Mathura (Hindi pronunciation:[mɐ.t̪ʰʊ.ɾäː]ⓘ) is a city and the administrative headquarters ofMathura district in theIndian state ofUttar Pradesh. It is located 162 kilometres (101 mi) south-east ofDelhi; and about 15 kilometres (9.3 mi) from the town ofVrindavan. In ancient times, Mathura was aneconomic hub, located at the junction of importantcaravan routes. The2011 Census of India estimated the population of Mathura at 441,894.
Traditionally it is believed that it was founded byShatrughna after killingYadavaLavana at the site of Madhuvana. According toRamayana it was founded byMadhu (a man of theYadu tribe). Later on Madhu's sonLavanasura was defeated by Satrughana.[7] Madhu says all the territory of Mathura belongs toAbhiras.[8]
Along the Ghats of Mathura (c. 1880)General view of the excavations in January 1889 at Kankali Tila, MathuraStatue ofKanishka I, second century CE,Mathura Museum.Sculpture of woman from ancient Braj-Mathura ca. second century CE.
Mathura, which lies at the centre of the cultural region ofBraj[4] has an ancient history and is also believed to be the homeland and birthplace of Krishna, who belonged to theYadu dynasty. According to theArchaeological Survey of India plaque at theMathura Museum,[9] the city is mentioned in the oldest Indian epic, theRamayana. In the epic, theIkshwaku prince Shatrughna slays a demon called Lavanasura and claims the land. Afterwards, the place came to be known asMadhuvan as it was thickly wooded, then Madhupura and later Mathura.[10] The most important pilgrimage site in Mathura was Katra ('market place'), now referred to asKrishna Janmasthan ('the birthplace of Krishna'). Excavations at the site revealed pottery and terracotta dating to the sixth century BCE, the remains of a largeBuddhist complex, including a monastery called Yasha Vihara of theGupta period, as well asJain sculptures of the same era.[11][12]
By the sixth century BCE Mathura became the capital of theSurasena Kingdom.[15] The city was later ruled by theMaurya empire (fourth to second centuries BCE).Megasthenes, writing in the early third century BCE, mentions Mathura as a great city under the name Μέθορα (Méthora).[16] It seems it never was under the direct control of the followingShunga dynasty (2nd century BCE) as not a single archaeological remain of a Shunga presence were ever found in Mathura.[17]
TheIndo-Greeks may have taken control, direct or indirect, of Mathura some time between 180 BCE and 100 BCE, and remained so as late as 70 BCE according to theYavanarajya inscription,[17] which was found inMaghera, a town 17 kilometres (11 mi) from Mathura.[18] The opening of the 3 line text of this inscription inBrahmi script translates as: "In the 116th year of theYavana kingdom..."[19][20] or '"In the 116th year of Yavana hegemony" ("Yavanarajya")[17] However, this also corresponds to the presence of the nativeMitra dynasty of local rulers in Mathura, in approximately the same time frame (150 BCE—50 BCE), possibly pointing to a vassalage relationship with the Indo-Greeks.[17]
After a period of local rule, Mathura was conquered by theIndo-Scythians during the first century BCE. The Indo-Scythian satraps of Mathura are sometimes called the "Northern Satraps", as opposed to the "Western Satraps" ruling inGujarat andMalwa. However, Indo-Scythian control proved to be short lived, following the reign of the Indo-ScythianMahakshatrapa ("Great Satrap")Rajuvula,c. 10–25 CE. The Mora Well inscription of MahakshatrapaRajuvula, of the early decades of the first century CE, found in a village seven miles from Mathura, stated that imagespratima(h) of the blessed (bhagavatam) fiveVrishni heroes, were installed in a stone shrine of a person called Tosa.[21] The heroes were identified from a passage in theVayu Purana as Samkarsana,Vasudev, Pradyumna, Samba, and Aniruddha.[22] The English translation of the inscription read:-
. . . of the son of mahakṣatrapa Rāṃjūvula, svāmi . . . The images of the holy paṃcavīras of the Vṛṣṇis is... the stone shrine... whom the magnificent matchless stone house of Toṣā was erected and maintained... five objects of adoration made of stone, radiant, as it were with highest beauty...[23]
The Mathura inscription of the time of MahakshatrapaRajuvula's son, MahakshatrapaSodasa recorded erection of atorana (gateway),vedika (terrace) andchatuhsala (quadrangle) at theMahasthana (great place) of Bhagavat Vasudeva.[24] Several male torsos representing the Vrisni heroes were also found in a shrine in Mora dating to the time of MahakshatrapaSodasa.[21]
TheKushan emperors took control of Mathura some time after theMahakshatrapa ("Great Satrap")Sodasa (reigned circa 15 CE), although several of his successors ruled as Kushan vassals, such as the Indo-ScythianMahakshatrapaKharapallana and the SatrapVanaspara, both of whom paid allegiance to the Kushans, in an inscription atSarnath, dating to the third year of the reign of the Kushan emperorKanishka the Greatc. 130 CE.[25]
The Kushans made Mathura one of their capitals. (Preceding and/or concurrent capitals of the Kushans includedKapisa [modern Bagram, Afghanistan],Purushapura [modern Peshawar, Pakistan] andTakshasila [adjoining modern Taxila, Pakistan].)
Mathuran art and culture reached its zenith during the Kushan era.[26] Perhaps the most famous example was the artistic style known as theMathura school. Mathuraateliers were most active during the epoch of the great Kushan emperors Kanishka,Huvishka,Vasudeva whose reign represents the Golden Age of Mathurasculpture.[27]
During the 3rd century CE, following the decline of the Kushan Empire, theNaga dynasty of Padmavati took control of Mathura.[28]
"...the king of Mathura, whose fame was acknowledged in song even by the devatas... At that moment, though still in Mathura, it appears as if Ganga has merged with Yamuna at the Sangam... In a Vrindavan garden which is superior even to Kubera's garden, known as Chaitra-ratha... You can, as well, during rains, look at the dancing peacocks, while sitting in a pleasant cave of the Goverdhan Mountain"[29]
Chinese Buddhist MonkFaxian mentions the city as a centre of Buddhism about 400 CE. He found the people were very well off, there were no taxes other than for those on farmers who tilled the royal land. He found that people did not kill animals, no one consumed wine, and did not eat onion or garlic. He found that engraved title deeds were issued to land owners. Visiting priests were provided with accommodation, beds, mats, food, drinks and clothes to perform scholarly works.[30][page needed]
Xuanzang, who visited the city in 634 CE, mentions it as Mot'ulo, recording that it contained twenty Buddhist monasteries and many Hindu temples.[31][32] Later, he went east toThanesar,Jalandhar in the easternPunjab, before climbing up to visit predominantlyTheravada monasteries in theKulu valley and turning southward again toBairat and then Mathura, on theYamuna river.[33]
The famous femaleAlvar saint,Andal visualised going to a pilgrimage which began at Mathura, then proceeded toGokul, theYamuna, the pool of Kaliya,Vrindavan,Govardhan, and finished atDwarka.[34] The eleventh century Kashmiri poet,Bilhana visited Mathura andVrindavan after leaving Kashmir en route to Karnataka.[35]
The city was sacked and many of its temples destroyed byMahmud of Ghazni in 1018 CE.[32] The capture of Mathura byMaḥmūd Ibn Sebüktegīn is described by the historian al-Utbi (Abu Nasr Muhammad ibn Muhammad al Jabbaru-l 'Utbi) in his workTarikh Yamini as follows:
The wall of the city was constructed of hard stone, and two gates opened upon the river flowing under the city, which were erected upon strong and lofty foundations, to protect them against the floods of the river and rains. On both sides of the city there were a thousand houses, to which idol temples were attached, all strengthened from top to bottom by rivets of iron, and all made of masonry work; and opposite to them were other buildings, supported on broad wooden pillars, to give them strength.
In the middle of the city there was a temple larger and firmer than the rest, which can neither be described nor painted. The Sultan thus wrote respecting it :— " If any should wish to construct a building equal to this, he would not be able to do it without expending an hundred thousand thousand red dinars, and it would occupy two hundred years, even though the most experienced and able workmen were employed." Among the idols there were five made of red gold, each five yards high, fixed in the air without support. In the eyes of one of these idols there were two rubies, of such value, that if any one were to sell such as are like them, he would obtain fifty thousand dinars. On another, there was a sapphire purer than water, and more sparkling than crystal; the weight was four hundred and fifty miskals. The two feet of another idol weighed four thousand four hundred miskals, and the entire quantity of gold yielded by the bodies of these idols, was ninety-eight thousand three hundred miskals. The idols of silver amounted to two hundred, but they could not be weighed without breaking them to pieces and putting them into scales. The Sultan gave orders that all the temples should be burnt with naphtha and fire, and levelled with the ground.[36]
The temple at Katra was sacked byMaḥmūd Ibn Sebüktegīn. A temple was built to replace it in 1150 CE. The Mathuraprasasti (Eulogistic Inscription) datedSamvat (V.S.) 1207 (1150 CE), said to have been found in 1889 CE at the Keshava mound byAnton Fuhrer, German Indologist who worked with the Archaeological Survey of India, recorded the foundations of a temple dedicated toVishnu at the Katra site:
Jajja, who carried the burden of the varga, together with a committee of trustees (goshtijana), built a large temple of Vishnu, brilliantly white and touching the clouds.
Jajja was a vassal of theGahadavalas in charge of Mathura, and the committee mentioned in theprasasti could have been of an earlierVaishnava temple.[37] The temple built by Jajja at Katra was destroyed by the forces ofQutubuddin Aibak, thoughFeroz Tughlaq (r. 1351–88 CE) was also said to have attacked it.[38] It was repaired and survived till the reign ofSikandar Lodi (r. 1489–1517 CE).
In the twelfth century, Bhatta Lakshmidhara, chief minister of theGahadavala kingGovindachandra (r. 1114–1155 CE), wrote the earliest surviving collection of verses in praise of the sacred sites of Mathura in his work Krtyakalpataru, which has been described as "the first re-statement of the theory ofTirtha-yatra (pilgrimage)".[39] In his Krtyakalpataru, Bhatta Lakshmidhara devoted an entire section (9) to Mathura.[40]
Later on the city was sacked again by Sikandar Lodi, who ruled theSultanate of Delhi from 1489 to 1517 CE.[41][42] Sikandar Lodi earned the epithet of 'Butt Shikan', the 'Destroyer of Idols'.Ferishta recorded that Sikandar Lodi was a staunch Muslim, with a passion for vandalising heathen temples:
He was firmly attached to the Mahomedan religion, and made a point of destroying all Hindu temples. In the city of Mathura he caused masjids and bazaars to be built opposite the bathing-stairs leading to the river, and ordered that no Hindus should be allowed to bathe there. He forbade the barbers to shave the beards and heads of the inhabitants, in order to prevent the Hindus following their usual practices at such pilgrimages.[43]
In Tarikh-i Daudi, of 'Abdu-lla (written during the time ofJahangir) said of Sikandar Lodi:
He was so zealous a Musulman that he utterly destroyed divers places of worship of the infidels, and left not a vestige remaining of them. He entirely ruined the shrines of Mathura, the mine of heathenism, and turned their principal Hindu places of worship into caravanserais and colleges. Their stone images were given to the butchers to serve them as meat-weights, and all the Hindus in Mathura were strictly prohibited from shaving their heads and beards, and performing their ablutions. He thus put an end to all the idolatrous rites of the infidels there; and no Hindu, if he wished to have his head or beard shaved, could get a barber to do it. Every city thus conformed as he desired to the customs of Islam.[44]
Vallabhacharya andChaitanya Mahaprabhu arrived in the Braj region, in search of sacred places that had been destroyed or lost. InShrikrsnashrayah, that make up theSodashagrantha,Vallabha said of his age:
The Malechchhas (non-Hindus in this context) have surrounded all the holy places with the result that they have become infected with evil. Besides, the holy people are full of sorrow. At such a timeKrishna alone is my way.[45]
ThePortuguese, Father Antonio Monserrate (1536 CE-1600 CE), who was on a Jesuit mission at the Mughal Court during the times ofAkbar, visited Mathura in 1580–82, and noted that all temples built at sites associated with the deeds ofKrishna were in ruins:-
It (Mathura) used to be a great and well populated city, with splendid buildings and a great circuit of walls. The ruins plainly indicate how imposing its buildings were. For out of these forgotten ruins are dug up columns and very ancient statues, of skilful and cunning workmanship. Only one Hindu temple is left out of many; for the Musalmans have completely destroyed all except the pyramids. Huge crowds of pilgrims come from all over India to this temple, which is situated on the high bank of the Jomanis (Yamuna)...[46]
TheKeshavadeva temple was rebuilt by theBundela Rajput RajahVir Singh Deo at a cost of thirty-three lakh rupees when the gold was priced at around ₹ 10/- pertola.[47] And the grand structure of the temple in Mathura was regarded a "wonder of the age".[48]
TheMughalEmperor Aurangzeb, built the Shahi-Eidgah Mosque during his rule, which is adjacent toShri Krishna Janmabhoomi believed to be over aHindu temple.[49] He also changed the city's name to Islamabad.[50] In 1669, Aurangzeb issued a general order for the demolition of Hindu schools and temples, in 1670, specifically ordered the destruction of the Keshavadeva temple. Saqi Mustaid Khan recorded:
On Thursday, 27th January/15 Ramzan (27 January 1670)... the Emperor as the promoter of justice and overthrower of mischief, as a knower of truth and destroyer of oppression as the zephyr of the garden of victory and the reviver of the faith of the Prophet, issued orders for the demolition of the temple situated in Mathura, famous as the Dehra of Kesho Rai. In a short time by the great exertions of his officers, the destruction of this strong foundation of infidelity was accomplished and on its site a lofty mosque was built by the expenditure of a large sum... Praised be the august God of the faith of Islam, that in the auspicious reign of this destroyer of infidelity and turbulence, such a wonderful and seemingly impossible work was successfully accomplished.
On seeing this instance of the strength of the emperor's faith and the grandeur of his devotion to God, the proud Rajas were stifled, and in amazement they stood like images facing the wall. The idols, large and small, set with costly jewels, which had been set up in the temple, were brought to Agra, and buried under the step of the mosque of the Begum Shahib in order to be continuously trodden upon. The name of Mathura was changed to Islamabad.[51]
The Muslim conquest resulted in the destruction of allBuddhist,Jain, andHindu temples and monuments in and around Mathura.Buddhism, already in decline, never revived, and for the next four hundred years theJains andHindus were unable to erect any temples that were not sooner or later demolished.[52] Many of the sites that had been places of religious importance were abandoned and gradually sank beneath the earth. But some of them were not forgotten, owing to the persistence of oral tradition, the refashioning of a temple into a mosque, or the presence of humble shrines, some of which housed sculptural fragments of earlier buildings. Several of them have survived as places of significance in the modern pilgrimage circuit.[52]
"The rebellion in Mathurá district seems to have gained ground. 'On the 14th Rajab, 1080, [28 November 1669], his Majesty left Dihlí for Akbarábád, and almost daily enjoyed the pleasures of the chase. On the 21st Rajab, whilst hunting, he received the report of a rebellion having broken out at Mauza' Rewarah, Chandarkah, and Surkhrú. Hasan 'Ali Khán was ordered to attack the rebels at night, which he did, and the firing lasted till 12 o'clock the next day. The rebels, unable longer to withstand, thinking of the honour of their families, now fought with short arms, and many imperial soldiers and companions of Hasan ’Alí were killed. Three hundred rebels were sent to perdition, and two hundred and fifty, men and women, caught. Hasan ’Alí, in the afternoon, reported personally the result of the fight, and was ordered to leave the prisoners and the cattle in charge of Sayyid Zain ul-'Abidin, the jágirdár of the place. Çaf Shikan Khán also (who after ’Abdunnabí's death had been appointed Faujdár of Mathura) waited on the emperor, and was ordered to tell off two hundred troopers to guard the fields attached to the villages, and prevent soldiers from plundering and kidnapping children. Námdár Khán, Faujdár of Murádábád, also came to pay his respects. Çafshikan Khán was removed from his office, and Hasan 'Ali Khán was appointed Faujdár of Mathura, with a command of Three Thousand and Five Hundred, 2000 troopers, and received a dress of honour, a sword, and a horse. * * * On the 18th Sha'bán [1st January, 1670), his Majesty entered Agrah. Kokilá Ját, the wicked ringleader of the rebels of District*......, who had been the cause of ’Abdunnabí's death and who had plundered Parganah Sa'dábád, was at last caught by Hasan ’Alí Khán and his zealous peshkár, Shaikh Razíuddin, and he was now sent with the Shaikh to Agrah, where by order of his Majesty he was executed. Kokila's son and daughter were given to Jawahir Khán Nazir [a eunuch]. The girl was later married to Shah Quli, the well-known Chelah; and his son, who was called Fázil, became in time so excellent a Hafiz [one who knows the Qorán by heart], that his Majesty preferred him to all others and even chaunted passages to him. Shaikh Razíuddin, who had captured Kokila, belonged to a respectable family in Bhagalpur, Bihár, and was an excellent soldier, administrator, and companion; he was at the same time so learned, that he was ordered to assist in the compilation of the Fatáwá i 'Alamgiri [the great code of Muhammadan laws]. He received a daily allowance of three rupees.'+ (Haásir i ’Alamgiri, pp. 92 to 91.) Hasan ’Alí Khán retained his office from 1080 to Sha'bán 1087 (October, 1676), when Sulțán Qulí Khán was appointed Faujdír of Mathurá.",Asiatic Society of Bengal,Proceedings[53]
Gate of Shet Lukhmeechund's Temple, a photo by Eugene Clutterbuck Impey, 1860s.
According the biographer of RajaJai Singh, Atmaram, when Jai Singh was campaigning against the Jat RajaChuraman Singh, he bathed at Radhakund on the full moon of Kartik, went to Mathura in the month of Shravan in 1724, and performed the marriage of his daughter onJanmashtami. He then undertook a tour of the sacred forests ofBraj, and, on his return to Mathura, founded religious establishments and celebratedHoli.[54]
Pilgrimage by the Family of Peshwa of Maratha Empire
During the period of the expansion ofMaratha Empire, pilgrimage to the holy places in the north became quite frequent.Pilgrims required protection on the way and took advantage of the constant movement of troops that journeyed to and back from their homeland for military purposes. That is how the practice arose of ladies accompanying military expeditions. The mother ofPeshwaBalaji Baji Rao,Kashitai performed her famous pilgrimage for four years in the north, visiting Mathura,Prayag,Ayodhya,Banaras, and other holy places.[55]
Mathura is a holy city in Hinduism and is considered the heart ofBrij Bhoomi, the land of Krishna.[56][57] The twin-city to Mathura isVrindavan.
There are many places of historic and religious importance in Mathura and its neighbouring towns.[6]
Krishna Janmasthan Temple Complex is an important group of temples built around what is considered to be the birthplace ofKrishna.[58][59] The temple complex contains Keshav Deva temple, Garbha Griha shrine, Bhagavata Bhavan and the Rangabhoomi where the final battle between Krishna andKamsa took place.[60][5][9][58]
TheDwarkadheesh Temple is one of the largest temples in Mathura.[5]Vishram Ghat at the bank of river Yamuna is said to be the place were Krishna had rested after killingKamsa.[5]
Kankali Tila brought forth many treasures of Jain art. The archaeological findings testify the existence of two Jain temples and stupas. Numerous Jain sculptures,Ayagapatas (tablet of homage),[64] pillars, crossbeams and lintels were found during archaeological excavations.[65] Some of the sculptures are provided with inscriptions that report on the contemporary society and organisation of the Jain community.
Most sculptures could be dated from the second century BC to the 12th century CE, thus representing a continuous period of about 14 centuries during whichJainism flourished at Mathura.[65] These sculptures are now housed in the Lucknow State Museum and in the Mathura Museum.
TheMathura Museum is notable for archaeological artefacts, especially those from theKushan andGupta empires. It has sculptures associated with Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism.[9][66]
Krishna Janmashtami is grandly celebrated every year in Mathura. Every year 3 to 3.5 million devotees celebrate Janmashtami in Mathura, with the maximum number of devotees visiting the Keshav Deva temple and the Dwarkadheesh temple.[67][68] Devotees generally observe a fast and break it at midnight when Krishna was believed to have been born. Devotional songs, dance performances,bhog andaartis are observed across Mathura-Vrindavan.[69]
Mathura along with the twin city ofVrindavan, (both of which are associated with Shri Krishna) are main centers ofBraj Cuisine.[70] Mathura is known for itsMathura Peda,[71] Mathura Lassi, Mathura HeengKachori, MathuraChaat,[72] Moong Dal Cheela, Bedmipuri and Dubki Aloo Jhol.
The2011 census of India estimates the population of Mathura to be 441,894, with a decadal growth rate of 22.53 per cent. Males account for 54% (268,445) and females for 46% (173,449) of this population. Sex ratio of Mathura is 858 females per 1000 males, which has increased from 840 (2001). However, national sex ratio is 940. Population density in 2011 has increased from 621 per km2 in 2001 to 761 per km2. Mathura has an average literacy rate of 72.65 per cent which has increased from 61.46 per cent (2001) but still lower than the national average of 74.04 per cent. Male and female literacy rate are 84.39 and 58.93 per cent respectively. 15.61 per cent of Mathura's population is under 6 years of age. This figure was 19.56 per cent in 2001 census.[76]
According to the 2011 census on Mathura NPP, 95.4% of the people identified asHindi speakers, 2.6% asUrdu speakers and 1.4% as speakers ofBraj Bhasha[77] (the local dialect).[4] The city also lies within the cultural region ofBraj.[4]
Mathura Junction railway station is situated on the major Delhi-Mumbai rail route. Both Central Railway and Western Railway routes pass through Mathura. Trains from NCR (north-central railway) to ER (eastern railway) also pass through the Mathura junction.Mathura Cantt railway station is a major route for eastern and central railway.
Important trains that originate/terminate at Mathura are:
Mathura is well-connected by road to the rest of India.National Highway NH-19(previouslyNH-2) from Delhi to Kolkata, with diversion for Chennai also passes through Mathura.Yamuna Expressway from Greater-Noida to Agra (165 km 6 lane access controlled express highway) also passes through, providing good connectivity to Noida, Agra, Kanpur and Lucknow.
Atram network has been proposed in the city, which would make Mathura the second only city in India (besidesKolkata) to have a functional tram transport. In 2017, the local MLAShrikant Sharma announced that the trams will be operational in Mathura andVrindavan by 2018.[80]
Currently the city has no airport. The nearest airports are theAgra Airport (about 60 km away) and theDelhi Airport (about 160 km away) with major national and international air routes. The under-constructionJewar Airport inGreater Noida is approximately 75 km from Mathura and is expected to be country's largest airport when fully operational. Land has been earmarked, and construction is in progress near theYamuna Expressway, with plans to open in the next five years with regular flights to major national and international air routes in future.[81][82][83]
In 2012, the then civil aviation ministerAjit Singh suggested Mathura's name for the site of a new greenfield international airport to the then chief minister ofUttar Pradesh,Akhilesh Yadav. Mathura's name came to note when a group of ministers terminated the plan of buildingTaj International Airport at Agra.[84]
I Corps (Strike Formation)[85] within theIndian Army'sCentral Command is based in Mathura, hosting Strike I Corps headquarters in a large classified area in the outskirts of the city known as Mathura Cantonment (Central Command is headquartered inLucknow). It hosts Strike Infantry units, air defence units, armoured divisions, engineer brigades, artillery Units, and classified units ofStrategic Forces Command. The I Corps is primarily responsible for the western borders of India. In 2007 during Exercise Ashwamedha, all the armoured, artillery, and infantry divisions performed a simulation of an overall NBC (nuclear-chemical-biological) environment. The aim was to show operational ability in high intensity, short duration and 'sudden' battle[86]
Mathura Refinery located in the city is one of the biggest oil refineries of Asia with a refining capacity of 8.0 milliontonnes per year.[87] This oil refinery ofIndian Oil Corporation Ltd. is a technologically advanced oil refinery and provides local employment opportunities as well. Its main focus is to meet the demands from theNCR.[87] The refinery had undertaken projects to upgrade its diesel and gasoline units to bring Sulphur levels down by nearly 80 per cent[88]
^Megasthenes, fragment 23 "The Surasenians, an Indian tribe, with two great cities, Methora and Clisobora; the navigable riverIomanes flows through their territory" quoted inArrian Indica 8.5. Also "The river Jomanes (Yamuna) flows through the Palibothri into the Ganges between the towns Methora and Carisobora." inFRAGM. LVI. Plin. Hist. Nat. VI. 21. 8–23. 11.Archived 10 December 2008 at theWayback Machine
^abcdHistory of Early Stone Sculpture at Mathura: Ca. 150 BCE – 100 CE, Sonya Rhie Quintanilla, BRILL, 2007, p.8-10[1]
^Rajendra Tandon (2010).Kalidasa: Raghuvamsham. Rupa Publication. pp. 45–51.ISBN978-8129115867.
^Beal, Samuel (1884).Si-Yu-Ki: Buddhist Records of the Western World (translated from chinese). London: Truebner & Co.
^Li Rongxi (1996),The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions, Bukkyo Dendo Kyokai and Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research, Berkeley, pp. 103–108
^"Braj Cuisine Echoes The Legends Of Lord Krishna, Radha And Holi".Slurrp. Retrieved17 August 2024.Even now, Krishna is an integrated part of the Braj community and diet, influencing the culture in indelible ways. The essential elements of Braj cuisine are based on a few beliefs and traditions
Mathura-The Cultural Heritage. Edited by Doris Meth Srinivasan, published in 1989 by AIIS/Manohar.
Konow, Sten. Editor. 1929.Kharoshthī Inscriptions with Exception of those of Ashoka. Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum, Vol. II, Part I. Reprint: Indological Book House, Varanasi, 1969.
Mukherjee, B. N. 1981.Mathurā and its Society: The Śaka-Pahlava Phase. Firma K. L. M. Private Limited, Calcutta.
Sharma, R. C. 1976.Mathura Museum and Art. 2nd revised and enlarged edition. Government Museum, Mathura.
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