Themeaning of life is the concept of an individual'slife, orexistence in general, having aninherent significance or aphilosophical point. There is no consensus on the specifics of such a concept or whether the concept itself even exists in anyobjective sense.Thinking anddiscourse on the topic is sought in the English language throughquestions such as—but not limited to—"What is the meaning of life?", "What is the purpose of existence?", and "Why arewehere?". There have been many proposed answers to these questions from many differentcultural andideological backgrounds. The search for life's meaning has produced muchphilosophical,scientific,theological, andmetaphysical speculation throughout history. Different people and cultures believe different things for the answer to this question. Opinions vary on the usefulness of usingtime andresources in the pursuit of an answer. Excessive pondering can be indicative of, or lead to, anexistential crisis.
The meaning of life can be derived from philosophical and religious contemplation of, and scientific inquiries about,existence,social ties,consciousness, andhappiness. Many other issues are also involved, such assymbolic meaning,ontology,value,purpose,ethics,good and evil,free will, theexistence of one or multiple gods,conceptions of God, thesoul, and theafterlife. Scientific contributions focus primarily on describing relatedempiricalfacts about theuniverse, exploring the context and parameters concerning the "how" of life. Science also studies and can provide recommendations for thepursuit of well-being and a relatedconception of morality. An alternative,humanistic approach poses the question, "What is the meaning ofmy life?"
The first English use of the expression "meaning of life" appears inThomas Carlyle'sSartor Resartus (1833–1834), book II chapter IX, "The Everlasting Yea".[1]
Our Life is compassed round with Necessity; yet is themeaning of Life itself no other than Freedom, than Voluntary Force: thus have we a warfare; in the beginning, especially, a hard-fought battle.[2]
Carlyle may have been inspired by earlier usage of the equivalent German expressionder Sinn des Lebens byGerman Romantic writersNovalis andFriedrich Schlegel. Schlegel was the first to use it in print by way of his novelLucinde (1799), though Novalis had done so in a 1797–1798 manuscript, in which he wrote: "Only an artist can divine the meaning of life." Additionally, the wordlebenssinn, translated as life's meaning, had been used byGoethe in a 1796 letter toSchiller.[3] These authors grappled with therationalism andmaterialism of modernity. Carlyle called this the "Torch of Science", which burned "more fiercely than ever" and made religion "all parched away, under the Droughts of practical and spiritual Unbelief", resulting in the "Wilderness" of "the wide World in anAtheistic Century".[4]
Arthur Schopenhauer was the first to explicitly ask the question,[1] in an essay entitled "Character".
Sincea man does not alter, and hismoral character remains absolutely the same all through his life; since he must play out the part which he has received, without the least deviation from the character; since neither experience, nor philosophy, nor religion can effect any improvement in him, the question arises,What is the meaning of life at all? To what purpose is it played, this farce in which everything that is essential is irrevocably fixed and determined?[5]
Questions about the meaning of life, and similar, have been expressed in a broad variety of other ways, including:
These questions have resulted in a wide range of competing answers and explications, fromscientific theories, tophilosophical,theological, andspiritual explanations.
Many members of thescientific community andphilosophy of science communities think that science can provide the relevant context, and set of parameters necessary for dealing with topics related to the meaning of life. In their view, science can offer a wide range of insights on topics ranging from thescience of happiness todeath anxiety. Scientific inquiry facilitates this throughnomological investigation into various aspects oflife andreality, such as theBig Bang,the origin of life, andevolution, and by studying the objective factors which correlate with the subjective experience of meaning and happiness.
Researchers inpositive psychology study empirical factors that lead to life satisfaction,[20] fullengagement in activities,[21] making a fuller contribution by using one's personal strengths,[22] and meaning based on investing in something larger than the self.[23] Large-data studies offlow experiences have consistently suggested that humans experience meaning and fulfillment when mastering challenging tasks and that the experience comes from the way tasks are approached and performed rather than the particular choice of task. For example, flow experiences can be obtained by prisoners in concentration camps with minimal facilities, and occur only slightly more often in billionaires. A classic example[21] is of two workers on an apparently boring production line in a factory. One treats the work as a tedious chore while the other turns it into a game to see how fast they can make each unit and achieves flow in the process.
Neuroscience describesreward,pleasure, andmotivation in terms of neurotransmitter activity, especially in thelimbic system and theventral tegmental area in particular. If one believes that the meaning of life is to maximize pleasure and to ease general life, then this allows normative predictions about how to act to achieve this. Likewise, some ethical naturalists advocate ascience of morality—the empirical pursuit of flourishing for all conscious creatures.
Experimental philosophy andneuroethics research collects data about human ethical decisions in controlled scenarios such astrolley problems. It has shown that many types of ethical judgment are universal across cultures, suggesting that they may be innate, whilst others are culture-specific. The findings show actual human ethical reasoning to be at odds with most philosophical theories, for example consistently showing distinctions between action by cause and action by omission which would be absent from utility-based theories. Cognitive science has theorized about differences between conservative and liberal ethics and how they may be based on different metaphors from family life such as strong fathers vs nurturing mother models.
Neurotheology is a controversial field which tries to find neural correlates and mechanisms of religious experience. Some researchers have suggested that the human brain has innate mechanisms for such experiences and that living without using them for their evolved purposes may be a cause of imbalance. Studies have reported conflicting results on correlating happiness with religious belief and it is difficult to find unbiased meta-analyses.[24][25]
Sociology examines value at a social level using theoretical constructs such asvalue theory, norms,anomie, etc. One value system suggested bysocial psychologists, broadly calledTerror Management Theory, states that human meaning is derived from a fundamental fear of death, and values are selected when they allow us to escape the mental reminder of death.
Alongside this, there are a number of theories about the way in which humans evaluate the positive and negative aspects of their existence and thus the value and meaning they place on their lives. For example,depressive realism posits an exaggerated positivity in all except those experiencing depressive disorders who see life as it truly is, andDavid Benatar theorises that more weight is generally given to positive experiences, providing bias towards an over-optimistic view of life.
Emerging research shows that meaning in life predicts better physical health outcomes. Greater meaning has been associated with a reduced risk of Alzheimer's disease,[26][27] reduced risk of heart attack among individuals with coronary heart disease,[28] reduced risk of stroke,[29] and increased longevity in both American and Japanese samples.[30] There is also growing evidence for a small decline in purpose in life in the early stages of cognitive impairment.[31]
In 2014, the BritishNational Health Service began recommending a five-step plan for mental well-being based on meaningful lives, whose steps are:[32]
The exact mechanisms ofabiogenesis are unknown: notable hypotheses include theRNA world hypothesis (RNA-based replicators) and theiron-sulfur world hypothesis (metabolism without genetics). The process by which different lifeforms have developed throughout history viageneticmutation andnatural selection is explained byevolution.[33] At the end of the 20th century, based upon insight gleaned from thegene-centered view of evolution, biologistsGeorge C. Williams,Richard Dawkins, andDavid Haig, among others, concluded that if there is a primary function to life, it is the replication of DNA and the survival of one's genes.[34][35] Responding to an interview question from Richard Dawkins about "what it is all for",James Watson stated "I don't think we'refor anything. We're just the products of evolution."[36]
Though scientists have intensively studiedlife on Earth, defininglife in unequivocal terms is still a challenge.[37][38] Physically, one may say that life "feeds onnegative entropy"[39][40][41] which refers to the process by which living entities decrease their internalentropy at the expense of some form ofenergy taken in from the environment.[42][43][44] Biologists generally agree that lifeforms areself-organizing systemswhich regulate their internal environments as to maintain this organized state,metabolism serves to provide energy, andreproduction causes life to continue over a span of multiple generations. Typically, organisms are responsive to stimuli and genetic information changes from generation to generation, resulting in adaptation through evolution; this optimizes the chances of survival for the individual organism and its descendants respectively.[45]
Non-cellular replicating agents, notablyviruses, are generally not considered to be organisms because they are incapable of independent reproduction or metabolism. This classification is problematic, though, since someparasites andendosymbionts are also incapable of independent life.Astrobiology studies the possibility of different forms of life on other worlds, including replicating structures made from materials other than DNA.
All forms of life that are in existence today possess a self-replicating informational molecule (genome), and such an informational molecule is presumably intrinsic to life. Thus the earliest forms of life also likely possessed a self-replicating informational molecule, possibly RNA[46][47] or perhaps an informational molecule more primitive than RNA. The specific genomic sequences in all currently extant organisms contain order generating information that promotes survival,reproduction, and the ability to acquire resources necessary for reproduction. Sequences with such basic functions probably emerged early in the evolution of life.
It has been proposed[48] that both the evolution of macroscopic order in life (including its basic functions) and the evolution of order in particular physical systems obey a common fundamental principle that was termed the Darwinian dynamic. This principal was formulated by considering, first, how macroscopic order is generated in a simple physical, non-biological system far from thermodynamic equilibrium, and then extending consideration to short RNA replicating molecules and then further to more complex forms of life. It was concluded that the fundamental order-generating process was basically similar for both types of process.[48][49] Thus the idea that life likely emerged as a natural extension of simpler non- or pre-biological physical processes should logically be included in the concept "meaning of life".
Though theBig Bang theory was met with much skepticism when first introduced, it has become well-supported by several independent observations.[50] However, current physics can only describe the early universe from around 10−43 seconds after the Big Bang (where zero time corresponds to infinite temperature); a theory ofquantum gravity would be required to understand events before that time. Nevertheless, many physicists have speculated about what would have preceded this limit, and how the universe came into being.[51] For example, one interpretation is that the Big Bang occurred coincidentally, and when considering theanthropic principle, it is sometimes interpreted as implying the existence of amultiverse.[52]
The ultimate fate of the universe, and implicitly of humanity, is hypothesized as one in which biological life will eventually become unsustainable, such as through aBig Freeze,Big Rip, orBig Crunch.
Theoreticalcosmology studies many alternative speculative models for the origin and fate of the universe beyond the Big Bang theory. A recent trend has been models of the creation of 'baby universes' insideblack holes, with our ownBig Bang being awhite hole on the inside of ablack hole in another parent universe.[53]Many-worlds theories claim that every possibility ofquantum mechanics is played out in parallel universes.
The nature and origin ofconsciousness and themind are also widely debated in science. Theexplanatory gap is generally equated with thehard problem of consciousness, and the question offree will is also considered to be of fundamental importance. These subjects are mostly addressed in the fields ofcognitive science,neuroscience (e.g. theneuroscience of free will) andphilosophy of mind, though someevolutionary biologists andtheoretical physicists have also made several allusions to the subject.[54][55]
Reductionistic andeliminative materialistic approaches, for example theMultiple Drafts Model, hold that consciousness can be wholly explained by neuroscience through the workings of thebrain and itsneurons, thus adhering tobiological naturalism.[55][56][57]
On the other hand, some scientists, likeAndrei Linde, have considered thatconsciousness, likespacetime, might have its own intrinsic degrees of freedom, and that one's perceptions may be as real as (or even more real than) material objects.[58] Hypotheses of consciousness and spacetime explain consciousness in describing a "space of conscious elements",[58] often encompassing a number of extra dimensions.[59]Electromagnetic theories of consciousness solve thebinding problem of consciousness in saying that theelectromagnetic field generated by the brain is the actual carrier of conscious experience; there is however disagreement about the implementations of such a theory relating to other workings of the mind.[60][61]Quantum mind theories usequantum theory in explaining certain properties of the mind. Explaining the process offree will throughquantum phenomena is an alternative todeterminism.
Based on the premises of non-materialistic explanations of the mind, some have suggested the existence of acosmic consciousness, asserting that consciousness is actually the "ground of all being".[14][62][63] Proponents of this view cite accounts ofparanormal phenomena, primarilyextrasensory perceptions andpsychic powers, as evidence for anincorporealhigher consciousness. In hopes of proving the existence of these phenomena,parapsychologists have orchestrated various experiments, but successful results might be due to poor experimental controls and might have alternative explanations.[64][65][66][67]
Reker andWong define personal meaning as the "cognizance of order, coherence and purpose in one's existence, the pursuit and attainment of worthwhile goals, and an accompanying sense of fulfillment" (p. 221).[68] In 2016, Martela and Steger defined meaning as coherence, purpose, and significance.[69] In contrast,Wong has proposed a four-component solution to the question of meaning in life,[70][71] with the four components purpose, understanding, responsibility, and enjoyment (PURE):
Thus, a sense of significance permeates every dimension of meaning, rather than standing as a separate factor.
Although most psychology researchers consider meaning in life as a subjective feeling or judgment, most philosophers (e.g.,Thaddeus Metz, Daniel Haybron) propose that there are also objective, concrete criteria for what constitutes meaning in life.[72][73] Wong has proposed that whether life is meaningful depends not only on subjective feelings but, more importantly, on whether a person's goal-striving and life as a whole is meaningful according to some objectivenormative standard.[71]
The philosophical perspectives on the meaning of life are those ideologies that explain life in terms of ideals or abstractions defined by humans.
Plato, a pupil ofSocrates, was one of the earliest, most influential philosophers. His reputation comes from hisidealism of believing in the existence ofuniversals. Histheory of forms proposes that universals do not physically exist, like objects, but as heavenly forms. In thedialogue of theRepublic, the character ofSocrates describes theForm of the Good. His theory on justice in the soul relates to the idea of happiness relevant to the question of the meaning of life.
InPlatonism, the meaning of life is in attaining the highest form of knowledge, which is theIdea (Form) of the Good, from which all good and just things derive utility and value.
Aristotle, an apprentice ofPlato, was another early and influential philosopher, who argued that ethical knowledge is notcertain knowledge (such asmetaphysics andepistemology), but isgeneral knowledge. Because it is not atheoretical discipline, a person had to study and practice in order to become "good"; thus if the person were to becomevirtuous, he could not simply study what virtueis, he had tobe virtuous, via virtuous activities. To do this, Aristotle established what is virtuous:
Every skill and every inquiry, and similarly, every action and choice of action, is thought to have some good as its object. This is why the good has rightly been defined as the object of all endeavor [...]
Everything is done with a goal, and that goal is "good".— Nicomachean Ethics 1.1
Yet, if action A is done towards achieving goal B, then goal B also would have a goal, goal C, and goal C also would have a goal, and so would continue this pattern, until something stopped itsinfinite regression. Aristotle's solution is theHighest Good, which is desirable for its own sake. It is its own goal. The Highest Good is not desirable for the sake of achieving some other good, and all other "goods" desirable for its sake. This involves achievingeudaemonia, usually translated as "happiness", "well-being", "flourishing", and "excellence".
What is the highest good in all matters of action? To the name, there is an almost complete agreement; for uneducated and educated alike call it happiness, and make happiness identical with the good life and successful living. They disagree, however, about the meaning of happiness.
— Nicomachean Ethics 1.4
Antisthenes, a pupil ofSocrates, first outlined the themes of Cynicism, stating that the purpose of life is living a life ofVirtue which agrees withNature. Happiness depends upon being self-sufficient and master of one's mental attitude; suffering is the consequence of false judgments of value, which cause negativeemotions and a concomitant vicious character.
The Cynical life rejects conventional desires forwealth,power,health, andfame, by being free of the possessions acquired in pursuing the conventional.[74][75] As reasoning creatures, people could achieve happiness via rigorous training, by living in a way natural tohuman beings. Theworld equally belongs to everyone, sosuffering is caused by false judgments of what is valuable and what is worthless per thecustoms andconventions ofsociety.
Aristippus of Cyrene, a pupil ofSocrates, founded an early Socratic school that emphasized only one side of Socrates's teachings—that happiness is one of the ends of moral action and that pleasure is the supreme good; thus ahedonistic world view, wherein bodily gratification is more intense than mental pleasure. Cyrenaics prefer immediate gratification to the long-term gain of delayed gratification; denial is unpleasant unhappiness.[76][77]
Epicurus, a pupil of the Platonist Pamphilus of Samos, taught that the greatest good is in seeking modest pleasures, to attain tranquility and freedom from fear (ataraxia) via knowledge, friendship, and virtuous, temperate living; bodily pain (aponia) is absent through one's knowledge of the workings of the world and of the limits of one's desires. Combined, freedom from pain and freedom from fear are happiness in its highest form. Epicurus' lauded enjoyment of simple pleasures is quasi-ascetic "abstention" from sex and the appetites:
"When we say ... that pleasure is the end and aim, we do not mean the pleasures of the prodigal or the pleasures of sensuality, as we are understood to do, by some, through ignorance, prejudice or willful misrepresentation. By pleasure, we mean the absence of pain in the body and of trouble in the soul. It is not by an unbroken succession of drinking bouts and of revelry, not by sexual lust, nor the enjoyment of fish, and other delicacies of a luxurious table, which produce a pleasant life; it is sober reasoning, searching out the grounds of every choice and avoidance, and banishing those beliefs through which the greatest tumults take possession of the soul."[78]
The Epicurean meaning of life rejects immortality and mysticism; there is a soul, but it is as mortal as the body. There is noafterlife, yet, one need not fear death, because "Death is nothing to us; for that which is dissolved, is without sensation, and that which lacks sensation is nothing to us."[79]
Zeno of Citium, a pupil ofCrates of Thebes, established the school which teaches that living according to reason and virtue is to be in harmony with the universe's divine order, entailed by one's recognition of the universallogos, or reason, an essential value of all people. The meaning of life is "freedom fromsuffering" throughapatheia (Gr: απαθεια), that is, beingobjective and having "clear judgement",not indifference.
Stoicism's prime directives arevirtue,reason, andnatural law, abided to develop personal self-control and mental fortitude as means of overcoming destructiveemotions. The Stoic does not seek to extinguish emotions, only to avoid emotional troubles, by developing clear judgment and inner calm through diligently practiced logic, reflection, and concentration.
The Stoic ethical foundation is that "good lies in the state of the soul", itself, exemplified inwisdom and self-control, thus improving one's spiritual well-being: "Virtue consists in awill which is in agreement with Nature."[79] The principle applies to one's personal relations thus: "to be free from anger, envy, and jealousy".[79]
TheEnlightenment and thecolonial era both changed the nature of European philosophy and exported it worldwide. Devotion and subservience to God were largely replaced by notions of inalienable natural rights and the potentialities of reason, and universal ideals of love and compassion gave way to civic notions of freedom, equality, and citizenship.
The meaning of life changed as well, focusing less on humankind's relationship to God and more on the relationship between individuals and their society. This era is filled with theories that equate meaningful existence with the social order.
Kantianism is a philosophy based on theethical,epistemological, andmetaphysical works ofImmanuel Kant. Kant is known for hisdeontological theory where there is a single moral obligation, the "Categorical Imperative", derived from the concept ofduty. Kantians believe all actions are performed in accordance with some underlyingmaxim or principle, and for actions to be ethical, they must adhere to the categorical imperative.
Simply put, the test is that one must universalize the maxim (imagine that all people acted in this way) and then see if it would still be possible to perform the maxim in the world without contradiction. InGroundwork, Kant gives the example of a person who seeks to borrow money without intending to pay it back. This is a contradiction because if it were auniversal action, no person would lend money anymore as he knows that he will never be paid back. The maxim of this action, says Kant, results in a contradiction in conceivability (and thus contradicts perfect duty).
Kant also denied that the consequences of an act in any way contribute to the moral worth of that act, his reasoning being that the physical world is outside one's full control and thus one cannot be held accountable for the events that occur in it.
The first English use of the expression "meaning of life" appeared inThomas Carlyle'sSartor Resartus (1833–August 1834): "Our Life is compassed round with Necessity; yet is the meaning of Life itself no other than Freedom, than Voluntary Force: thus have we a warfare; in the beginning, especially, a hard-fought battle."[80]
The origins ofutilitarianism can be traced back as far asEpicurus, but, as a school of thought, it is credited toJeremy Bentham,[81] who found that "nature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign masters, pain and pleasure"; then, from that moral insight, he derived theRule of Utility: "that the good is whatever brings the greatest happiness to the greatest number of people". He defined the meaning of life as the "greatest happiness principle".
Jeremy Bentham's foremost proponent wasJames Mill, a significant philosopher in his day, and father ofJohn Stuart Mill. The younger Mill was educated per Bentham's principles, including transcribing and summarizing much of his father's work.[82]
Nihilism suggests that life is without objective meaning.
Friedrich Nietzsche characterized nihilism as emptying the world, and especially human existence, of meaning, purpose, comprehensible truth, and essential value; succinctly, nihilism is the process of "the devaluing of the highest values".[83] Seeing the nihilist as a natural result of the idea thatGod is dead, and insisting it was something to overcome, his questioning of the nihilist's life-negating values returned meaning to the Earth.[84]
ToMartin Heidegger, nihilism is the movement whereby "being" is forgotten, and is transformed into value, in other words, the reduction of being to exchange value.[83] Heidegger, in accordance with Nietzsche, saw in the so-called "death of God" a potential source for nihilism:
If God, as the supra-sensory ground and goal, of all reality, is dead; if the supra-sensory world of the Ideas has suffered the loss of its obligatory, and above it, its vitalizing and up-building power, then nothing more remains to which Man can cling, and by which he can orient himself.[85]
The French philosopherAlbert Camus asserts that theabsurdity of thehuman condition is that people search for external values and meaning in a world which has none and is indifferent to them. Camus writes of value-nihilists such asMeursault,[86] but also of values in a nihilistic world, that people can instead strive to be "heroic nihilists", living with dignity in the face of absurdity, living with "secular saintliness", fraternal solidarity, and rebelling against and transcending the world's indifference.[87]
The current era has seen radical changes in both formal and popular conceptions of human nature. The knowledge disclosed by modern science has effectively rewritten the relationship of humankind to the natural world. Advances in medicine and technology have freed humans from significant limitations and ailments of previous eras;[88] and philosophy—particularly following thelinguistic turn—has altered how the relationships people have with themselves and each other are conceived. Questions about the meaning of life have also seen radical changes, from attempts to reevaluate human existence in biological and scientific terms (as inpragmatism andlogical positivism) to efforts to meta-theorize aboutmeaning-making as a personal, individual-driven activity (existentialism,secular humanism).
Pragmatism originated in the late-19th-century US, concerning itself (mostly) withtruth, and positing that "only in struggling with the environment" do data, and derived theories, have meaning, and thatconsequences, like utility and practicality, are also components of truth. Moreover, pragmatism posits thatanything useful and practical is not always true, arguing that what most contributes to the most human good in the long course is true. In practice, theoretical claims must bepractically verifiable, i.e. one should be able to predict and test claims, and, that, ultimately, the needs of humankind should guide human intellectual inquiry.
Pragmatic philosophers suggest that the practical, useful understanding of life is more important than searching for an impractical abstract truth about life.William James argued that truth could be made, but not sought.[89][90] To a pragmatist, the meaning of life is discoverable only via experience.
Theists believe God created the universe and that God had a purpose in doing so. Theists also hold the view that humans find their meaning and purpose for life in God's purpose in creating. Some theists further hold that if there were no God to give life ultimate meaning, value, and purpose, then life would be absurd.[91]
According to existentialism, each person creates the essence (meaning) of their life; life is not determined by a supernatural god or an earthly authority, one is free. As such, one's ethical prime directives areaction,freedom, anddecision, thus, existentialism opposesrationalism andpositivism. In seeking meaning to life, the existentialist looks to where people find meaning in life, in course of which using only reason as a source of meaning is insufficient; this gives rise to the emotions ofanxiety anddread, felt in considering one'sfree will, and the concomitant awareness of death. According toJean-Paul Sartre,existence precedes essence; the (essence) of one's life arisesonly after one comes toexistence.
Søren Kierkegaard spoke about a "leap", arguing thatlife is full of absurdity, and one must make his and her own values in an indifferent world. One can live meaningfully (free of despair and anxiety) in an unconditional commitment to something finite and devotes that meaningful life to the commitment, despite the vulnerability inherent to doing so.[92]
Arthur Schopenhauer answered: "What is the meaning of life?" by stating that one's life reflects one's will, and that the will (life) is an aimless, irrational, and painful drive. Salvation, deliverance, and escape from suffering are in aesthetic contemplation, sympathy for others, andasceticism.[93][94]
ForFriedrich Nietzsche, life is worth living only if there are goals inspiring one to live. Accordingly, he saw nihilism ("all that happens is meaningless") as without goals. He stated that asceticism denies one's living in the world; stated that values are not objective facts, that are rationally necessary, universally binding commitments: our evaluations are interpretations, and not reflections of the world, as it is, in itself, and, therefore,all ideations take place from a particular perspective.[84]
"... in spite of or in defiance of the whole of existence he wills to be himself with it, to take it along, almost defying his torment. For to hope in the possibility of help, not to speak of help by virtue of the absurd, that for God all things are possible—no, that he will not do. And as for seeking help from any other—no, that he will not do for all the world; rather than seek the help he would prefer to be himself—with all the tortures of hell if so it must be."
In absurdist philosophy, the Absurd arises out of the fundamental disharmony between the individual's search for meaning and the apparent meaninglessness of the universe. As beings looking for meaning in a meaningless world, humans have three ways of resolving the dilemma. Kierkegaard and Camus describe the solutions in their works,The Sickness Unto Death (1849) andThe Myth of Sisyphus (1942):
Per secular humanism, thehuman species came to be by reproducing successive generations in a progression ofunguided evolution as an integral expression ofnature, which is self-existing.[97][98] Human knowledge comes from human observation, experimentation, and rational analysis (thescientific method), and not from supernatural sources; the nature of theuniverse is what people discern it to be.[97] Likewise, "values and realities" are determined "by means of intelligent inquiry"[97] and "are derived from human need and interest as tested by experience", that is, bycritical intelligence.[99][100] "As far as we know, the total personality is [a function] of the biological organism transacting in a social and cultural context."[98]
People determine human purpose without supernatural influence; it is the human personality (general sense) that is the purpose of a human being's life whichhumanism seeks to develop and fulfill:[97] "Humanism affirms our ability and responsibility to lead ethical lives of personal fulfillment that aspire to the greater good of humanity".[99] Humanism aims to promoteenlightened self-interest and thecommon good for all people. It is based on the premises that thehappiness of the individual person is inextricably linked to the well-being of all humanity, in part because humans are social animals who find meaning inpersonal relations and because cultural progress benefits everybody living in theculture.[98][99]
The philosophical subgenresposthumanism andtranshumanism (sometimes used synonymously) are extensions of humanistic values. One should seek the advancement ofhumanity and ofall life to the greatest degree feasible and seek to reconcileRenaissance humanism with the 21st century'stechnoscientific culture. In this light, every living creature has the right to determine its personal and social "meaning of life".[101]
From ahumanism-psychotherapeutic point of view, the question of the meaning of life could be reinterpreted as "What is the meaning ofmy life?"[102] This approach emphasizes that the question is personal—and avoids focusing on cosmic or religious questions about overarching purpose. There are many therapeutic responses to this question. For example,Viktor Frankl argues for "Dereflection", which translates largely as to cease endlessly reflecting on the self; instead, engage in life. On the whole, the therapeutic response is that the question itself—what is the meaning of life?—evaporates when one is fully engaged in life. (The question then morphs into more specific worries such as "What delusions am I under?"; "What is blocking my ability to enjoy things?"; "Why do I neglect loved-ones?".)[103]
Logical positivists ask: "What is the meaning of life?", "What is the meaning in asking?"[104][105] and "If there are no objective values, then, is life meaningless?"[106]Ludwig Wittgenstein and thelogical positivists said:[citation needed] "Expressed in language, the question is meaningless"; because,in life the statement the "meaning of x", usually denotes theconsequences of x, or thesignificance of x, orwhat is notable about x, etc., thus, when the meaning of life concept equals "x", in the statement the "meaning of x", the statement becomesrecursive, and, therefore, nonsensical, or it might refer to the fact that biological life is essential to having a meaning in life.
The things (people, events) in the life of a person can have meaning (importance) as parts of a whole, but a discrete meaning of (the) life, itself, aside from those things, cannot be discerned. A person's life has meaning (for themselves, others) as the life events resulting from their achievements, legacy, family, etc., but, to say that life, itself, has meaning, is a misuse of language, since any note of significance, or of consequence, is relevant onlyin life (to the living), so rendering the statement erroneous.Bertrand Russell wrote that although he found that his distaste for torture was not like his distaste for broccoli, he found no satisfactory, empirical method of proving this:[79]
When we try to be definite, as to what we mean when we say that this or that is "the Good," we find ourselves involved in very great difficulties. Bentham's creed, that pleasure is the Good, roused furious opposition, and was said to be a pig's philosophy. Neither he nor his opponents could advance any argument. In a scientific question, evidence can be adduced on both sides, and, in the end, one side is seen to have the better case—or, if this does not happen, the question is left undecided. But in a question, as to whether this, or that, is the ultimate Good, there is no evidence, either way; each disputant can only appeal to his own emotions, and employ such rhetorical devices as shall arouse similar emotions in others ... Questions as to "values"—that is to say, as to what is good or bad on its own account, independently of its effects—lie outside the domain of science, as the defenders of religion emphatically assert. I think that, in this, they are right, but, I draw the further conclusion, which they do not draw, that questions as to "values" lie wholly outside the domain of knowledge. That is to say, when we assert that this, or that, has "value", we are giving expression to our own emotions, not to a fact, which would still be true if our personal feelings were different.[107]
Postmodernist thought—broadly speaking—sees human nature as constructed by language, or by structures and institutions of human society. Unlike other forms of philosophy, postmodernism rarely seeks outa priori or innate meanings in human existence, but instead focuses on analyzing or critiquinggiven meanings in order to rationalize or reconstruct them. Anything resembling a "meaning of life", in postmodernist terms, can only be understood within a social and linguistic framework and must be pursued as an escape from the power structures that are already embedded in all forms of speech and interaction. As a rule, postmodernists seeawareness of the constraints of language as necessary to escaping those constraints, but different theorists take different views on the nature of this process: from a radical reconstruction of meaning by individuals (as indeconstructionism) to theories in which individuals are primarily extensions of language and society, without real autonomy (as inpoststructuralism).
According tonaturalistic pantheism, the meaning of life is to care for and look after nature and the environment.
Embodied cognition uses the neurological basis of emotion, speech, and cognition to understand the nature of thought.Cognitive neuropsychology has identified brain areas necessary for these abilities, and genetic studies show that the geneFOXP2 affects neuroplasticity which underlies language fluency.
George Lakoff, a professor ofcognitive linguistics and philosophy, advances the view that metaphors are the usual basis of meaning, not the logic of verbal symbol manipulation.[108] Computers uselogic programming to effectively query databases but humans rely on a trainedbiological neural network. Postmodern philosophies that use the indeterminacy ofsymbolic language to deny definite meaning ignore those who feel they know what they mean and feel that theirinterlocutors know what they mean.[citation needed] Choosing the correct metaphor results in enough common understanding to pursue questions such as the meaning of life.[109] Improved knowledge of brain function should result in better treatments producing healthier brains. When combined with more effective training, a sound personal assessment as to the meaning of one's life should be straightforward.[citation needed]
The Mohist philosophers believed that the purpose of life was universal, impartiallove. Mohism promoted a philosophy of impartial caring—a person should care equally for all other individuals, regardless of their actual relationship with him or her.[110] The expression of this indiscriminate caring is what makes a man a righteous being in Mohist thought. This advocacy of impartiality was a target of attack by the other Chinese philosophical schools, most notably theConfucians who believed that while love should be unconditional, it should not be indiscriminate. For example, children should hold a greater love for their parents than for random strangers.
Confucianism recognizes human nature in accordance with the need for discipline and education. Because humankind is driven by both positive and negative influences, Confucianists see a goal in achieving virtue through strong relationships and reasoning as well as minimizing the negative. This emphasis on normal living is seen in the Confucianist scholarTu Wei-Ming's quote, "We can realize the ultimate meaning of life in ordinary human existence."[111]
The Legalists believed that finding the purpose of life was a meaningless effort. To the Legalists, only practical knowledge was valuable, especially as it related to the function and performance of the state.
The religious perspectives on the meaning of life are those ideologies that explain life in terms of an implicit purpose not defined by humans. According to theCharter for Compassion, signed by many of the world's leading religious and secular organizations, the core of religion is thegolden rule of 'treat others as you would have them treat you'. The Charter's founder,Karen Armstrong, quotes the ancient RabbiHillel who suggested that 'the rest is commentary'. This is not to reduce the commentary's importance, and Armstrong considers that its study, interpretation, and ritual are the means by which religious peopleinternalize and live the golden rule.
In theJudaic worldview, the meaning of life is to elevate the physical world ('Olam HaZeh') and prepare it for the world to come ('Olam HaBa'), themessianic era. This is calledTikkun Olam ("Fixing the World"). Olam HaBa can also mean the spiritual afterlife, and there is debate concerning the eschatological order. However, Judaism is not focused on personal salvation, but on communal (between man and man) and individual (between man and God) spiritualised actions in this world.
Judaism's most important feature is the worship of a single, incomprehensible,transcendent, one, indivisible,absolute Being, who created and governs the universe. Closeness with the God of Israel is through a study of HisTorah, and adherence to itsmitzvot (divine laws). In traditional Judaism, God established a specialcovenant with a people, the people of Israel, atMount Sinai, giving theJewish commandments. Torah comprises the writtenPentateuch and the transcribedoral tradition, further developed through the generations. The Jewish people are intended as "a kingdom of priests and a holy nation"[112] and a "light to the Nations", influencing the other peoples to keep their own religio-ethicalSeven Laws of Noah. The messianic era is seen as the perfection of this dual path to God.
Jewish observances involve ethical and ritual, affirmative, and prohibitive injunctions. ModernJewish denominations differ over the nature, relevance, and emphases of mitzvot.Jewish philosophy emphasises that God is not affected or benefited, but the individual and society benefit by drawing close to God. The rationalistMaimonides sees the ethical and ritual divine commandments as a necessary, but insufficient preparation for philosophical understanding of God, with its love and awe.[113] Among fundamentalvalues in the Torah are pursuit of justice, compassion, peace, kindness, hard work, prosperity, humility, and education.[114][115] The world to come,[116] prepared in the present, elevates man to an everlasting connection with God.[117]Simeon the Righteous says, "The world stands on three things: on Torah, on worship, and on acts of loving kindness." Theprayer book relates, "Blessed is our God who created us for his honor ... and planted within us everlasting life." Of this context, theTalmud states, "Everything that God does is for the good." including suffering.
The Jewish mysticalKabbalah gives complementary esoteric meanings of life. As well as Judaism providing animmanent relationship with God (personaltheism), in Kabbalah, the spiritual and physical creation is a paradoxical manifestation of the immanent aspects of God's Being (panentheism), related to theShekhinah (Divine feminine). Jewish observance unites thesephirot (Divine attributes) on high, restoring harmony to creation. InLurianic Kabbalah, the meaning of life is the messianic rectification of the shattered sparks of God's persona, exiled in physical existence (theKelipot shells), through the actions of Jewish observance.[118] Through this, inHasidic Judaism the ultimate essential "desire" of God is the revelation of the Omnipresent Divine essence through materiality, achieved by a man from within his limited physical realm when the body will give life to the soul.[119]
Christianity has its roots in Judaism, and shares much of the latter faith'sontology. Its central beliefs derive from the teachings ofJesus Christ as presented in theNew Testament. Life's purpose in Christianity is to seek divinesalvation through the grace of God and intercession of Christ.[121] The New Testament speaks of God wanting to have a relationship with humans both in this life and the life to come, which can happen only if one'ssins are forgiven.[122]
In the Christian view, humankind was made in theImage of God and perfect, but theFall of Man caused the progeny of theFirst Parents to inheritOriginal Sin and its consequences. Christ'spassion,death andresurrection provide the means for transcending that impure state (Romans 6:23). That this restoration from sin is possible is called thegospel.
The Apostle Paul explains the meaning of life in his speech on theAreopagus inAthens: "And He has made from one blood every nation of men to dwell on all the face of the earth, and has determined their preappointed times and the boundaries of their dwellings, so that they should seek the Lord, in the hope that they might grope for Him and find Him, though He is not far from each one of us."[123]
The specific process of appropriating salvation through Christ and maintaining a relationship with God varies between differentdenominations of Christians, but all rely on faith in Christ and the gospel as the fundamental starting point. Salvation through faith in God is found inEphesians 2:8–9[8] "For by grace you have been saved through faith; and that not of yourselves, it is the gift of God;[9] not as a result of works, that no one should boast." (NASB; 1973). The gospel maintains that through this belief, the barrier that sin has created between man and God is destroyed, thereby allowing believers to beregenerated by God and to instill in them a new heart after God's own will with the ability to live righteously before him. This is what the termsaved almost always refer to.
In Reformed theology, it is believed the purpose of life is to glorify God. In theWestminster Shorter Catechism, an important creed for Reformed Christians,[124] the first question is: "What is the chief end of Man?" (that is, "What is Man's main purpose?"). The answer is: "Man's chief end is to glorify God, and enjoy him forever". God requires one to obey the revealed moral law, saying: "Love the Lord your God with all your heart, with all your soul, with all your strength, and with all your mind; and your neighbour as yourself".[125] TheBaltimore Catechism answers the question "Why did God make you?" by saying "God made me to know Him, to love Him, and to serve Him in this world, and to be happy with Him forever in heaven."[126]
Catholicism's meaning of life is explained in Catechism of the Catholic Church paragraph 294. The Universe exists for the manifestation and communication of God's glory, while mankind exists for thebeatific vision.[127] Catechism of the Catholic Church 601 explains the meaning of Jesus' life: to fulfill the Scripture, in particular the plan of salvation.[128]
Mormonism teaches that the purpose of life on Earth is to gain knowledge and experience and to have joy.[129] Mormons believe that humans are literally the spirit children of God the Father, and thus have the potential to progress to become like Him. Mormons teach that God provided his children the choice to come to Earth, which is considered a crucial stage in their development—wherein a mortal body, coupled with the freedom to choose, makes for an environment to learn and grow.[129] The Fall of Adam is not viewed as an unfortunate or unplanned cancellation of God's original plan for a paradise; rather, the opposition found in mortality is an essential element of God's plan because the process of enduring and overcoming challenges, difficulties, and temptations provides opportunities to gain wisdom and strength, thereby learning to appreciate and choose good and reject evil.[130][131] Because God is just, he allows those who were not taught the gospel during mortality to receive it after death in the spirit world,[132] so that all of his children have the opportunity to return to live with God, and reach their full potential.
A recent alternative Christian theological discourse interprets Jesus as revealing that the purpose of life is to elevate our compassionate response to human suffering;[133] nonetheless, the conventional Christian position is that people are justified by belief in thepropitiatory sacrifice of Jesus' death on the cross.
InIslam, humanity's ultimate purpose is to worship their creator,Allah (English:The God), through his signs, and be grateful to him through sincere love and devotion. This is practically shown by following the divine guidelines revealed in theQur'an and the tradition of theProphet (with the exception ofQuranists). Earthly life is a test, determining one's position of closeness toAllah in the hereafter. A person will either be close to him and his love inJannah (Paradise) or far away inJahannam (Hell).
For Allah's satisfaction, via the Qur'an, all Muslims must believe in God, his revelations, hisangels, hismessengers, and in the "Day of Judgment".[134] The Qur'an describes the purpose of creation as follows: "Blessed be he in whose hand is the kingdom, he is powerful over all things, who created death and life that he might examine which of you is best in deeds, and he is the almighty, the forgiving." (Qur'an 67:1–2) and "And I (Allâh) created not the jinn and mankind except that they should be obedient (to Allah)." (Qur'an 51:56). Obedience testifies to theoneness of God in his lordship, his names, and his attributes. Terrenal life is a test; how oneacts (behaves) determines whether one's soul goes to Jannat (Heaven) or to Jahannam (Hell).[135][citation needed] However, on the day of Judgement the final decision is of Allah alone.[136]
TheFive Pillars of Islam are duties incumbent to every Muslim; they are:Shahadah (profession of faith);Salat (ritual prayer);Zakat (charity);Sawm (fasting duringRamadan), andHajj (pilgrimage toMecca).[137] They derive from theHadith works, notably ofSahih Al-Bukhari andSahih Muslim. The five pillars are not mentioned directly in the Quran.
Beliefs differ among theKalam. TheSunni and theAhmadiyya concept of pre-destination isdivine decree;[138] theShi'a concept of pre-destination isdivine justice; in theesoteric view of theSufis, the universe exists only for God's pleasure; Creation is a grand game, wherein Allah is the greatest prize.
The Sufi view of the meaning of life stems from thehadith qudsi that states "I (God) wasa Hidden Treasure and loved to be known. Therefore I created the Creation that I might be known." One possible interpretation of this view is that the meaning of life for an individual is to know the nature of God, and the purpose of all of creation is to reveal that nature and to prove its value as the ultimate treasure, that is God. However, this hadith is stated in various forms and interpreted in various ways by people, such, as'Abdu'l-Bahá of theBaháʼí Faith,[139] and inIbn'Arabī's Fuṣūṣ al-Ḥikam.[140] According to ShaykhIbrahim Niass, worship of God is closely linked toma'rifa,[141] therefore the perfection of the aspirant's knowledge of God is conditional upon his attainment of ma'rifa.
TheBaháʼí Faith emphasizes the unity of humanity.[142] To Baháʼís, the purpose of life is focused on spiritual growth and service to humanity. Human beings are viewed as intrinsically spiritual beings. People's lives in this material world provide extended opportunities to grow, to develop divine qualities and virtues, and theprophets were sent by God to facilitate this.[143][144]
Hinduism is a religious category including many beliefs and traditions. Since Hinduism was the way of expressing meaningful living for a long time before there was a need for naming it as a separate religion, Hindu doctrines are supplementary and complementary in nature, generally non-exclusive, suggestive, and tolerant in content.[145] Most believe that theātman (spirit, soul)—the person's trueself—is eternal.[146] In part, this stems from Hindu beliefs that spiritual development occurs across many lifetimes, and goals should match the state of development of the individual. There are four possible aims to human life, known as thepurusharthas (ordered from least to greatest): (i)Kāma (wish, desire, love and sensual pleasure), (ii)Artha (wealth, prosperity, glory), (iii)Dharma (righteousness, duty, morality,virtue,ethics), encompassing notions such asahimsa (non-violence) andsatya (truth) and (iv)Moksha (liberation, i.e. liberation fromSaṃsāra, the cycle ofreincarnation).[147][148][149]
In all schools of Hinduism, the meaning of life is tied up in the concepts ofkarma (causal action),sansara (the cycle of birth and rebirth), andmoksha (liberation). Existence is conceived as the progression of the ātman (similar to the western concept of asoul) across numerous lifetimes, and its ultimate progression towards liberation from karma. Particular goals for life are generally subsumed under broaderyogas (practices) ordharma (correct living) which are intended to create more favorable reincarnations, though they are generally positive acts in this life as well. Traditional schools of Hinduism often worshipDevas which are manifestations ofIshvara (a personal or chosen God); these Devas are taken as ideal forms to be identified with, as a form of spiritual improvement.
In short, the goal is to realize the fundamental truth about oneself. This thought is conveyed in theMahāvākyas ("Tat Tvam Asi" (thou art that), "Aham Brahmāsmi", "Prajñānam Brahma" and "Ayam Ātmā Brahma" (This Ātman is Brahman)).
Later schools reinterpreted thevedas to focus onBrahman, "The One Without a Second",[150] as a central God-like figure.
Inmonist Advaita Vedanta, ātman is ultimately indistinguishable from Brahman, and the goal of life is to know or realize that one'sĀtman (soul) is identical toBrahman.[151] To theUpanishads, whoever becomes fully aware of the Ātman, as one's core of self, realizes identity with Brahman, and, thereby, achievesMoksha (liberation, freedom).[146][152][153]
Dvaita Vedanta and otherbhakti schools have adualist interpretation.Brahman is seen as a supreme being with a personality and manifest qualities. The Ātman depends upon Brahman for its existence; the meaning of life is achieving Moksha through the love of God and upon His grace.[152]
Vaishnavism is a branch of Hinduism in which the principal belief is the identification ofVishnu orNarayana as the one supreme God. This belief contrasts with theKrishna-centered traditions, such asVallabha,Nimbaraka andGaudiya, in whichKrishna is considered to be the One and only Supreme God and thesource of all avataras.[154]
Vaishnava theology includes the central beliefs of Hinduism such asmonotheism,reincarnation,samsara,karma, and the variousYoga systems, but with a particular emphasis on devotion (bhakti) to Vishnu through the process ofBhakti yoga, often including singing Vishnu's name's (bhajan), meditating upon his form (dharana) and performingdeity worship (puja). The practices of deity worship are primarily based on texts such asPañcaratra and variousSamhitas.[155]
One popular school of thought,Gaudiya Vaishnavism, teaches the concept ofAchintya Bheda Abheda. In this, Krishna is worshipped as the single true God, and all living entities are eternal parts and the Supreme Personality of the Godhead Krishna. Thus the constitutional position of a living entity is to serve the Lord with love and devotion. The purpose of human life especially is to think beyond the animalistic way of eating, sleeping, mating, and defending and engage the higher intelligence to revive the lost relationship with Krishna.
Jainism is a religion originating inancient India, its ethical system promotes self-discipline above all else. Through following theascetic teachings ofJina, ahuman achievesenlightenment (perfect knowledge). Jainism divides the universe into living and non-living beings. Only when the living becomes attached to the non-living does suffering result. Therefore, happiness is the result of self-conquest and freedom from external objects. The meaning of life may then be said to be to use the physical body to achieve self-realization and bliss.[156]
Jains believe that every human is responsible for his or her actions and all living beings have an eternalsoul,jiva. Jains believe all souls are equal because they all possess the potential of being liberated and attainingMoksha. TheJain view of karma is that every action, every word, every thought has effect on the soul.
Jainism includes strict adherence toahimsa (orahinsā), a form ofnonviolence that goes far beyondvegetarianism. Jains refuse food obtained with unnecessary cruelty. Many practice a lifestyle similar toveganism due to the violence of modern dairy farms, and others excluderoot vegetables from their diets in order to preserve the lives of the plants from which they eat.[157]
Buddhists practice embracing mindfulness, the ill-being (suffering) and well-being that is present in life. Buddhists practice seeing the causes of ill-being and well-being in life. For example, one of the causes of suffering is an unhealthy attachment to objects material or non-material. The Buddhistsūtras andtantras do not speak about "the meaning of life" or "the purpose of life", but about the potential of human life to end suffering, for example through embracing (not suppressing or denying) cravings and conceptual attachments. Attaining and perfecting dispassion is a process of many levels that ultimately results in the state ofNirvana. Nirvana means freedom from bothsuffering andrebirth.[158]
Theravada Buddhism is generally considered to be close to the early Buddhist practice. It promotes the concept ofVibhajjavada (Pali), literally "Teaching of Analysis", which says that insight must come from the aspirant's experience, critical investigation, and reasoning instead of by blind faith. However, the Theravadin tradition also emphasizes heeding the advice of the wise, considering such advice and evaluation of one's own experiences to be the two tests by which practices should be judged. The Theravadin goal is liberation (or freedom) from suffering, according to theFour Noble Truths. This is attained in the achievement ofNirvana, or Unbinding which also ends therepeated cycle of birth, old age, sickness, and death. The way to attain Nirvana is by following and practicing theNoble Eightfold Path.
Mahayana Buddhist schools de-emphasize the traditional view (still practiced inTheravada) of the release from individual Suffering (Duhkha) and attainment of Awakening (Nirvana). In Mahayana, the Buddha is seen as an eternal, immutable, inconceivable,omnipresent being. The fundamental principles of Mahayana doctrine are based on the possibility of universal liberation from suffering for all beings, and the existence of the transcendentBuddha-nature, which is the eternal Buddha essence present, but hidden and unrecognised, in all living beings.[159]
Philosophical schools of Mahayana Buddhism, such asChan/Zen and theVajrayana Tibetan and Shingon schools, explicitly teach thatBodhisattva should refrain from full liberation, allowing themselves to be reincarnated into the world until all beings achieve enlightenment. Devotional schools such asPure Land Buddhism seek the aid of celestial buddhas—individuals who have spent lifetimes accumulating positive karma, and use that accumulation to aid all.[160]
The followers of Sikhism are ordained to follow the teachings of the tenSikh Gurus, or enlightened leaders, as well as the holy scripture entitled theGurū Granth Sāhib, which includes selected works of many philosophers from diverse socio-economic and religious backgrounds.
The Sikh Gurus say that salvation can be obtained by following various spiritual paths, so Sikhs do not have a monopoly on salvation: "The Lord dwells in every heart, and every heart has its own way to reach Him."[161] Sikhs believe that all people are equally important beforeGod.[162] Sikhs balance their moral and spiritual values with the quest for knowledge, and they aim to promote a life of peace and equality but also of positive action.[163]
A key distinctive feature of Sikhism is a non-anthropomorphic concept of God, to the extent that one can interpret God as theUniverse itself (pantheism). Sikhism thus sees life as an opportunity to understand this God as well as to discover the divinity which lies in each individual. While a full understanding of God is beyond human beings,[164]Nanak described God as not wholly unknowable, and stressed that God must be seen from "the inward eye", or the "heart", of a human being: devotees mustmeditate to progress towards enlightenment and the ultimate destination of a Sikh is to lose the ego completely in the love of the lord and finally merge into the almighty creator. Nanak emphasized the revelation through meditation, as its rigorous application permits the existence of communication between God and human beings.[164]
Taoistcosmogony emphasizes the need for all sentient beings and all men to return to theprimordial or to rejoin with theOneness of the Universe by way of self-cultivation and self-realization. All adherents should understand and be in tune with the ultimate truth.
Taoists believe all things were originally fromTaiji andTao, and the meaning in life for the adherents is to realize the temporal nature of the existence. "Only introspection can then help us to find our innermost reasons for living ... the simple answer is here within ourselves."[165]
Shinto is the native religion of Japan. Shinto means "the path of thekami", but more specifically, it can be taken to mean "the divine crossroad where the kami chooses his way". The "divine" crossroad signifies that all the universe is divine spirit. This foundation offree will, choosing one's way, means that life is a creative process.
Shinto wants life to live, not to die. Shinto sees death as pollution and regards life as the realm where the divine spirit seeks to purify itself by rightful self-development. Shinto wants individual human life to be prolonged forever on earth as a victory of the divine spirit in preserving its objective personality in its highest forms. The presence of evil in the world, as conceived by Shinto, does not stultify the divine nature by imposing on divinity responsibility for being able to relieve human suffering while refusing to do so. The sufferings of life are the sufferings of the divine spirit in search of progress in the objective world.[166]
There are manynew religious movements in East Asia, and some with millions of followers:Chondogyo,Tenrikyo,Cao Đài, andSeicho-No-Ie. New religions typically have unique explanations for the meaning of life. For example, in Tenrikyo, one is expected to live aJoyous Life by participating in practices that create happiness for oneself and others.
Zoroastrians believe in a universe created by a transcendent God,Ahura Mazda, to whom all worship is ultimately directed. Ahura Mazda's creation isasha, truth and order, and it is in conflict with itsantithesis,druj, falsehood and disorder.[167]
Since humanity possessesfree will, people must be responsible for their moral choices. By using free will, people must take an active role in the universal conflict, with good thoughts, good words and good deeds to ensure happiness and to keep chaos at bay.
"What is the meaning of life?" is a question many people ask themselves at some point during their lives, most in the context "What is the purpose of life?".[15] Some popular answers include:
The mystery of life and its true meaning is an often recurring subject inpopular culture, featured inentertainment media andvarious forms of art.
Monty Python's The Meaning of Life includes a character played byMichael Palin being handed an envelope containing "the meaning of life", which she opens and reads out to the audience: "Well, it's nothing very special. Uh, try to be nice to people, avoid eating fat, read a good book every now and then, get some walking in, and try to live together in peace and harmony with people of all creeds and nations."[239][240][241]
InDouglas Adams' bookThe Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy, theAnswer to the Ultimate Question of Life, the Universe, and Everything is given the numeric solution "42", after seven and a half million years of calculation by a giantsupercomputer calledDeep Thought. When this answer is met with confusion and anger from its constructors, Deep Thought explains that "I think the problem such as it was, was too broadly based. You never actually stated what the question was."[242][8][243][244][245] Deep Thought then constructs another computer—the Earth—to calculate what the Ultimate Question actually is. Later Ford and Arthur manage to extract the question as the Earth computer would have rendered it. That question turns out to be "what do you get if you multiply six by nine",[246] and it is realised thatthe program was ruined by the unexpected arrival of the Golgafrinchans on Earth, and so the actual Ultimate Question of Life, The Universe, And Everything remains unknown.
InPerson of Interest season 5 episode 13, an artificial intelligence referred to as The Machine tells Harold Finch that the secret of life is "Everyone dies alone. But if you mean something to someone, if you help someone, or love someone. If even a single person remembers you then maybe you never really die at all." This phrase is then repeated at the very end of the show to add emphasis to the finale.[247]
Existential crises are crises of meaning. They are triggered by the impression that life lacks meaning.[248][249][250] This impression can lead to an inner conflict because there is a strongdesire to find some form of meaning in life. In theexistentialist literature, the discrepancy between the individual's desire for meaning and the world's apparent lack thereof is termedthe absurd.[251][252][253] It may be summarized by the question "How does a being who needs meaning find meaning in a universe that has no meaning?".[254] While this conflict may affect different people at least to some extent, it reaches a more severe level in the case of existential crises. This level leads to various negativeexperiences, such asstress,anxiety, despair, anddepression.[254][249][250] In the more serious cases, these symptoms disturb the individual's normal functioning in everyday life. A positive side effect of these negative experiences is that they push the affected individual to address the underlying issue. This opens the opportunity ofdeveloping as a person and improving one's way of life.[254][255]
Therapists often try to treat existential crises by helping their patients discover meaning in life. An important distinction in this regard is the difference between personal meaning and cosmic meaning.[254][256] In the cosmic sense, the term "meaning of life" refers to the purpose of the world as a whole or why we are here. One way to solve an existential crisis is to discover a satisfying answer to this question. This often takes the form of areligious explanation involving a divine entity that created the world for a certain purpose.[254][257][258] Another approach to solving existential crises is to seek meaning not on the cosmic but on the personal level. This usually takes a more secular form: the therapist helps the individual realize what matters to them or why their life is worth living.[254][256][259] In this regard, they may discover how their personal life can be meaningful, for example, by dedicating themselves to their family or their career. This approach may mitigate or solve an existential crisis even if the individual still lacks an answer to the bigger question of the deeper meaning behind everything.[254][250][257]
The question of the meaning of life is closely related to the question of what hasimportance or what matters. This is reflected in the fact that finding meaning in life is often associated with dedicating oneself to some kind of higher purpose, which is seen as having special importance.[260][261] Nonetheless, some theorists have argued that the two concepts are not identical.[260][262] This distinction is often motivated by the observation that seeking the meaning of life is usually regarded as an admirable goal associated withself-transcendence. Craving importance, on the other hand, seems to be a moreegoistic ornarcissistic aim in comparison.[260]
Various theorists have argued that to be important means to have an impact on the world or to make a difference. Some only require that this causal impact is big enough. Others include as an additional element that the difference in question has to affect the value of the world.[263][262][264] This is often interpreted with reference towell-being: the degree of importance of a thing is given by the extent to which it affects the well-being of sentient entities.[265][262][266] However, the relation to a purpose is usually not required for importance. In this regard, some things may be important accidentally orunintentionally without being guided by a higher goal. For example, a person may by chance bump into something and thereby unwittingly trigger abutterfly effect of extreme proportions. In such a case, the person's life has acquired high importance due to the consequences it caused. Nonetheless, this does not imply that it has also acquired some form of deeper meaning or higher purpose.[260]
Another difference is that seeking and realizing the meaning of life is usually seen by most theorists as a positive and worthwhile undertaking. Importance, however, can be either positive or negative depending on the type of value difference involved.[260][262] For example,Alexander Fleming was important in a positive sense since his discovery ofpenicillin helped many people cure theirbacterial infections.[267]Adolf Hitler, on the other hand, was important in a negative sense since his policies caused widespread suffering to innumerous people.[263]
{{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help){{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link){{cite journal}}:Cite journal requires|journal= (help){{cite journal}}:Cite journal requires|journal= (help){{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help){{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help){{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help), Part I, Ch. 3.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: publisher location (link){{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link){{cite book}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)And behold, I tell you these things that ye may learn wisdom; that ye may learn that when ye are in the service of your fellow beings ye are only in the service of your God.
For behold, this life is the time for men to prepare to meet God; yea, behold the day of this life is the day for men to perform their labors.
And the Lord God said, Behold, the man is become as one of us, to know good and evil...
Be ye therefore perfect, even as your Father which is in heaven is perfect.
And the Lord God spake unto Moses, saying: ... For behold, this is my work and my glory—to bring to pass the immortality and eternal life of man.
As man now is, God once was: As God now is, man may be.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: others (link)Yea, and I know that good and evil have come before all men; he that knoweth not good from evil is blameless; but he that knoweth good and evil, to him it is given according to his desires, whether he desireth good or evil, life or death, joy or remorse of conscience.
Adam fell that men might be; and men are, that they might have joy.
And Eve, his wife, heard all these things and was glad, saying: Were it not for our transgression we never should have had seed, and never should have known good and evil, and the joy of our redemption, and the eternal life which God giveth unto all the obedient.
I created the jinn and humankind only that they might worship Me.
I think the problem such as it was, was too broadly based. You never actually stated what the question was.
That's it. Six by nine… forty-two! I always said there was something fundamentally wrong about the universe!
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