Meditation is a practice in which an individual uses a technique to train attention and awareness and detach from reflexive, "discursive thinking",[note 1] achieving a mentally clear and emotionally calm and stable state,[1][2][3][4][web 1][web 2] while not judging the meditation process itself.[note 2]
Techniques are broadly classified into focused (or concentrative) and open monitoring methods. Focused methods involve attention to specific objects like breath ormantras, while open monitoring includesmindfulness and awareness of mental events.
Meditation is practiced in numerous religious traditions, though it is also practised independently from any religious or spiritual influences for its health benefits. The earliest records of meditation (dhyana) are found in theUpanishads, and meditation plays a salient role in the contemplative repertoire ofJainism,Buddhism andHinduism.[5] Meditation-like techniques are also known inJudaism,Christianity andIslam, in the context of remembrance of and prayer and devotion to God.
The Englishmeditation is derived fromOld Frenchmeditacioun, in turn fromLatinmeditatio from a verbmeditari, meaning "to think, contemplate, devise, ponder".[11][12] In theCatholic tradition, the use of the termmeditatio as part of a formal, stepwise process of meditation goes back to at least the 12th-century monkGuigo II,[12][13] before which the Greek wordtheoria was used for the same purpose.
Apart from its historical usage, the termmeditation was introduced as a translation for Easternspiritual practices, referred to asdhyāna inHinduism,Buddhism, andJainism, which comes from theSanskrit rootdhyai, meaning to contemplate or meditate.[14][15][16] The greek wordtheoria actually derives from the same root.[17]
The term "meditation" in English may also refer to practices from IslamicSufism,[18] or other traditions such as JewishKabbalah and ChristianHesychasm.[19]
Meditation has proven difficult to define as it covers a wide range of dissimilar practices in different traditions and cultures.[note 3] In popular usage, the word "meditation" and the phrase "meditative practice" are often used imprecisely to designate practices found across many cultures.[19][22] These can include almost anything that is claimed to train the attention of mind or to teach calmness or compassion.[23] There remains no definition of necessary and sufficient criteria for meditation that has achieved widespread acceptance within the modernscientific community.
Some of the difficulty in precisely defining meditation has been in recognizing the particularities of the many varioustraditions;[24] and theories and practice can differ within a tradition.[25] Taylor noted that even within afaith such as "Hindu" or "Buddhist", schools and individual teachers may teach distinct types of meditation.[26]Ornstein noted that "Most techniques of meditation do not exist as solitary practices but are only artificially separable from an entire system of practice and belief."[27] For instance, while monks meditate as part of their everyday lives, they also engage in the codified rules and live together in monasteries in specific cultural settings that go along with their meditative practices.
Dictionaries give both the originalLatin meaning of "think[ing] deeply about (something)", as well as the popular usages of "focusing one's mind for a period of time",[web 2] "the act of giving your attention to only one thing, either as a religious activity or as a way of becoming calm and relaxed",[web 3] and "to engage in mental exercise (such as concentrating on one's breathing or repetition of amantra) for the purpose of reaching a heightened level of spiritual awareness."[web 1]
In modernpsychological research, meditation has been defined and characterized in various ways. Many of these emphasize the role of attention[19][28][29][30] and characterize the practice of meditation as attempts to detach from reflexive, "discursive thinking,"[note 1] not judging the meditation-process itself ("logical relaxation"),[note 2] to achieve a deeper, more devout, or more relaxed state.
Bond et al. (2009) identified criteria for defining a practice as meditation "for use in a comprehensive systematic review of the therapeutic use of meditation", using "a 5-roundDelphi study with a panel of 7 experts in meditation research" who were also trained in diverse but empirically highly studied (Eastern-derived or clinical) forms of meditation[note 4]:
three main criteria ... as essential to any meditation practice: the use of a defined technique, logic relaxation,[note 2] and a self-induced state/mode.
Other criteria deemed important [but not essential] involve a state of psychophysical relaxation, the use of a self-focus skill or anchor, the presence of a state of suspension of logical thought processes, a religious/spiritual/philosophical context, or a state of mental silence.[21]
Several other definitions of meditation have been used by influential modern reviews of research on meditation across multiple traditions:[note 5]
Walsh & Shapiro (2006): "Meditation refers to a family of self-regulation practices that focus on training attention and awareness in order to bring mental processes under greater voluntary control and thereby foster general mental well-being and development and/or specific capacities such as calm, clarity, and concentration"[1]
Cahn & Polich (2006): "Meditation is used to describe practices that self-regulate the body and mind, thereby affecting mental events by engaging a specific attentional set.... regulation of attention is the central commonality across the many divergent methods"[2]
Jevning et al. (1992): "We define meditation... as a stylized mental technique... repetitively practiced for the purpose of attaining a subjective experience that is frequently described as very restful, silent, and of heightened alertness, often characterized as blissful"[3]
Goleman (1988): "the need for the meditator to retrain his attention, whether through concentration or mindfulness, is the single invariant ingredient in... every meditation system"[4]
In the West, meditation techniques have often been classified in two broad categories, which in actual practice are often combined: focused (or concentrative) meditation and open monitoring (or mindfulness) meditation:[35]
Direction of mental attention... A practitioner can focus intensively on one particular object (so-calledconcentrative meditation), on all mental events that enter the field of awareness (so-calledmindfulness meditation), or both specific focal points and the field of awareness.[36]
The Buddhist tradition often divides meditative practice intosamatha, or calm abiding,[42][43] andvipassana, insight.Mindfulness of breathing, a form of focused attention, calms down the mind; this calmed mind can then investigate the nature of reality,[44][45][46] by monitoring the fleeting and ever-changing constituents of experience, by reflective investigation, or by "turning back the radiance," focusing awareness on awareness itself and discerning the true nature of mind as awareness itself.
Matko and Sedlmeier (2019) "call into question the common division into 'focused attention' and 'open-monitoring' practices." They argue for "two orthogonal dimensions along which meditation techniques could be classified," namely "activation" and "amount of body orientation," proposing seven clusters of techniques: "mindful observation, body-centered meditation, visual concentration, contemplation, affect-centered meditation, mantra meditation, and meditation with movement."[47]
Jonathan Shear argues that transcendental meditation is an "automatic self-transcending" technique, different from focused attention and open monitoring. In this kind of practice, "there is no attempt to sustain any particular condition at all. Practices of this kind, once started, are reported to automatically 'transcend' their own activity and disappear, to be started up again later if appropriate."[note 6] Yet, Shear also states that "automatic self-transcending" also applies to the way other techniques such as from Zen and Qigong are practiced by experienced meditators "once they had become effortless and automatic through years of practice."[48]
Asanas or body postures such aspadmasana(full-lotus,half-lotus), cross-legged sitting,seiza, andkneeling positions are popularmeditative postures in Hinduism, Buddhism andJainism,[49] although other postures such as sitting, supine (lying), and standing are also used. Meditation is also sometimes done while walking, known askinhin, while doing a simple task mindfully, known assamu, or while lying down, known asshavasana.[50][51]
TheTranscendental Meditation technique recommends practice of 20 minutes twice per day.[52] Some techniques suggest less time,[44] especially when starting meditation,[53] andRichard Davidson has quoted research saying benefits can be achieved with a practice of only 8 minutes per day.[54] Research shows improvement in meditation time with simple oral and video training.[55] Some meditators practice for much longer,[56][57] particularly when on a course orretreat.[58] Some meditators find practice best inthe hours before dawn.[59]
Some religions have traditions of usingprayer beads as tools in devotional meditation.[60][61][62] Most prayer beads andChristian rosaries consist of pearls or beads linked together by a thread.[60][61] The Roman Catholic rosary is a string of beads containing five sets with ten small beads. Eastern and Oriental Orthodox have traditions of usingprayer ropes called Comboschini or Meqetaria as an aid to prayerful meditation. The Hindujapa mala has 108 beads. The figure 108 in itself having spiritual significance as the energy of the sounds equivalates toOm,[5][63] as well as those used inGaudiya Vaishnavism, theHare Krishna tradition, andJainism.[64][65]Buddhist prayer beads also have 108 beads, but hold a different meaning. In Buddhism, there are 108 human passions that impede enlightenment.[66] Each bead is counted once as a person recites amantra until the person has gone all the way around the mala.[65] The Muslimmisbaha has 99 beads. There is also quite a variance when it comes to materials used for beads. Beads made from seeds ofrudraksha trees are considered sacred by devotees ofShiva, while followers ofVishnu revere the wood that comes from theTulsi plant, also known as Holy Basil.[67]
The Buddhist literature has many stories ofEnlightenment being attained through disciples being struck by their masters. T. Griffith Foulk recounts how theencouragement stick was an integral part of theZen practice when he trained:
In the Rinzai monastery where I trained in the mid-1970s, according to an unspoken etiquette, monks who were sitting earnestly and well were shown respect by being hit vigorously and often; those known as laggards were ignored by the hall monitor or given little taps if they requested to be hit. Nobody asked about the 'meaning' of the stick, nobody explained, and nobody ever complained about its use.[68]
Neuroscientist and long-time meditatorRichard Davidson has expressed the view that having a narrative can help the maintenance of daily practice. For instance, he himselfprostrates to the teachings, and meditates "not primarily for my benefit, but for the benefit of others".[54]
Walking meditation is a fundamental technique in Theravāda and Zen traditions. It involves walking slowly and mindfully in a straight path or circle, focusing attention on each step, the movement of the feet, the breath, and bodily sensations. It is often used in alternation with sitting meditation during retreats and daily practice to integrate mindfulness into bodily movement.[72]
The history of meditation is intimately bound up with the religious context within which it was practiced.[73] Rossano suggested that the emergence of the capacity for focused attention, an element of many methods of meditation, may have contributed to the latest phases of human biological evolution.[74] Some of the earliest references to meditation, as well as proto-Samkhya, are found in theUpanishads of India.[75][76] According to Wynne, the earliest clear references to meditation are in the middle Upanishads and theMahabharata (including theBhagavad Gita).[77][78] According toGavin Flood, the earlierBrihadaranyaka Upanishad is describing meditation when it states that "Having become calm and concentrated, one perceives the self (Ātman) within oneself" (BU 4.4.23).[79]
There are many schools and styles of meditation withinHinduism.[79] In pre-modern and traditionalHinduism,Yoga andDhyana are practised to recognize 'pure awareness', or 'pure consciousness', undisturbed by the workings of the mind, as one's eternal self. InAdvaita Vedantajivatman, individual self, is recognized as illusory, and in Reality identical with the omnipresent andnon-dualĀtman-Brahman. In thedualistic Yoga school andSamkhya, the Self is calledPurusha, a pure consciousness undisturbed byPrakriti, 'nature'. Depending on the tradition, the liberative event is namedmoksha, vimukti orkaivalya.[80]
One of the most influential texts of classical Hindu Yoga isPatañjali'sYoga sutras (c. 400 CE), a text associated with Yoga and Samkhya and influenced by Buddhism,[note 7] which outlineseight limbs leading tokaivalya ("aloneness") or inner awareness. The first four, known as the "outer limbs," include ethical discipline (yamas), rules (niyamas), physical postures (āsanas), and breath control (prāṇāyama). The fifth, withdrawal from the senses (pratyāhāra), transitions into the "inner limbs" that are one-pointedness of mind (dhāraṇā), meditation (dhyāna), and finallysamādhi.[83]
Later developments in Hindu meditation include the compilation ofHatha Yoga (forceful yoga) compendiums like theHatha Yoga Pradipika, the development ofBhakti yoga as a major form of meditation, andTantra. Another important Hindu yoga text is theYoga Yajnavalkya, which makes use ofHatha Yoga and Vedanta Philosophy.[84]
TheBhagavata Purana emphasizes that mantra meditation is a key practice for achieving liberation; practitioners can achieve a direct vision of the divine. The text integrates both Vedic and tantric elements, where mantras are not only seen as sacred sounds but as embodiment of the deity. This approach reflects a shift from the impersonal meditation on the sound-form of Brahman (Om) in the Upanishads to a personal, devotional focus onKrishna in the Bhagavata Purana.[85]
Jainism has three elements called theRatnatraya ("Three Jewels"): right perception and faith, right knowledge and right conduct.[86] Meditation in Jainism aims to reach and to remain in the pure state of soul which is believed to be pure consciousness, beyond any attachment or aversion. The practitioner strives to be just a knower-seer (gyata-drashta). Jain meditation can be broadly categorized intoDharma dhyana andShukla dhyana.Dharma dhyana is discriminating knowledge (bheda-vijñāna) of the tattvas (truths or fundamental principles), whileshukla dhyana is meditation proper.
Jainism uses meditation techniques such aspindāstha-dhyāna, padāstha-dhyāna, rūpāstha-dhyāna, rūpātita-dhyāna, and savīrya-dhyāna. Inpadāstha dhyāna, one focuses on amantra,[87] a combination of core letters or words on deity or themes. Jain followers practice mantra regularly by chanting loudly or silently in mind.[87]
The meditation technique ofcontemplation includesagnya vichāya, in which one contemplates on seven facts – life and non-life, the inflow, bondage, stoppage and removal ofkarmas, and the final accomplishment of liberation. Inapaya vichāya, one contemplates on the incorrect insights one indulges, which eventually develops right insight. Invipaka vichāya, one reflects on the eight causes or basic types ofkarma. Insansathan vichāya, one thinks about the vastness of the universe and the loneliness of the soul.[87]
While most classical and contemporary Buddhist meditation guides are school-specific,[note 11] the root meditative practices of various body recollections andbreath meditation have been preserved and transmitted in almost allBuddhist traditions, throughBuddhist texts like theSatipatthana Sutta and theDhyana sutras, and through oral teacher-student transmissions. These ancient practices are supplemented with various distinct interpretations of, and developments in, these practices.
TheTheravāda tradition stresses the development ofsamatha andvipassana, postulating over fifty methods for developing mindfulness based on theSatipatthana Sutta,[note 12] and forty for developing concentration based on theVisuddhimagga.
TheZen tradition incorporated mindfulness and breath-meditation via the Dhyana sutras, which are based on the Sarvastivada-tradition. Sitting meditation, known aszazen, is a central part of Zen practice. Downplaying the "petty complexities" of satipatthana and the body-recollections[89][90] (but maintaining the awareness of immanent death), the early Chan-tradition developed the notions or practices ofwu nian ("no thought, no fixation on thought, such as one's own views, experiences, and knowledge")[91][92] andfēi sīliàng (非思量, Japanese:hishiryō, "nonthinking");[93] andkanxin ("observing the mind")[94] andshou-i pu i (守一不移, "maintaining the one without wavering,"[95] turning the attention from the objects of experience, to the nature of mind, the perceiving subject itself, which is equated withBuddha-nature.[96]
TheSilk Road transmission of Buddhism introduced Buddhist meditation to other Asian countries, reaching China in the 2nd century CE,[97] and Japan in the 6th century CE.[98] In the modern era, Buddhist meditation techniques have become popular in the wider world, due to the influence ofBuddhist modernism on Asian Buddhism, andwestern lay interest inZen and theVipassana movement, with many non-Buddhists taking-up meditative practices. The modernized concept of mindfulness (based on the Buddhist termsati) and related meditative practices have in turn led tomindfulness based therapies.[99]
Dhyana, while often presented as a form of focused attention or concentration, as in Buddhagosa's Theravada classic theVisuddhimagga ("Path of purification", 5th c. CE), according to a number of contemporary scholars and scholar-practitioners, it is actually a description of the development of perfected equanimity and mindfulness, apparently induced by satipatthana, an open monitoring of the breath, without trying to regulate it. The same description, in a different formula, can be found in thebojjhanga, the "seven factors of awakening," and may therefore refer to the core program of early Buddhistbhavana.[100] According to Vetter, dhyana seems to be a natural development from the sense-restraint and moral constrictions prescribed by the Buddhist tradition.[101][102]
The Buddha identified two paramount mental qualities that arise from wholesome meditative practice orbhavana, namelysamatha ("calm," "serenity" "tranquility") andvipassana (insight). As the developing tradition started to emphasize the value of liberating insight, anddhyana came to be understood as concentration,[103][104]samatha andvipassana were understood as two distinct meditative techniques. In this understanding,samatha steadies, composes, unifies and concentrates the mind, whilevipassana enables one to see, explore and discern "formations" (conditioned phenomena based on the fiveaggregates).[note 14]
According to this understanding, which is central to Theravada orthodoxy but also plays a role inTibetan Buddhism, through the meditative development of serenity, one is able to weaken the obscuringhindrances and bring the mind to a collected, pliant, and still state (samadhi). This quality of mind then supports the development of insight and wisdom (Prajñā) which is the quality of mind that can "clearly see" (vi-passana) the nature of phenomena. What exactly is to be seen varies within the Buddhist traditions. In Theravada, all phenomena are to be seen asimpermanent,suffering,not-self andempty. When this happens, one developsdispassion (viraga) for all phenomena, including all negative qualities and hindrances and lets them go. It is through the release of the hindrances and ending of craving through the meditative development of insight that one gains liberation.[105]
InSikhism,simran (meditation) and good deeds are both necessary to achieve the devotee's spiritual goals;[106] without good deeds meditation is futile. WhenSikhs meditate, they aim to feel God's presence and emerge in the divine light.[107] It is only God'sdivine will or order that allows a devotee to desire to begin to meditate.[108]Nām japnā involves focusing one's attention on the names or great attributes of God.[109]
Taoist meditation has developed techniques including concentration, visualization,qi cultivation,contemplation, andmindfulness meditations in its long history. Traditional Daoist meditative practices influenced Buddhism creating the unique meditative practices ofChinese Buddhism that then spread through the rest of east Asia from around the 5th century.TraditionalChinese medicine and theChinese martial arts were influenced and influences of Taoist meditation.[citation needed]
TheGuanzi essay (late 4th century BCE)Neiye "Inward training" is the oldest received writing on the subject ofqi cultivation and breath-control meditation techniques.[111] For instance, "When you enlarge your mind and let go of it, when you relax your vital breath and expand it, when your body is calm and unmoving: And you can maintain the One and discard the myriad disturbances. ... This is called "revolving the vital breath": Your thoughts and deeds seem heavenly."[112]
The TaoistZhuangzi (c. 3rd century BCE) recordszuowang or "sitting forgetting" meditation.Confucius asked his discipleYan Hui to explain what "sit and forget" means: "I slough off my limbs and trunk, dim my intelligence, depart from my form, leave knowledge behind, and become identical with the Transformational Thoroughfare."[113]
Taoist meditation practices are central toChinese martial arts (and someJapanese martial arts), especially theqi-relatedneijia "internal martial arts". Some well-known examples aredaoyin ("guiding and pulling"),qigong ("life-energy exercises"),neigong ("internal exercises"),neidan ("internal alchemy"), andtai chi ("great ultimate boxing"), which is thought of as moving meditation. One common explanation contrasts "movement in stillness" referring to energetic visualization ofqi circulation in qigong andzuochan ("seated meditation"),[46] versus "stillness in movement" referring to a state of meditative calm intai chi forms. Also the unification or middle road forms such asWuxingheqidao that seeks the unification of internal alchemical forms with more external forms.[citation needed]`
Judaism has made use of meditative practices for thousands of years.[114][115] For instance, in theTorah, the patriarchIsaac is described as going"לשוח" (lasuach) in the field – a term understood by all commentators as some type of meditative practice (Genesis 24:63).[116] Similarly, there are indications throughout theTanakh (the HebrewBible) that theprophets meditated.[117] In theOld Testament, there are twoHebrew words for meditation:hāgâ (Hebrew:הגה),to sigh ormurmur, but alsoto meditate, andsîḥâ (Hebrew:שיחה),to muse, orrehearse in one's mind.[118]
Classical Jewish texts espouse a wide range of meditative practices, often associated with the cultivation ofkavanah or intention. The first layer ofrabbinic law, theMishnah, describes ancient sages "waiting" for an hour before their prayers, "in order to direct their hearts to the Omnipresent One" (MishnahBerakhot 5:1). Other earlyrabbinic texts include instructions for visualizing the Divine Presence (B.TalmudSanhedrin 22a) and breathing with conscious gratitude for every breath (Genesis Rabba 14:9).[119]
One of the best-known types of meditation in early Jewish mysticism was the work of theMerkabah, from the root /R-K-B/ meaning "chariot" (of God).[118] Some meditative traditions have been encouraged inKabbalah, and some Jews have described Kabbalah as an inherently meditative field of study.[120][121][122] Kabbalistic meditation often involves the mental visualization of the supernal realms.Aryeh Kaplan has argued that the ultimate purpose of Kabbalistic meditation is to understand and cleave to the Divine.[118]
Meditation has been of interest to a wide variety of modern Jews. In modern Jewish practice, one of the best known meditative practices is called"hitbodedut" (התבודדות, alternatively transliterated as "hisbodedus"), and is explained inKabbalistic,Hasidic, andMussar writings, especially the Hasidic method of RabbiNachman of Breslav. The word derives from the Hebrew word "boded" (בודד), meaning the state of being alone.[123] Another Hasidic system is theHabad method of "hisbonenus", related to theSephirah of "Binah", Hebrew for understanding.[124] This practice is the analytical reflective process of making oneself understand a mystical concept well, that follows and internalises its study in Hasidic writings. TheMusar Movement, founded by Rabbi Israel Salanter in the middle of the nineteenth-century, emphasized meditative practices ofintrospection andvisualization that could help to improve moral character.[125] Conservative rabbiAlan Lew has emphasized meditation playing an important role in the process ofteshuvah (repentance).[126][127]Jewish Buddhists have adopted Buddhist styles of meditation.[128]
Christian meditation is a term for a form of prayer in which a structured attempt is made to get in touch with and deliberately reflect upon the revelations ofGod.[130] In theRoman Empire, by 20 BCEPhilo of Alexandria had written on some form of "spiritual exercises" involving attention (prosoche) and concentration[131] and by the 3rd centuryPlotinus had developed meditative techniques. The word meditation comes from the Latin wordmeditatum, which means to "concentrate" or "to ponder". MonkGuigo II introduced this terminology for the first time in the 12th century AD. Christian meditation is the process of deliberately focusing on specific thoughts (e.g. abiblical scene involvingJesus and theVirgin Mary) and reflecting on their meaning in the context of the love of God.[132] Christian meditation is sometimes taken to mean the middle level in a broad three-stage characterization of prayer: it then involves more reflection than first level vocalprayer, but is more structured than the multiple layers ofcontemplation in Christianity.[133]
Between the 10th and 14th centuries,hesychasm was developed, particularly onMount Athos in Greece, and involves the repetition of theJesus prayer.[134] Interactions with Indians or theSufis may have influenced theEastern Christian meditation approach to hesychasm, but this is unproven.[135]
Western Christian meditation contrasts with most other approaches in that it does not involve the repetition of any phrase or action and requires no specific posture. Western Christian meditation progressed from the 6th century practice of Bible reading amongBenedictine monks calledLectio Divina, i.e. divine reading. Its four formal steps as a "ladder" were defined by the monkGuigo II in the 12th century with the Latin termslectio,meditatio,oratio, andcontemplatio (i.e. read, ponder, pray, contemplate). Western Christian meditation was further developed by saints such asIgnatius of Loyola andTeresa of Avila in the 16th century.[136][137][138][139]
On 28 April 2021,Pope Francis, in an address to the General Audience, said that meditation is a need for everyone.[140][141] He noted that the term "meditation" has had many meanings throughout history, and that "the ancients used to say that the organ of prayer is the heart."[140]
In Catholic Christianity, theRosary is a devotion for the meditation of the mysteries of Jesus and Mary.[142][143] "The gentle repetition of its prayers makes it an excellent means to moving into deeper meditation. It gives us an opportunity to open ourselves to God's word, to refine our interior gaze by turning our minds to the life of Christ. The first principle is that meditation is learned through practice. Many people who practice rosary meditation begin very simply and gradually develop a more sophisticated meditation. The meditator learns to hear an interior voice, the voice of God.[144] Similarly, thechotki of theEastern Orthodox denomination, theWreath of Christ of theLutheran faith, and theAnglican prayer beads of theEpiscopalian tradition are used for Christian prayer and meditation.[145][146]
According toEdmund P. Clowney, Christian meditation contrasts with Eastern forms of meditation as radically as the portrayal ofGod the Father in the Bible contrasts with depictions ofKrishna orBrahman in Indian teachings.[147] Unlike some Eastern styles, most styles of Christian meditation do not rely on the repeated use ofmantras, and yet are also intended to stimulate thought and deepen meaning. Christian meditation aims to heighten the personal relationship based on the love of God that marks Christian communion.[148][149] InAspects of Christian meditation, theCatholic Church warned of potential incompatibilities in mixing Christian and Eastern styles of meditation.[150] In 2003, inA Christian reflection on the New Age theVatican announced that the "Church avoids any concept that is close to those of theNew Age".[151][152][153]
Dhikr (zikr) is a type of meditation within Islam, meaning remembering and mentioning God, which involves the repetition of the 99 Names of God since the 8th or 9th century.[154][155] It is interpreted in different meditative techniques in Sufism or Islamic mysticism.[154][155] This became one of the essential elements of Sufism as it was systematized traditionally. It is juxtaposed withfikr (thinking) which leads to knowledge.[156] By the 12th century, the practice of Sufism included specific meditative techniques, and its followers practiced breathing controls and the repetition of holy words.[157]
Sufism uses a meditative procedure like Buddhistconcentration, involving high-intensity and sharply focused introspection. In the Oveyssi-Shahmaghsoudi Sufi order, for example,muraqabah takes the form oftamarkoz, "concentration" inPersian.[158]
Tafakkur ortadabbur in Sufism literally meansreflection upon theuniverse: this is considered to permit access to a form ofcognitive andemotional development that can emanate only from the higher level, i.e. from God. The sensation of receiving divine inspiration awakens and liberates both heart and intellect, permitting such inner growth that the apparently mundane actually takes on the quality of theinfinite. Muslim teachings embrace life as a test of one's submission to God.[159]
Dervishes of certain Sufi orders practicewhirling, a form of physically active meditation.[160]
In the teachings of theBaháʼí Faith, which derives from an Islamic context but is universalist in orientation, meditation is a primary tool for spiritual development,[161] involving reflection on the words of God.[162] While prayer and meditation are linked, where meditation happens generally in a prayerful attitude, prayer is seen specifically as turning toward God,[163] and meditation is seen as a communion with one's self where one focuses on the divine.[162]
InBaháʼí teachings the purpose of meditation is to strengthen one's understanding of the words of God, and to make one's soul more susceptible to their potentially transformative power,[162] more receptive to the need for both prayer and meditation to bring about and maintain a spiritual communion with God.[164]
Bahá'u'lláh, the founder of the religion, never specified any particular form of meditation, and thus each person is free to choose their own form.[161] However, he did state that Baháʼís should read a passage of theBaháʼí writings twice a day, once in the morning, and once in the evening, and meditate on it. He also encouraged people to reflect on one's actions and worth at the end of each day.[162] During theNineteen Day Fast, a period of the year during which Baháʼís adhere to a sunrise-to-sunset fast, they meditate and pray to reinvigorate their spiritual forces.[165]
Meditation has spread in the West since the late 19th century, accompanying increased travel and communication among cultures worldwide. Most prominent has been the transmission of Asian-derived practices to the West. In addition, interest in some Western-based meditative practices has been revived,[166] and these have been disseminated to a limited extent to Asian countries.[167]
Ideas about Eastern meditation had begun "seeping into American popular culture even before the American Revolution through the various sects of European occult Christianity",[168] and such ideas "came pouring in [to America] during the era of the transcendentalists, especially between the 1840s and the 1880s."[168] The following decades saw further spread of these ideas to America:
TheWorld Parliament of Religions, held in Chicago in 1893, was the landmark event that increased Western awareness of meditation. This was the first time that Western audiences on American soil received Asian spiritual teachings from Asians themselves. Thereafter,Swami Vivekananda [...] [founded] variousVedanta ashrams [...]Anagarika Dharmapala lectured at Harvard on Theravada Buddhist meditation in 1904;Abdul Baha [...] [toured] the US teaching the principles ofBahai [sic], andSoyen Shaku toured in 1907 teaching Zen.[169]
More recently, in the 1960s, another surge in Western interest in meditative practices began. The rise of communist political power in Asia led to many Asian spiritual teachers taking refuge in Western countries, oftentimes as refugees.[170] In addition to spiritual forms of meditation, secular forms of meditation have taken root. Rather than focusing on spiritual growth, secular meditation emphasizes stress reduction, relaxation and self-improvement.[171][172]
The 2012 US National Health Interview Survey of 34,525 subjects found that 8% of US adults used meditation,[173] with lifetime and 12-month prevalence of meditation use of 5.2% and 4.1% respectively.[174] Meditation use among workers was 10% (up from 8% in 2002).[175]
New Age meditations are often influenced by Eastern philosophy,mysticism,yoga,Hinduism andBuddhism, yet may contain some degree of Western influence. In the West, meditation found its mainstream roots through thesocial revolution of the 1960s and 1970s, when many of theyouth of the day rebelled against traditional religion as a reaction against what some perceived as the failure of Christianity to provide spiritual and ethical guidance.[176] New Age meditation as practised by the early hippies is regarded for its techniques of blanking out the mind and releasing oneself from conscious thinking. This is often aided by repetitive chanting of a mantra, or focusing on an object.[177] New Age meditation evolved into a range of purposes and practices, from serenity and balance to access to other realms of consciousness to the concentration of energy in group meditation to the supreme goal ofsamadhi, as in the ancient yogic practice of meditation.[178]
Guided meditation is a form of meditation which uses a number of different techniques to achieve or enhance the meditative state. It may simply be meditation done under the guidance of a trained practitioner or teacher, or it may be through the use of imagery, music, and other techniques.[179] The session can be either in person, via media[180] comprising music or verbal instruction, or a combination of both.[181][182] The most common form is a combination ofmeditation music andreceptive music therapy,guided imagery, relaxation, mindfulness, andjournaling.[183][184][185]
Because of the different combinations used under the one term, it can be difficult to attribute positive or negative outcomes to any of the various techniques. Furthermore, the term is frequently used interchangeably with "guided imagery" and sometimes with "creative visualization" inpopular psychology andself-help literature. It is less commonly used inscholarly andscientific publications. Consequently, guided meditation cannot be understood as a single technique but rather multiple techniques that are integral to its practice.[183][186][187][188]
Meditation lowers heart rate, oxygen consumption, breathing frequency,stress hormones,lactate levels, andsympathetic nervous system activity (associated with thefight-or-flight response), along with a modest decline in blood pressure.[203][204] However, those who have meditated for two or three years were found to already have low blood pressure. During meditation, the oxygen consumption decrease averages 10 to 20 percent over the first three minutes. During sleep for example, oxygen consumption decreases around 8 percent over four or five hours.[205] For meditators who have practiced for years, breath rate can drop to three or four breaths per minute and "brain waves slow from the usualbeta (seen in waking activity) oralpha (seen in normal relaxation) to much slowerdelta andtheta waves".[206]
Studies demonstrate that meditation has a moderate effect to reduce pain.[9] There is insufficient evidence for any effect of meditation on positive mood, attention, eating habits, sleep, or body weight.[9]
Luberto er all (2017), in a systematic review and meta-analysis of the effects of meditation onempathy,compassion, andprosocial behaviors, found that meditation practices had small to medium effects on self-reported and observable outcomes, concluding that such practices can "improve positive prosocial emotions and behaviors".[207][unreliable medical source?] However, a meta-review published onScientific Reports showed that the evidence is very weak and "that the effects of meditation on compassion were only significant when compared to passive control groups suggests that other forms of active interventions (like watching a nature video) might produce similar outcomes to meditation".[208]
Meditation has also been found to support the development of psychological resilience. Regular practice can help individuals manage chronic stress, trauma, and emotional challenges by fostering greater emotional regulation, reducing rumination, and enhancing adaptive coping strategies.[209]
Throughout East Asia the detrimental and undesirable effects of incorrect meditation and mindfulness practice are well documented due to the long varied history of cultivation in these fields. Many traditional herbal, intentional and manual treatments have been prescribed from the past to present day for what is diagnosed aszouhuorumo (Chinese:走火入魔).[210][211]
Meditation may induce "challenging"[web 4][212][213] and "unwanted"[213] experiences, and adverse effects to physical andmental health.[211] Some of these experiences and effects are documented in the contemplative traditions,[212] but can be quite perplexing and burdensome when the outcomes of meditation are expected to result in more advantageous and beneficial health outcomes than detrimental ones. By extension this problem is compounded with little or no support or explanatory framework publicly for novice or laity that is easily accessible for a practitioner to know when it is appropriate to self manage or when it is advisable to seek professional advice on the adverse symptomatology that may arise in this field of self-cultivation .[212][web 4][web 5][web 6]
According to Farias et al. (2020), the most common adverse effects are in people with a history of anxiety and depression.[214] Other adverse psychological symptoms may include narcissistic, sociopathic behaviour and depersonalization[214] or altered sense of self or the world,[213] distorted emotions or thoughts, a mild form of psychosis including auditory and visual hallucinations. In extreme cases in patients with underlying undiagnosed or historical emotional conditions there have been instances of self-harm.[214][215][216]
According to Schlosser et al. (2019), "preliminary findings suggest that their occurrence is highly dependent on a complex interaction of contextual factors."[213] For instance, meditation-related psychosis has been linked to sleep deprivation,[217] preceding mental dispositions,[217][215] and meditation without sufficient social support or any explanatory framework. However, according to Farias et al. (2020), "minor adverse effects have been observed in individuals with no previous history of mental health problems"[214])[214][215] Farias et al. (2020) further note that "it is also possible that participants predisposed to heightened levels of anxiety and depression are more likely to begin or maintain a meditation practice to manage their symptoms."[218]
According to Farias et al. (2020) there is a prevalence of 8.3% adverse effects, "similar to those reported for psychotherapy practice in general."[214] Schlosser et al. (2019) reported that of 1,232 regular meditators with at least two months of meditation experience, about a quarter reported having had particularly unpleasant meditation-related experiences which they thought may have been caused by their meditation practice.[213] Meditators with high levels of repetitive negative thinking and those who only engage in deconstructive meditation (vipassana/insight meditation) were more likely to report unpleasant side effects.[213]
The appraisal of the experiences may be determined by the framework used to interpret these experiences.[218][213] Schlosser et al. "found strong evidence that religious participants have lower odds of having particularly unpleasant meditation-related experiences," and "found weak evidence that female participants were less likely to have unpleasant meditation-related experiences,"[213] and note the importance of "understanding when these experiences are constitutive elements of meditative practice rather than merely negative effects."[213]
Difficult experiences encountered in meditation are mentioned in traditional sources, and some may be considered to be an expected part of the process.[219][220] According to Salguero,
Problematic experiences such as strange sensations, unexplained pains, psychological instability, undesired hallucinations, sexual anomalies, uncontrollable behaviors, demonic possession, suicidality, and so forth seem to be quite well-known and well-documented across traditions.[220]
Both the soundness of the scientific foundations of mindfulness, and the desirability of its social effects, have been questioned.[222][223][224][225] Hafenbrack et al. (2022), in a study on mindfulness with 1400 participants, found that focused-breathing meditation can dampen the relationship between transgressions and the desire to engage in reparative prosocial behaviors.[226] Poullin et al. (2021) found that mindfulness can increase the trait ofselfishness. The study, consisting of two interrelated parts and totaling 691 participants, found that a mindfulness induction, compared to a control condition, led to decreased prosocial behavior. This effect was moderated by self-construals such that people with relatively independent self-construals became less prosocial while people with relatively interdependent self-construals became more so. In the western world where independent self-construals generally predominate (self centric orientated) meditation may thus have potentially detrimental effects.[227] These new findings about meditations socially problematic effects imply that it can be contraindicated to use meditation as a tool to handle acute personal conflicts or relational difficulties; in the words of Andrew Hafenbrack, one of the authors of the study, "If we 'artificially' reduce our guilt by meditating it away, we may end up with worse relationships, or even fewer relationships".[228]
Carl Jung (1875–1961) was an early western explorer of eastern religious practices.[229][230] He clearly advocated ways to increase the consciousawareness of an individual. Yet he expressed some caution concerning a westerner's direct immersion in eastern practices without some prior appreciation of the differing spiritual and cultural contexts.[231][232]Erich Fromm (1900–1980) later exploredspiritual practices of the east.[233]
Since the 1970s,clinical psychology andpsychiatry have developed meditation techniques for numerous psychological conditions.[234] Mindfulness practice is employed in psychology to alleviate mental and physical conditions, such as affecting the endocrine system therefore reducingdepression, and helping to alleviate stress, andanxiety.[9][235][236][237] Mindfulness is also used as a form of interventional therapy in the treatment of addiction includingdrug addiction, although the quantity and quality of evidence based research has been poor.[201][238]
The USNational Center for Complementary and Integrative Health states that"Meditation and mindfulness practices may have a variety of health benefits and may help people improve the quality of their lives. Recent studies have investigated if meditation or mindfulness helps people manage anxiety, stress, depression, pain, or symptoms related to withdrawal from nicotine, alcohol, or opioids." However, the NCCIC goes on to caution that,"results from the studies have been difficult to analyze and may have been interpreted too optimistically."[239]
A 2014 review found that practice of mindfulness meditation for two to six months by people undergoing long-termpsychiatric or medical therapy could produce moderate improvements in pain management,anxiety,depression.[240] In 2017, theAmerican Heart Association issued a scientific statement that meditation may be a reasonableadjunct practice and intervention to help reduce the risk ofcardiovascular diseases, with the qualification that meditation needs to be better defined in higher-qualityclinical research of these disorders.[241] Recent findings have also found evidence of meditation affecting migraines in adults. Mindfulness meditation may allow for a decrease in migraine episodes, and a drop in migraine medication usage.[242]
Early low-quality and low- quantity evidence indicates that the mechanism of meditation may help withirritable bowel syndrome,[243][10]insomnia,[243]cognitive decline in the elderly,[244] andpost-traumatic stress disorder.[245][246] Sitting in silence, body scan meditation and concentrating on breathing was shown in a 2016 review to moderately decrease symptoms ofPTSD and depression in war veterans and creating resilience to stresses in active service.[247][248] Researchers have found that participating in mindfulness meditation can aid insomnia patients by improving sleep quality and total wake time.[249] Mindfulness meditation is a supportive therapy that aides in the treatment for patients diagnosed with insomnia.[249]
A 2010 review of the literature onspirituality and performance in organizations found an increase in corporate meditation programs.[250]
As of 2016 around a quarter of U.S. employers were using stress reduction initiatives.[251][252] The goal was to help reduce stress and improve reactions to stress. Aetna now offers its program to its customers.Google also implements mindfulness, offering more than a dozen meditation courses, with the most prominent one, "Search Inside Yourself", having been implemented since 2007.[252]General Mills offers the Mindful Leadership Program Series, a course which uses a combination of mindfulness meditation, yoga and dialogue with the intention of developing the mind's capacity to pay attention.[252]
Many military organizations around the world have found meditation and mindfulness practice can support a range of benefits related to combat, including support for mental health, mental clarity, focus and stress control.[253]
A review of 15 peer-reviewed studies of youth meditation in schools indicated transcendental meditation a moderate effect on wellbeing and a small effect on social competence. Insufficient research has been done on the effect of meditation on academic achievement.[254] Evidence has also shown possible improvement to stress, cognitive performance in school taught meditation.[255]
Positive effects on emotion regulation, stress and anxiety can also be seen in students in university and nursing.[256][257]
Herbert Benson ofHarvard Medical School conducted a series of clinical tests on meditators from various disciplines, including theTranscendental Meditation technique andTibetan Buddhism. In 1975, Benson published a book titledThe Relaxation Response where he outlined his own version of meditation for relaxation.[258] Also in the 1970s, the American psychologist Patricia Carrington developed a similar technique called Clinically Standardized Meditation (CSM).[259] In Norway, another sound-based method calledAcem Meditation developed a psychology of meditation and has been the subject of several scientific studies.[260]
Biofeedback has been used by many researchers since the 1950s in an effort to enter deeper states of mind.[261][262]
^abAn influential definition byShapiro (1982) states that "meditation refers to a family of techniques which have in common a conscious attempt to focus attention in a nonanalytical way and an attempt not to dwell on discursive, ruminating thought" (p. 6, italics in original). The term "discursive thought" has long been used in Western philosophy, and is often viewed as a synonym to logical thought.[31]
^abcBond et al. (2009) report that 7 expert scholars who had studied different traditions of meditation agreed that an "essential" component of meditation "Involves logic relaxation: not 'to intend' to analyze the possible psychophysical effects, not 'to intend' to judge the possible results, not 'to intend' to create any type of expectation regarding the process" (p. 134, Table 4). In their final consideration, all 7 experts regarded this feature as an "essential" component of meditation; none of them regarded it as merely "important but not essential" (p. 234, Table 4). (This same result is presented in Table B1 inOspina et al. 2007, p. 281). This does not mean that all meditation seeks to take a person beyondall thought processes, only those processes that are sometimes referred to as "discursive" or "logical" (seeShapiro 1982/1984;Bond et al. 2009; Appendix B, pp. 279–82 inOspina et al. (2007)).
^In 1971,Claudio Naranjo noted that "The word 'meditation' has been used to designate a variety of practices that differ enough from one another so that we may find trouble defining whatmeditation is."[20] A 2009 study noted a "persistent lack of consensus in theliterature" and a "seeming intractability of defining meditation".[21]
^"members were chosen on the basis of their publication record of research on the therapeutic use of meditation, their knowledge of and training in traditional or clinically developed meditation techniques, and their affiliation with universities and research centers. Each member had specific expertise and training in at least one of the following meditation practices:kundalini yoga,Transcendental Meditation, relaxation response,mindfulness-based stress reduction, andvipassana meditation" (Bond et al. 2009, p. 131); their views were combined using "theDelphi technique ... a method of eliciting and refining group judgments to address complex problems with a high level of uncertainty" (Bond et al. 2009, p. 131).
^Regarding influential reviews encompassing multiple methods of meditation:Walsh & Shapiro (2006),Cahn & Polich (2006), andJevning, Wallace & Beidebach (1992), are cited >80 times inPsycINFO. Number of citations inPsycINFO: 254 for Walsh & Shapiro, 2006 (26 August 2018); 561 for Cahn & Polich, 2006 (26 August 2018); 83 for Jevning et al. (1992) (26 August 2018). Goleman'sbook has 33 editions listed in WorldCat: 17 editions asThe meditative mind: The varieties of meditative experience[33] and 16 editions asThe varieties of meditative experience.[34] Citation and edition counts are as of August 2018 and September 2018 respectively.
^According to Shear, "Focused Attention, Open Monitoring and Automatic Self-Transcending were likely to be associated with (γ and β)13, θ, and α1 EEG bands, respectively."[48]
^According toLarson 2008, pp. 43–45, from Abhidharma Buddhism's idea ofnirodhasamadhi the Yoga Sutras adopt the pursuit of an altered state of awareness. However, unlike Buddhism, which avoids stating whether self and soul exist, Yoga is physicalist and realist, like Samkhya, believing that each individual has a self and soul.[81]Karel Werner writes, "Patanjali's system is unthinkable without Buddhism. As far as its terminology goes there is much in theYoga Sutras that reminds us of Buddhist formulations from thePāli Canon and even more so from theSarvāstivādaAbhidharma and fromSautrāntika."[82] See also D. Wujastyk (2018),Some Problematic Yoga Sutras and their Buddhist Background, in: P. Maas et al.,Yoga in Transformation. Historical and Contemporary Perspectives on a Global Phenomenon, Vienna University Press; and Pradeep P. Gokhale (2020),The Yogasūtra of Patañjali: A New Introduction to the Buddhist Roots of the Yoga System, Routledge.
^For instance,Kamalashila (2003, p. 4), states that Buddhist meditation "includes any method of meditation that hasEnlightenment as itsultimate aim." Likewise,Bodhi (1999) writes: "To arrive at the experiential realization of the truths it is necessary to take up the practice of meditation.... At the climax of such contemplation the mental eye ... shifts its focus to the unconditioned state,Nibbana...." A similar although in some ways slightly broader definition is provided by:[88] "Meditation – general term for a multitude of religious practices, often quite different in method, but all having the same goal: to bring the consciousness of the practitioner to a state in which he can come to an experience of 'awakening,' 'liberation,' 'enlightenment.'"Kamalashila (2003) further allows that some Buddhist meditations are "of a more preparatory nature" (p. 4).
There is the cultivation of meditative and contemplative techniques aimed at producing what might, for the lack of a suitable technical term in English, be referred to as "altered states of consciousness". In the technical vocabulary of Indian religious texts such states come to be termed "meditations" ([Skt.:]dhyāna / [Pali:]jhāna) or "concentrations" (samādhi); the attainment of such states of consciousness was generally regarded as bringing the practitioner to deeper knowledge and experience of the nature of the world. (Gethin 1998, p. 10)
^Examples of contemporary school-specific classics include:
^Goldstein (2003) writes that, in regard to theSatipatthana Sutta, "there are more than fifty different practices outlined in this Sutta. The meditations that derive from these foundations of mindfulness are calledvipassana..., and in one form or another – and by whatever name – are found in all the major Buddhist traditions" (p. 92).
^Regarding Tibetan visualizations,Kamalashila (2003), writes: "The Tara meditation ... is one example out of thousands of subjects for visualization meditation, each one arising out of some meditator's visionary experience of enlightened qualities, seen in the form ofBuddhas andBodhisattvas" (p. 227).
^Hölzel, Britta K.; Lazar, Sara W.; Gard, Tim; Schuman-Olivier, Zev; Vago, David R.; Ott, Ulrich (November 2011). "How Does Mindfulness Meditation Work? Proposing Mechanisms of Action From a Conceptual and Neural Perspective".Perspectives on Psychological Science: A Journal of the Association for Psychological Science.6 (6):537–559.doi:10.1177/1745691611419671.ISSN1745-6916.PMID26168376.S2CID2218023.
^The verb root "dhyai" is listed as referring to "contemplate, meditate on" and "dhyāna" is listed as referring to "meditation; religious contemplation" on page 134 ofMacdonell, Arthur Anthony (1971) [1929].A practical Sanskrit dictionary with transliteration, accentuation and etymological analysis throughout. London:Oxford University Press.
^Mirahmadi, Sayyid Nurjan; Naqshbandi, Muhammad Nazim Adil al-Haqqani; Kabbani, Muhammad Hisham; Mirahmadi, Hedieh (2005).The healing power of sufi meditation. Fenton, MI: Naqshbandi Haqqani Sufi Order of America.ISBN978-1-930409-26-2.Archived from the original on 11 February 2007. Retrieved29 January 2018.
^Carroll, Mary (October 2005). "Divine Therapy: Teaching Reflective and Meditative Practices".Teaching Theology and Religion.8 (4):232–238.doi:10.1111/j.1467-9647.2005.00249.x.
^Lutz, Antoine; Dunne, John D.; Davidson, Richard J. (2007). "Meditation and the Neuroscience of Consciousness: An Introduction". In Zelazo, Philip David; Moscovitch, Morris; Thompson, Evan (eds.).The Cambridge Handbook of Consciousness. pp. 499–552.doi:10.1017/CBO9780511816789.020.ISBN978-0-511-81678-9.
^Lutz, Dunne and Davidson, "Meditation and the Neuroscience of Consciousness: An Introduction" inThe Cambridge handbook of consciousness by Philip David Zelazo, Morris Moscovitch, Evan Thompson, 2007ISBN0-521-85743-0 pp. 499–551(proof copy) (NB: pagination of published was 499–551 proof was 497–550).Archived 3 March 2012 at theWayback Machine
^Lutz, Antoine; Slagter, Heleen A.; Dunne, John D.; Davidson, Richard J. (April 2008)."Attention regulation and monitoring in meditation".Trends in Cognitive Sciences.12 (4):163–69.doi:10.1016/j.tics.2008.01.005.PMC2693206.PMID18329323.The term 'meditation' refers to a broad variety of practices...In order to narrow the explanandum to a more tractable scope, this article uses Buddhist contemplative techniques and their clinical secular derivatives as a paradigmatic framework (see e.g., 9,10 or 7,9 for reviews including other types of techniques, such as Yoga and Transcendental Meditation). Among the wide range of practices within the Buddhist tradition, we will further narrow this review to two common styles of meditation, FA and OM (see box 1–box 2), that are often combined, whether in a single session or over the course of practitioner's training. These styles are found with some variation in several meditation traditions, including Zen, Vipassanā and Tibetan Buddhism (e.g. 7,15,16)....The first style, FA meditation, entails voluntary focusing attention on a chosen object in a sustained fashion. The second style, OM meditation, involves non-reactively monitoring the content of experience from moment to moment, primarily as a means to recognize the nature of emotional and cognitive patterns.
^Bond et al. 2009, p. 130: "The differences and similarities among these techniques is often explained in the Western meditation literature in terms of the direction of mental attention (Koshikawa & Ichii, 1996; Naranjo, 1971; Orenstein, 1971): A practitioner can focus intensively on one particular object (so-calledconcentrative meditation), on all mental events that enter the field of awareness (so-calledmindfulness meditation), or both specific focal points and the field of awareness (Orenstein, 1971)."
^lywa (2 April 2015)."Developing Single-pointed Concentration".Archived from the original on 16 August 2017. Retrieved8 May 2018.Single-pointed concentration (samadhi) is a meditative power that is useful in either of these two types of meditation. However, in order to develop samadhi itself we must cultivate principally concentration meditation. In terms of practice, this means that we must choose an object of concentration and then meditate single-pointedly on it every day until the power of samadhi is attained.
^Shonin, Edo; Van Gordon, William (October 2016). "Experiencing the Universal Breath: a Guided Meditation".Mindfulness.7 (5):1243–1245.doi:10.1007/s12671-016-0570-4.S2CID147845968.
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^Alexander Wynne, The Origin of Buddhist Meditation. Routledge 2007, p. 51. The earliest reference is actually in the Mokshadharma, which dates to the early Buddhist period.
^The Katha Upanishad describes yoga, including meditation. On meditation in this and other post-Buddhist Hindu literature, seeCollins, Randall (2000).The Sociology of Philosophies: A Global Theory of Intellectual Change. Harvard University Press. p. 199.
^Holdrege, Barbara A. (2015).Bhakti and embodiment: fashioning divine bodies and devotional bodies in Kṛṣṇa bhakti. Routledge Hindu studies series. London; New York: Routledge. pp. 272–273.ISBN978-0-415-67070-8.
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^Heinrich Dumoulin (2005).Zen Buddhism: A History. Vol. 1: India and China. p. 64.
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