1300s
Rise of Muslim states Kedah Sultanate 1136–present Samudera Pasai Sultanate 1267–1521 Brunei Sultanate 1368–present Malacca Sultanate 1402–1511 Sulu Sultanate 1450–1899 Pahang Sultanate 1470–1623 Aceh Sultanate 1496–1903 Pattani Sultanate 1516– 1902 Johor Sultanate 1528–present Sarawak Sultanate 1599–1641 Selangor Sultanate 1766–present Besut Kingdom 1780–1899 Setul Kingdom 1808–1916 Reman Kingdom 1810–1902 Kubang Pasu Kingdom 1839–1864
Colonial period Portuguese Malacca 1511–1641 Dutch–Portuguese War 1601–1661 Dutch Malacca 1641–1824 Pahang Kingdom 1770–1881 Straits Settlements 1786–1946 Siamese invasion of Kedah 1821–1826 Anglo-Dutch Treaty 1824 Burney Treaty 1826 Naning War 1831–1832 Kingdom of Sarawak 1841–1946 Separation of Perlis from Kedah 1843 Crown Colony of Labuan 1848–1946 Pahang Civil War 1857–1863 Larut Wars 1861–1874 Klang War 1867–1874 Pangkor Treaty 1874 Perak War 1875–1876 British Malaya /Borneo 1874–1946 Jementah Civil War 1879 North Borneo 1882–1946 Pahang Uprising 1891–1895 Mat Salleh Rebellion 1894–1905 Federated Malay States 1895–1946 Anglo-Siamese Treaty 1909 Unfederated Malay States 1909–1946 Battle of Penang 1914 Kelantan rebellion 1915
World War II Japanese occupation of Malaya / Borneo 1941–1945 Malayan campaign 1941–1942 Bornean Campaign 1941–1942 Battle of Muar 1942 Parit Sulong Massacre 1942 Battle of Singapore 1942 Sook Ching 1942 Syburi 1942 Sandakan Death Marches 1942–1945 Si Rat Malai 1943–1945 Jesselton revolt 1943–1944
Formative period BMA of Malaya/Borneo 1945–1946 Crown Colony of N. Borneo/Sarawak 1946–1963 Anti-cession movement 1946–1963 Malayan Union 1946–1948 Federation of Malaya 1948–1963 Malayan Emergency 1948–1960 Baling Talks 1955
Independence period Malayan Independence 1957 Singapore self-governance 1959 ISA 1960 1960–2012 Sarawak Insurgency 1962–1990 North Borneo self-governance 1963 Konfrontasi 1963–1966 Sarawak self-governance 1963 Formation of Malaysia 1963 Singapore in Malaysia 1963–1965 ASEAN Declaration 1967 Second communist insurgency 1968–1989
Modern period 1966 Sarawak constitutional crisis 1965–1966 13 May incident 1969 National Operations Council 1969–1971 Declaration of Rukun Negara 1970 New Economic Policy 1971–1990 Federal Territory of KL 1974 1977 Kelantan Emergency 1977 Pedra Branca dispute 1979–2008 South China Sea dispute(Spratly) 1980–present Dawn Raid 1981 Federal Territory of Labuan 1984 Memali incident 1985 Sabah Emergency 1986 Ming Court Affair 1987 Operation Lalang 1987 Constitutional crisis 1987–1988 Peace Agreement of Hat Yai 1989 Royal Immunity Amendments 1993 Asian financial crisis 1997–1998 Reformasi Movement 1998–2022 Federal Territory of Putrajaya 2001 2008 Malaysian Opposition Wave 2008 2009 Perak constitutional crisis 2009 H1N1 flu pandemic 2009–2010 Sedition Dragnet 2014 1MDB scandal 2015–present Pakatan Harapan takeover 2018 COVID-19 pandemic 2020–2022 Political crisis 2020–2022 Bornean Amendment 2021–2023 Green Wave 2022–present 2023 Sabah political crisis 2023
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TheMelayu Kingdom (also known asMalayu,Dharmasraya Kingdom or theJambi Kingdom;Chinese:末羅瑜國;pinyin:Mòluóyú Guó,reconstructedMiddle Chinese pronunciationmat-la-yu kwok)^[1][2][3] was a classicalBuddhist kingdom located in what is now theIndonesian province ofWest Sumatra andJambi.

The primary sources for much of the information on the kingdom are theNew History of the Tang, and the memoirs of theChineseBuddhistmonkYijing who visited in 671. The state was "absorbed" bySrivijaya by 692, but had "broken away" by the end of the 12th century according toZhao Rukuo.^[4] The exact location of the kingdom is the subject of study among historians. One theory is that the kingdom was established around present-dayJambi onSumatra,Indonesia, approximately 300 km north ofPalembang. According to this theory, it was founded by ethnic groups in theBatanghari river area and gold traders from theMinangkabau hinterland ofPagarruyung.^[5]

There are different theories for the origin of the wordMelayu ('Malay'). One theory suggests that it is derived from theJavanese termsmelayu ormlayu (to steadily accelerate or to run), to describe the strong current of a river inSumatra that today bears the nameSungai Melayu ('Melayu river') which is the right branch going upriver ofBatang Hari whose watershed reachesPagarruyung.^[6] The name was later possibly adopted by the Melayu Kingdom, as it is common for people in the region to be known by the name of the river on which they settled.^[7]

Another theory holds that it originated from theTamil wordsMalay andur meaning "mountain or cave" and "city, land", respectively. It could possibly referred toBarisan Mountains, the mountain range in Sumatra.^[8][9][10]

An early literary appearance can be found in chapter 48,Vayu Purana, where the word "Malayadvipa", which means "mountainous island", is described as one of the provinces in the eastern sea that was full of gold and silver. Some scholars equate the term with Sumatra,^[11] but severalIndian scholars believe the term may refer to theMalay Peninsula,^{[12][13][14][15][16]} which is evidence in the formation of Titiwangsa range that runs down the length of Peninsular Malaysia. The area around this mountainous range is known to be rich with gold mineralization,^[17] which befits the description of Malayadvipa.

Then, the term "Maleu-Kolon" was used inPtolemy'sGeographia which is believed to have originated from theTamil termmalayakolam ormalaikurram, referring to a geographical part of peninsula.^[18] In 7th century, the first use of the term for a nation or a kingdom was recorded byYijing.

The East JavaneseAnjukladang inscription, dated from 937 CE inMataram Kingdom, stated that theSima status was awarded to the Anjukladang village and ajayastambha (victory monument) was later upgraded to a temple, the monument was erected in recognition of their service on repelling the invading forces fromMalayu. The temple mentioned here is probably the Candi Lor (made of bricks and now in ruins) located in Candirejo village inNganjuk Regency.^[19] The mentioning of invadingMalayu forces refers to the old term "Sumatran Malayu Kingdom", which probably refers toSrivijaya. This means that by the 10th century, theJavanese identified their Sumatra-based enemy as "Malayu" or at least the "Malay soldiers of Srivijaya".^[20]

An inscription on the south wall of the 11th centuryBrihadeeswarar Temple also made a reference toMalaiyur, a kingdom that had "a strong mountain for its rampart" during theChola invasion of Srivijaya period. This referred toChola invaders duringRajendra Chola I's campaign.^[21]

In the laterYuan dynasty (1271–1368) andMing dynasty (1368–1644), the wordMa-La-Yu was mentioned often inChinese historical texts — with changes in spelling due to the time span between the dynasties — to refer to a nation near the southern sea. Among the terms used was "Bok-la-yu", "Mok-la-yu" (木剌由), Ma-li-yu-er (麻里予兒), Oo-lai-yu (巫来由 — traced from the written source of monkXuanzang), and Wu-lai-yu (無来由).^[22][23] In the chronicle of Yuan dynasty, the word "Ma-li-yu-er" was mentioned in describing theSukhothai's southward expansion against Malayu:^[24]

"..Animosity occurred betweenSiam and Ma-li-yu-er with both killing each other..."

In response to the Sukhothai's move, aChinese envoy arrived at theRam Khamhaeng's court in 1295 bearing an imperial order: "Keep your promise and do no evil to Ma-li-yu-er".^[25] This nation of "Ma-li-yu-er" that appeared in theChinese record may also be the nation that was mentioned by theVenetian travellerMarco Polo (1254–1324) who lived during the same period. InThe Travels of Marco Polo, he made a reference to a kingdom named "Malauir" in the Malay peninsula.^[26][27]

The wordbhūmi Mālayu (literally "Land of Malayu") is inscribed on thePadang Roco Inscription, dated 1286,^[28] according to the inscription,bhūmi Mālayu is associated with theDharmasraya kingdom. On theAmoghapasa inscription, dated 1347, the wordMalayapura (literally "city of Malaya" or "kingdom of Malaya") was proclaimed byAdityawarman, again referring toDharmasraya. The word "Melayu" is also mentioned in theMalay annals referring to a river inSumatra:

"...Here now is the story of a city calledPalembang in the land ofAndelas. It was ruled by Dĕmang Lebar Daun, a descendant of Raja Shulan, and its river was the Muara Tatang. In the upper reaches of the Muara Tatang was a river called Mĕlayu, and on that river was a hill calledSi-Guntang Mahameru..." CC Brown^[29]

"...There is a country in the land ofAndalás named Paralembang, which is at present denominatedPalembang, the raja of which was denominated Damang Lebar Dawn, (Chieftain Broad-leaf,) who derived his origin from Raja Sulan, (Chillan ?) whose great-grandson he was. The name of its river was Muartatang, into which falls another river named Sungey Malayu, near the source of which is a mountain named the mountainSagantang Maha Miru..." J Leyden^[30]

For some time, the Melayu kingdom was identified by the Chinese as the successor to Srivijaya. As indicated whenSanfoqi sent a mission to China in 1028, but this would actually refer to Malayu-Jambi, not Srivijaya-Palembang.^{[31]: 398, 405} NoSanfoqi mission came to China between 1028–1077. This indicates that themandala of Srivijaya had faded. It is very possible that Srivijaya had collapsed by 1025.^[32]: 110 In the following centuries, Chinese chronicles still refer toSanfoqi, but this term probably refers to the Malayu-Jambi kingdom. The lastepigraphic evidence that mentions the word Srivijaya comes from the Tanjore inscription of the Chola kingdom in 1030 or 1031.^{[31]: 398, 405}

The primary sources for much of the information on the kingdom are theNew History of the Tang, and the memoirs of theChineseBuddhistmonkYijing who visited in 671.^[4]

On his route via Maritime Southeast Asia, Yijing visited Srivijaya twice where he stayed from 688 to 695, studying and translating the original texts in Sanskrit. Srivijaya appears to have been flourishing around the time of Yijing's visit, which he initially called "Bogha (室利佛逝)" during his first visit. At its greatest extent, the kingdom extended to Malayu, which seems to have been annexed or to have come spontaneously under the realm of Bogha prince.^{[clarification needed]} The whole country as well as the capital received the name "Sribogha" or Srivijaya. The change of the name Malayu to Sribogha is likely to have occurred before Yijing's time or during his stay there, for whenever he mentions Malayu by name, he added that "it is now changed to Sribogha".^[2]

The following extract from Yijing's work,The Great Tang Biographies of Eminent Monks who Sought the Dharma in the Western Regions (大唐西域求法高僧傳), further describes a route via Bogha and Malayu, which a monk named Wuxing(無行) have taken to Srivijaya:

(Wuxing) came to Bogha after a month's sail. The king received him very favourably. ... And the king respected him as a guest from the land of the son of heaven of the Great Tang. He went on board the king's ship to the country of Malayu and arrived there after fifteen days sail. Thence he went to Ka Cha, again after fifteen days. At the end of winter he changed ship and sailed to the west.

Further, for the determination of the location of Sribogha-Malayu, Yijing furnishes the following in his workA Record of Buddhist Practices Sent Home from the Southern Sea(南海寄歸內法傳):

In the country of Sribogha, we see the shadow of the gnomon(圭) become neither long nor short (i.e "remain unchanged" or "no shadow") in the middle of the eighth month (Autumnal equinox), and at midday no shadow falls from a man who is standing on that day, so it is in the middle of spring (Vernal equinox).

Thus it can be inferred that the country of Sribogha covered the place lying on the equator, and the whole county therefore must have covered the north east side of Sumatra, from the southern shore ofMalacca, to the city of Palembang, extending at least five degrees, having theequatorial line at about the centre of the kingdom.^{[citation needed]}

According to Yijing,Hinayana Buddhism was predominantly adopted in Srivijaya, represented for the most part by theMulasarvastivada school, however there were fewMahayanists in Malayu. Gold seems to have been abundant in the kingdom, where people used to offer the Buddha a lotus flower of gold and used golden jars. Moreover, people of the kingdom wore a type of long cloth and used fragrant oil.^[2]

Further, Melayu had accessed to gold producing areas in the hinterland ofSumatra. This slowly increased the prestige of Melayu which traded various local goods, including gold, with foreigners.^{[citation needed]}

The state was "absorbed" bySrivijaya by 692.^[4]

Between 1079 and 1088, Chinese records show that Sanfoqi sent ambassadors from Jambi and Palembang.^[33] In 1079 in particular, an ambassador from Jambi and Palembang each visited China. Jambi sent two more ambassadors to China in 1082 and 1088.^[33] That would suggest that the centre of Sanfoqi frequently shifted between the two major cities during that period.^[33] The Chola expeditions as well as the changing trade routes weakened Palembang, allowing Jambi to take the leadership of Sanfoqi from the 11th century onwards.^[34]

By the 12th century, a new dynasty calledMauli rose as the paramount of Sanfoqi. The earliest reference to the new dynasty was found in theGrahi inscription from 1183 discovered inChaiya (Grahi), Southern Thailand Malay Peninsula. The inscription bears the order of Maharaja Srimat Trailokyaraja Maulibhusana Warmadewa to thebhupati (regent) of Grahi named Mahasenapati Galanai to make a statue of Buddha weighing 1bhara 2tula with a value of 10 goldtamlin. The artist responsible for the creation of the statue is Mraten Sri Nano.

According to the ChineseSong dynasty bookZhu Fan Zhi,^[35] written around 1225 byZhao Rugua, the two most powerful and richest kingdoms in theSoutheast Asian archipelago were Sanfoqi and Java (Kediri), with the western part (Sumatra, the Malay Peninsula, and western Java/Sunda) under Sanfoqi's rule and the eastern part was under Kediri's domination. It says that the people in Java followed two religions,Buddhism and the religion ofBrahmins (Hinduism), while the people of Sanfoqi followed Buddhism. The book describes the people of Java as being brave, short-tempered and willing to fight. It also notes that their favourite pastimes werecockfighting and pig fighting. The coins used as currency were made from a mixture ofcopper,silver andtin.

Zhu fan zhi also states that Java (Kediri) was ruled by amaharaja and included the following "dependencies":Pai-hua-yuan (Pacitan), Ma-tung (Mataram),Ta-pen (Tumapel, nowMalang),Hi-ning (Dieng),Jung-ya-lu (Hujung Galuh, nowSurabaya),Tung-ki^[i] (Jenggi,West Papua),Ta-kang (Sumba),Huang-ma-chu (Southwest Papua),Ma-li (Bali),Kulun^[ii] (Gurun, identified as Gorong orSorong inWest Papua or an island inNusa Tenggara),Tan-jung-wu-lo (Tanjungpura in modern-dayWest Kalimantan,Borneo),Ti-wu (Timor),Pingya-i (Banggai in Sulawesi) andWu-nu-ku (Maluku).^{[36]: 186–187} Additionally, Zhao Rugua said that Sanfoqi "was still a great power at the beginning of the thirteenth century" with 15 colonies:^[37]Pong-fong (Pahang),Tong-ya-nong (Terengganu),Ling-ya-si-kia (Langkasuka),Kilan-tan (Kelantan),Fo-lo-an (Dungun, eastern part of Malay Peninsula, a town within state of Terengganu),Ji-lo-t'ing (Cherating),Ts'ien-mai (Semawe, Malay Peninsula),Pa-t'a (Sungai Paka, located inTerengganu of Malay Peninsula),Tan-ma-ling (Tambralinga,Ligor orNakhon Si Thammarat, SouthThailand),Kia-lo-hi (Grahi, (Krabi) northern part of Malay Peninsula),Pa-lin-fong (Palembang),Sin-t'o (Sunda),Lan-wu-li (Lamuri atAceh),Kien-pi (Jambi) andSi-lan (Cambodia orCeylon (?)).^{[36]: 183–184 [38][39]}

Almost a century after taking over the role of Palembang as the centre of an empire, Jambi experienced a decline in influence.^[40] This was caused by a change of policy in 1178 by theSong dynasty to no longer accept ambassadors fromSanfotsi, and Jambi's inability to cope with the changing scenario. Instead of Jambi controlling the trade through a tributary system, traders were allowed to trade directly.^[41]

In 1275,Kertanegara, of theSinghasari Kingdom, took advantage of Melayu's decline and sent a military expedition to establish Javanese control over Melayu's realm in Sumatra. Mahesa Anabrang (or Kebo/Lembu Anabrang) was a general of Singhasari, who conquered Palembang and Jambi (Malayu) in 1288. However, embassies by Malayu were still being sent to China in 1299 and 1301.^{[4]: 198, 203–204}

According toGeorge Coedes, by the beginning of the 14th century, Melayu "remained the only Sumatran state of some political importance and it had become the refuge of the BuddhistDharmic Indian culture in opposition to thesultanates of the north that were alreadyIslamised or in the process of becoming so".^{[4]: 231–232}

TheHistory of Ming in 1371 mentions three kings that divided the ancient territory of Srivijaya, whose center was then Jambi and according to their titles were heir to Malayu. There were still sending embassies in 1374 and 1375. One king who reigned in the Jambi region in 1376 received the title 'King of San-fo-ch'i' from China, even though the Javanese (Majapahit) had conquered this region. According to the chronicle, the Javanese became very angry as their supposed vassal displayed a tendency towards independence and so they made a punitive expedition to Palembang. The chronicle continues: "[San-fo-ch'i] became gradually poorer and no tribute was brought from this country any more."^[42]

In the year 1347,Tribhuwana Wijayatunggadewi, the Queen of Majapahit, delegatedAdityawarman as the ruler of Melayu to prevent the revival of Srivijaya. Adityawarman later conqueredTanah Datar to take control of the gold trade and founded a kingdom inPagaruyung. In the year 1377, the Majapahit defeated Palembang and ended efforts to revive Srivijaya. The last prince of Srivijayan origin,Parameswara (thought to be the same person as Iskandar Shah in theMalay Annals), fled toTemasik to seek refuge before moving farther north, where he founded what would become theMalacca Sultanate.^[43]

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