Papierkrattler masks at the Narrensprung 2005 Carnival parade,Ravensburg, Germany
Amask is an object normally worn on theface, typically forprotection,disguise,performance, orentertainment, and often employed forrituals and rites. Masks have been used since antiquity for bothceremonial andpractical purposes, as well as in theperforming arts and for entertainment. They are usually worn on the face, although they may also be positioned for effect elsewhere on the wearer's body.
Inart history, especiallysculpture, "mask" is the term for a face without a body that is not modelled in the round (which would make it a "head"), but for example appears in lowrelief.
The word "mask" appeared in English in the 1530s, fromMiddle Frenchmasque "covering to hide or guard the face", derived in turn fromItalianmaschera, fromMedieval Latinmasca "mask, specter, nightmare".[1] This word is of uncertain origin, perhaps fromArabicmaskharah مَسْخَرَۃٌ "buffoon", from the verbsakhira "to ridicule". However, it may also come fromProvençalmascarar "to black (the face)" (or the relatedCatalanmascarar,Old Frenchmascurer). This in turn is of uncertain origin – perhaps from a Germanic source akin to English "mesh", but perhaps frommask- "black", a borrowing from apre-Indo-European language.[2] One German author claims the word "mask" is originally derived from the Spanishmás que la cara (literally, "more than the face" or "added face"), which evolved to "máscara", while the Arabic "maskharat" – referring to the buffoonery which is possible only by disguising the face – would be based on these Spanish roots.[3] Other related forms areHebrewmasecha= "mask"; Arabicmaskhara مَسْخَرَ = "he ridiculed, he mocked",masakha مَسَخَ = "he transfomed" (transitive).
The use of masks inrituals orceremonies is a very ancient human practice across the world,[4] although masks can also be worn for protection, in hunting, in sports, in feasts, or in wars – or simply used as ornamentation.[5] Some ceremonial or decorative masks were not designed to be worn. Although the religious use of masks has waned, masks are used sometimes in drama therapy or psychotherapy.[6]
One of the challenges inanthropology is finding the precise derivation of human culture and early activities, the invention and use of the mask is only one area of unsolved inquiry. The use of masks dates back several millennia. It is conjectured that the first masks may have been used by primitive people to associate the wearer with some kind of unimpeachable authority, such as a deity, or to otherwise lend credence to the person's claim on a given social role.
The earliest knownanthropomorphic artwork is circa 30,000–40,000 years old.[note 1] The use of masks is demonstrated graphically at some of these sites. Insofar as masks involved the use of war-paint, leather, vegetative material, or wooden material, such masks failed to be preserved, however, they are visible inPaleolithic cave drawings, of which dozens have been preserved.[note 2] At theNeanderthal Roche-Cotard site in France, a flintstone likeness of a face was found that is approximately 35,000 years old, but it is not clear whether it was intended as a mask.[7][8]
In the Greekbacchanalia and theDionysus cult, which involved the use of masks, the ordinary controls on behaviour were temporarily suspended, and people cavorted in merry revelry outside their ordinary rank or status.René Guénon claims that in the Romansaturnalia festivals, the ordinary roles were often inverted. Sometimes a slave or a criminal was temporarily granted the insignia and status of royalty, only to be killed after the festival ended.[9] TheCarnival of Venice, in which all are equal behind their masks, dates back to 1268 AD.[10] The use of carnivalesque masks in the JewishPurim festivities probably originated in the late 15th century, although some Jewish authors claim it has always been part of Judaic tradition.[11]
The North AmericanIroquois tribes used masks for healing purposes (seeFalse Face Society). In theHimalayas, masks functioned above all as mediators of supernatural forces.[12][13][14]Yup'ik masks could be small 3-inch (7.6 cm) finger masks, but also 10-kilogram (22 lb) masks hung from the ceiling or carried by several people.[15][16] Masks have been created with plastic surgery for mutilated soldiers.[17]
Masks in various forms – sacred, practical, or playful – have played a crucial historical role in the development of understandings about "what it means to be human", because they permit the imaginative experience of "what it is like" to be transformed into a different identity (or to affirm an existing social or spiritual identity).[18] Not all cultures have known the use of masks, but most of them have.[19][20][note 3]
Masks in performance
Theatrical masks of Tragedy and Comedy. Mosaic,Roman mosaic, second century ADBatak mask dance at a funeral feast in theDutch East Indies, 1930s
Throughout the world, masks are used for their expressive power as a feature of masked performance – both ritually and in various theatre traditions. Theritual andtheatrical definitions of mask use frequently overlap and merge but still provide a useful basis for categorisation. The image ofjuxtaposed comedy and tragedy masks are widely used to represent the performing arts, and specificallydrama.
In many dramatic traditions including thetheatre of ancient Greece, the classicalnoh drama of Japan (14th century to present), the traditionallhamo drama ofTibet,talchum in Korea, and thetopeng dance ofIndonesia, masks were or are typically worn by all the performers, with several different types of mask used for different types of character.
In Ancient Rome, the wordpersona meant 'a mask'; it also referred to an individual who had fullRoman citizenship. A citizen could demonstrate his or her lineage throughimagines –death masks of ancestors. These were wax casts kept in alararium (the family shrine). Rites of passage, such as initiation of young members of the family or funerals, were carried out at the shrine under the watch of the ancestral masks. At funerals, professional actors would wear these masks to perform deeds of the lives of the ancestors,[21] thus linking the role of mask as a ritual object and in theatre.
Masks are a familiar and vivid element in manyfolk and traditionalpageants,ceremonies,rituals, andfestivals, and are often of an ancient origin. The mask is normally a part of a costume that adorns the whole body and embodies a tradition important to the religious and/or social life of thecommunity as whole or a particular group within the community. Masks are used almost universally and maintain their power and mystery both for their wearers and their audience. The continued popularity of wearing masks atcarnival, and for children at parties and for festivals such asHalloween are good examples. Nowadays these are usually mass-produced plastic masks, often associated with popularfilms,television programmes, orcartoon characters – they are, however, reminders of the enduring power of pretense and play and the power and appeal of masks.
Ritual masks
Ritual masks occur throughout the world, and although they tend to share many characteristics, highly distinctive forms have developed. The function of the masks may be magical or religious; they may appear in rites of passage or as a make-up for a form of theatre. Equally masks may disguise a penitent or preside over important ceremonies; they may help mediate with spirits, or offer a protective role to the members of a society who use their powers.[22] BiologistJeremy Griffith has suggested that ritual masks, as representations of the human face, are extremely revealing of the two fundamental aspects of the human psychological condition: firstly, the repression of a cooperative, instinctive self or soul; and secondly, the extremely angry state of the unjustly condemned conscious thinking egocentric intellect.[23]
In parts of Australia, gianttotem masks cover the body.
There are a wide variety of masks used in Africa. In West Africa, masks are used in masquerades that form part of religious ceremonies enacted to communicate with spirits and ancestors. Examples are the masquerades of theYoruba,Igbo, andEdo cultures, includingEgungun Masquerades andNorthern Edo Masquerades. The masks are usually carved with an extraordinary skill and variety by artists who will usually have received their training as an apprentice to a master carver – frequently it is a tradition that has been passed down within a family through many generations. Such an artist holds a respected position in tribal society because of the work that he or she creates, embodying not only complex craft techniques but also spiritual/social and symbolic knowledge.[24] African masks are also used in the Mas or Masquerade of theCaribbean Carnival.
Djolé (also known as Jolé or Yolé) is a mask-dance from Temine people in Sierra Leone. Males wear the mask, although it does depict a female.
Fang mask used for thengil ceremony, an inquisitorial search for sorcerers. Wood,Gabon, 19th century
Many African masks represent animals. Some African tribes believe that the animal masks can help them communicate with the spirits who live in forests or open savannas. People ofBurkina Faso known as the Bwa andNuna call to the spirit to stop destruction. TheDogon ofMali have complex religions that also have animal masks. Their three main cults use seventy-eight different types of masks. Most of the ceremonies of the Dogon culture are secret, although the antelope dance is shown to non-Dogons. The antelope masks are rough rectangular boxes with several horns coming out of the top. The Dogons are expert agriculturists and the antelope symbolizes a hard-working farmer.[25]
Another culture that has a very rich agricultural tradition is theBamana people of Mali. The antelope (calledChiwara) is believed to have taught man the secrets of agriculture. Although the Dogons and Bamana people both believe theantelope symbolises agriculture, they interpret elements the masks differently. To the Bamana people, swords represent the sprouting of grain.
Masks may also indicate a culture's ideal of feminine beauty. The masks ofPunu ofGabon have highly arched eyebrows, almost almond-shaped eyes and a narrow chin. The raised strip running from both sides of the nose to the ears represent jewellery. Dark black hairstyle, tops the mask off. The whiteness of the face represents the whiteness and beauty of the spirit world. Only men wear the masks and perform the dances with high stilts despite the fact that the masks represent women. One of the most beautiful representations of female beauty is theIdia's Mask ofBenin in present-day Edo State of Nigeria. It is believed to have been commissioned by a king of Benin in memory of his mother. To honor his dead mother, the king wore the mask on his hip during special ceremonies.[26]
TheSenoufo people of theIvory Coast represent tranquility by making masks with eyes half-shut and lines drawn near the mouth. TheTemne ofSierra Leone use masks with small eyes and mouths to represent humility and humbleness. They represent wisdom by making bulging forehead. Other masks that have exaggerated long faces and broad foreheads symbolize the soberness of one's duty that comes with power. War masks are also popular. TheGrebo of the Ivory Coast and Liberia carve masks with round eyes to represent alertness and anger, with the straight nose to represent unwillingness to retreat.[27]
Today, the qualities ofAfrican art are beginning to be more understood and appreciated. However, most African masks are now being produced for the tourist trade. Although they often show skilled craftsmanship, they nearly always lack the spiritual character of the traditional tribal masks.
Oceania
The variety and beauty of the masks ofMelanesia are almost as highly developed as in Africa. It is a culture whereancestor worship is dominant and religious ceremonies are devoted to ancestors. Inevitably, many of the mask types relate to use in these ceremonies and are linked with the activities of secret societies. The mask is regarded as an instrument of revelation, giving form to the sacred. This is often accomplished by linking the mask to an ancestral presence, and thus bringing the past into the present.
As a culture of scattered islands and peninsulars, Melanesian mask forms have developed in a highly diversified fashion, with a great deal of variety in their construction and aesthetic.[28] In Papua New Guinea, six-metre-high totem masks are placed to protect the living from spirits; whereas theduk-duk andtubuan masks of New Guinea are used to enforce social codes by intimidation. They are conical masks, made from cane and leaves.[29]
North America
Kwakwaka'wakw ritual mask (painted wood, fiber, and cord)
North American indigenous cultures in theArctic and para-Arctic regions have tended towards simple religious practice but a highly evolved and rich mythology, especially concerning hunting. In some areas, annualshamanic ceremonies involved masked dances and these strongly abstracted masks are arguably the most striking artifacts produced in this region.Inuit groups vary widely and share neither a common mythology nor language. Not surprisingly theirmask traditions are also often different, although their masks are often made out of driftwood, animal skins, bones, and feathers. In some areas Inuit women use finger masks during storytelling and dancing.[30]
IndigenousPacific Northwest coastal cultural groups generally included highly skilledwoodworkers. Their masks were often masterpieces of carving, sometimes with movable jaws, with the parts sometimes moved by pulling cords, or a mask within a mask to represent a magical transformation. The carving of masks was an important feature of woodcraft, along with many other features that often combined the utilitarian with the symbolic, such asshields,canoes, poles, and houses.
Woodland tribes, especially in the northeastern and around theGreat Lakes, cross-fertilized culturally with one another. TheIroquois made spectacular wooden 'false face' masks, used in healing ceremonies and carved from living trees. These masks appear in a great variety of shapes, depending on their precise function.
Pueblo craftsmen produced impressive work for masked religious ritual, especially theHopi andZuni. Thekachinas (gods and spirits) frequently take the form of highly distinctive and elaborate masks that are used in ritual dances. These are usually made of leather with appendages of fur, feathers, or leaves. Some cover the face, some the whole head, and are often highly abstracted forms.Navajo masks appear to be inspired by the Pueblo prototypes.[31][32]
In modern immigrant Euro-American culture, masking is a common feature ofMardi Gras traditions, most notablyin New Orleans. Costumes and masks (originally inspired bymasquerade balls) are frequently worn by "krewe"-members on Mardi Gras Day; local laws against using a mask to conceal one's identity are suspended for the day.
Distinctive styles of masks began to emerge in pre-Hispanic America about 1200 BC, although there is evidence of far older mask forms. In theAndes, masks were used to dress the faces of the dead. These were originally made of fabric, but later burial masks were sometimes made of beatencopper orgold, and occasionally ofclay.
For theAztecs, human skulls were prized as wartrophies, and skull masks were not uncommon. Masks were also used as part of court entertainments, possibly combining political with religious significance.
In post-colonial Latin America,pre-Columbian traditions merged with Christian rituals, and syncretic masquerades and ceremonies, such asAll Souls/Day of the Dead developed, despite efforts of the Church to stamp out the indigenous traditions. Masks remain an important feature of popular carnivals and religious dances, such asThe Dance of the Moors and Christians. Mexico, in particular, retains a great deal of creativity in the production of masks, encouraged by collectors.Wrestling matches, where it is common for the participants towear masks, are very popular, and many of the wrestlers can be considered folk heroes. For instance, the popular wrestlerEl Santo continued wearing his mask after retirement, revealed his face briefly only in old age, and was buried wearing his silver mask.[33][34]
In China, masks are thought to have originated in ancient religious ceremonies. Images of people wearing masks have been found in rock paintings along theYangtze. Later mask forms brings together myths and symbols fromshamanism andBuddhism.[35]
Shigong dance masks were used in shamanic rituals to thank the gods, whilenuo dance masks protected from bad spirits. Wedding masks were used to pray for good luck and a lasting marriage, and "Swallowing Animal" masks were associated with protecting the home and symbolised the "swallowing" of disaster. Opera masks were used in a basic "common" form of opera performed without a stage or backdrops. These led to colourful facial patterns that we see in today'sPeking opera.
India/Sri Lanka/Indo-China
Masked characters, usually divinities, are a central feature of Indian dramatic forms, many based on depicting the epicsMahabharata andRamayana. Countries that have had strong Indian cultural influences –Cambodia,Burma,Indonesia,Thailand, and Lao – have developed the Indian forms, combined with local myths, and developed their own characteristic styles.
The masks are usually highly exaggerated and formalised, and share an aesthetic with the carved images of monstrous heads that dominate the facades ofHindu andBuddhist temples. These faces orKirtimukhas, 'Visages of Glory', are intended to ward off evil and are associated with the animal world as well as the divine. During ceremonies, these visages are given active form in the great mask dramas of the South and South-eastern Asian region.[35]
In Indonesia, the mask dance predates Hindu-Buddhist influences. It is believed that the use of masks is related to the cult of the ancestors, which considered dancers the interpreters of the gods.Native Indonesian tribes such asDayak have masked Hudoq dance that represents nature spirits. InJava andBali, masked dance is commonly calledtopeng and demonstrated Hindu influences as it often feature epics such asRamayana andMahabharata. The native story ofPanji also popular in topeng masked dance. Indonesian topeng dance styles are widely distributed, such as topeng Bali, Cirebon, Betawi, Malang, Yogyakarta, and Solo.
Japanese masks are part of a very old and highly sophisticated and stylized theatrical tradition. Although the roots are in prehistoric myths and cults, they have developed into refined art forms. The oldest masks are thegigaku. The form no longer exists, and was probably a type of dance presentation. Thebugaku developed from this – a complex dance-drama that used masks with moveable jaws.
Thenō ornoh mask evolved from the gigaku and bugaku and are acted entirely by men. The masks are worn throughout very long performances and are consequently very light. Thenō mask is the supreme achievement of Japanese mask-making.Nō masks represent gods, men, women, madmen and devils, and each category has many sub-divisions.Kyōgen are short farces with their own masks, and accompany the tragic nō plays.Kabuki is the theatre of modern Japan, rooted in the older forms, but in this form masks are replaced by painted faces.[36]
Korean masks have a long tradition associated with shamanism and later in ritual dance. Korean masks were used in war, on both soldiers and their horses; ceremonially, for burial rites in jade and bronze and for shamanistic ceremonies to drive away evil spirits; to remember the faces of great historical figures in death masks; and in the arts, particularly in ritual dances, courtly, and theatrical plays. The present uses are as miniature masks for tourist souvenirs, or onmobile phones, where they hang as good-luck talismans.
traditional Korean masks,Hahoetal (Kaksi, Yangban and Sonpi)
Theatre in the Middle East, as elsewhere, was initially of a ritual nature, dramatising human relationships with nature, the deities, and other human beings. It grew out of sacred rites of myths and legends performed by priests and lay actors at fixed times and often in fixed locations. Folk theatre – mime, mask, puppetry, farce, juggling – had a ritual context in that it was performed at religious or rites of passage such as days of naming, circumcisions, and marriages. Over time, some of these contextual ritual enactments became divorced from their religious meaning and they were performed throughout the year. Some 2500 years ago, kings and commoners alike were entertained by dance and mime accompanied by music where the dancers often wore masks, a vestige of an earlier era when such dances were enacted as religious rites. According toGeorge Goyan, this practice evoked that of Roman funeral rites where masked actor-dancers represented the deceased with motions and gestures mimicking those of the deceased while singing the praise of their lives (see Masks in Performance above).[37]
The oldest representations of masks in Europe are animal masks, such as thecave paintings ofLascaux in theDordogne in southern France. Such masks survive in the alpine regions of Austria and Switzerland, and may be connected with hunting orshamanism. Masks are used throughout Europe in modern times, and are frequently integrated into regional folk celebrations and customs. Old masks are preserved and can be seen inmuseums and other collections, and much research has been undertaken into the historical origins of masks. Most probably representnature spirits, and as a result many of the associated customs are seasonal. The original significance would have survived only until the introduction ofChristianity, which incorporated many of the customs into its own traditions. In that process their meanings were changed also so, for example, oldgods and goddesses originally associated with the celebrations were demonised and viewed as meredevils, or were subjugated to theAbrahamic God.
Many of the masks and characters used in European festivals belong to the contrasting categories of the 'good', or 'idealised beauty', set against the 'ugly' or 'beastly' and grotesque. This is particularly true of the Germanic and Central European festivals. Another common type is theFool, sometimes considered to be the synthesis of the two contrasting types, Handsome and Ugly.[39] Masks also tend to be associated with New Year andCarnival festivals.
The debate about the meaning of these and other mask forms continues in Europe, wheremonsters,bears,wild men,harlequins,hobby horses, and other fanciful characters appear in carnivals throughout the continent. It is generally accepted that the masks, noise, colour, and clamour are meant to drive away the forces of darkness and winter, and open the way for the spirits of light and the coming of spring.[40] InSardinia existed the tradition ofMamuthones e Issohadores ofMamoiada;Boes e Merdules ofOttana;Thurpos ofOrotelli;S'Urtzu,Su 'Omadore andSos Mamutzones ofSamugheo. The celebration ofGiubiana inCanzo (Lombardy) preserves a tradition of masks ofanguane,wild man,bear and its hunter, and Giubiana herself, among others.
Another tradition of European masks developed, more self-consciously, from court and civic events, or entertainments managed byguilds and co-fraternities. These grew out of the earlier revels and had become evident by the 15th century in places such as Rome andVenice, where they developed as entertainments to enliven towns and cities. Thus theMaundy Thursday carnival in St. Marks Square in Venice, attended by theDoge and aristocracy, also involved the guilds, including a guild of maskmakers.[41] There is evidence of 'commedia dell'arte'-inspiredVenetian masks and by the late 16th century the Venetian Carnival began to reach its peak and eventually lasted a whole 'season' from January untilLent. By the 18th century, it was already a tourist attraction,Goethe saying that he was ugly enough not to need a mask. The carnival was repressed during the Napoleonic Republic, although in the 1980s its costumes and the masks aping the 18th century heyday were revived.[42][failed verification] It appears other cities in central Europe were influenced by the Venetian model.
During the Reformation, many of these carnival customs began to die out in Protestant regions, although they seem to have survived in Catholic areas despite the opposition of the ecclesiastical authorities. So by the 19th century, the carnivals of the relatively wealthy bourgeois town communities, with elaborate masques and costumes, existed side by side with the ragged and essentially folkloric customs of the rural areas.[22] Although these civic masquerades and their masks may have retained elements drawn from popular culture, the survival of carnival in the 19th century was often a consequence of a self-conscious 'folklore' movement that accompanied the rise of nationalism in many European countries.[39] Nowadays, duringcarnival in the Netherlands masks are often replaced with face paint for more comfort.
In the beginning of the new century, on 19 August 2004, theBulgarian archaeologistGeorgi Kitov discovered a 673 g gold mask in the burial mound "Svetitsata" nearShipka, CentralBulgaria. It is a very fine piece of workmanship made out of massive 23karat gold. Unlike other masks discovered in theBalkans (of which three are inRepublic of Macedonia and two in Greece), it is now kept in theNational Archaeological Museum inSofia. It is considered to be the mask of aThracian king, presumablyTeres.
Masks in theatre
Wikimedia Commons has media related toTheatre masks.
Masks play a key part within world theatre traditions. They continue to be a vital force within contemporary theatre, and their usage takes a variety of forms and has often developed from, or continues to be part of old, highly sophisticated, stylized theatrical traditions.
In many cultural traditions, the masked performer is a central concept and is highly valued. In the western tradition, actors inAncient Greek theatre wore masks, as they do in traditional JapaneseNoh drama. In some Greek masks, the wide and open mouth of the mask contained abrass megaphone enabling the voice of the wearer to be projected into the large auditoria. In medieval Europe, masks were used in mystery andmiracle plays to portray allegorical creatures, and the performer representing God frequently wore agold or gilt mask. During theRenaissance,masques andballet de cour developed – courtly masked entertainments that continued as part ofballet conventions until the late eighteenth century. The masked characters of theCommedia dell'arte included the ancestors of the modern clown. In contemporary western theatre, the mask is often used alongsidepuppetry to create a theatre that is essentially visual, rather than verbal, and many of its practitioners have been visual artists.
Contemporary theatre
Three photographs of the samenoh mask of a woman show how her expression appears to change with a tilting of the head of the performer - to demonstrate the effect, the mask was affixed to a wall with constant lighting and only the camera was moved
In the 20th century, many theatre practitioners, such asMeyerhold,Edward Gordon Craig,Jacques Copeau, and others in their lineage, attempted to move away from Naturalism. They turned to sources such as Oriental Theatre (particularly JapaneseNoh theatre) andcommedia dell'arte,[43] both of which forms feature masks prominently.
Edward Gordon Craig (1872–1966) inA Note on Masks (1910) proposed the virtues of using masks over the naturalism of the actor.[44] Craig was highly influential, and his ideas were taken up byBrecht,Cocteau,Genet,Eugene O'Neill – and later byArden,Grotowski,Brook, and others who "attempted to restore a ritualistic if not actually religious significance to theatre".[45]
Copeau, in his attempts to "Naturalise" actors,[46] decided to use masks to liberate them from their "excessive awkwardness". In turn, Copeau's work with masks was taken on by his students includingEtienne Decroux and later, viaJean Daste andJacques Lecoq.[43] Lecoq, having worked as movement director at Teatro Piccalo in Italy, was influenced by the Commedia tradition. Lecoq metAmleto Satori, a sculptor, and they collaborated on reviving the techniques of making traditional leather Commedia masks. Later, developing Copeau's "noble mask", Lecoq would ask Satori to make himmasques neutre (the neutral mask). For Lecoq, masks became an important training tool, the neutral mask being designed to facilitate a state of openness in the student-performers, moving gradually on to character and expressive masks, and finally to "the smallest mask in the world" the clown's red-nose. One highly important feature of Lecoq's use of mask, wasn't so much its visual impact on stage, but how it changed the performers movement on stage. It was a body-based approach to mask work, rather than a visually led one.[43][47] Lecoq's pedagogy has been hugely influential for theatre practitioners in Europe working with mask and has been exported widely across the world. This work with masks also relates toperforming with portable structures andpuppetry. Students of Lecoq have continued using masks in their work after leaving the school, such as inJohn Wright'sTrestle Theatre.
In America, mask-work was slower to arrive, but the Guerrilla Theatre movement, typified by groups such as theSan Francisco Mime Troupe andBread and Puppet Theatre took advantage of it. Influenced by modern dance, modern mime, Commedia dell'arte and Brecht such groups took to the streets to perform highly political theatre.Peter Schumann, the founder of Bread and Puppet theatre, made particular use of German Carnival masks.[48] Bread and Puppet inspired other practitioners around the world, many of whom used masks in their work. In the US and Canada, these companies includeIn the Heart of the Beast Puppet and Mask Theater ofMinneapolis; Arm-of-the Sea Theatre fromNew York State; Snake Theater fromCalifornia; and Shadowland Theatre ofToronto, Ontario. These companies, and others, have a strong social agenda, and combine masks, music and puppetry to create a visual theatrical form. Another route masks took into American Theatre was via dancer/choreographers such asMary Wigman, who had been using masks in dance and had emigrated to America to flee theNazi regime.
In Europe, Schumann's influence combined with the early avant-garde artists to encourage groups such as Moving Picture Mime Show andWelfare State (both in the UK). These companies had a big influence on the next generation of groups working in visual theatre, including IOU andHorse and Bamboo Theatre, who create a theatre in which masks are used along with puppets, film and other visual forms, with an emphasis on the narrative structure.[49]
Protecting the face against flying objects or dangerous environments, while allowing vision.
In Romangladiatorial tournaments masks were sometimes used. From archaeological evidence it is clear that these were not only protective but also helped make the wearer appear more intimidating. Inmedieval Europe and in Japan soldiers andsamurai wore similarly ferocious-looking protectivearmour, extending to face-masks.
In the 16th century, theVisard was worn by women to protect fromsunburn. Today this function is attributed to thin balaclavas.
In sport the protective mask will often have a secondary function to make the wearer appear more impressive as a competitor.
Before strong transparent materials such aspolycarbonate were invented,visors to protect the face had to be opaque with small eyeslits, and were a sort of mask, as often in mediaeval suits ofarmour, and (for example)Old Norsegrímr meant "mask or visor".
Disguise
Arib knit three-hole balaclava allows the wearer to protect the face against cold air or hinderrecognitionMembers ofAnonymous wear Guy Fawkes masks while protesting against theChurch of Scientology, 2008, London
Masks are sometimes used to avoidrecognition. As a disguise the mask acts as a form of protection for the wearer who wishes to assume a role or task without being identified by others.
Robbers and other criminal perpetrators may wear masks as a means in concealing their faces and thus identities from their victims and from law enforcement.
Occasionally awitness for theprosecution appears incourt in a mask to avoid being recognized by associates of the accused.
Masks are also used to prevent recognition while showing membership of a group:
Masks are use by penitents in ceremonies to disguise their identity in order to make the act of penitence more selfless. TheSemana Santa parades throughout Spain and inHispanic orCatholic countries throughout the world are examples of this, with their cone-shaped masks known ascapirote.
The cone-shaped mask in particular is identified with theKu Klux Klan in a self-conscious effort to combine the hiding of personal identity with the promotion of a powerful and intimidating image.
Respirator (gas or particulate mask), a mask worn on the face to protect the body from airborne pollutants and toxic materials, and fineparticulate matter or infectious particles.
Oxygen mask worn by high-altitude pilots, or used in medicine to deliver oxygen, anesthetic, or other gases to patients
Welding mask to protect the welder's face and eyes from the brightness and sparks created during welding
Sports
An American football player wearing a mask that protects his face from another player's hand
An interesting example of a sports mask that confounds the protective function is thewrestling mask, a mask most widely used in the Mexican/Latinlucha libre style of wrestling. In modern lucha libre, masks are colourfully designed to evoke the images of animals,gods, ancientheroes, and otherarchetypes. The mask is considered "sacred" to some degree, placing its role closer to the ritual and performance function.[52]
Masks were used to alienate andsilence prisoners in Australian jails in the late 19th century. They were made of white cloth and covered the face, leaving only the eyes visible.
Decorative masks may be worn as part of a costume outside of ritual or ceremonial functions. This is often described as amasque, and relates closely tocarnival styles. For example, attendants of a costume party will sometimes wear masks as part of their costumes.
Wrestling masks are used most widely inMexican and Japanese wrestling. A wrestler's mask is usually related to a wrestler'spersona (for example, a wrestler known as 'The Panda' might wear a mask with a panda's facial markings). Often, wrestlers will put their masks on the line against other wrestlers' masks, titles or an opponent's hair. While in Mexico and Japan, masks are a sign of tradition, they are looked down upon in the United States and Canada.
Several bands and performers, notably members of the groupsSlipknot, Mental Creepers andGwar, and the guitaristBuckethead, wear masks when they perform on stage. Several other groups, includingKiss,Alice Cooper, andDimmu Borgir simulate the effect with facepaint.Hollywood Undead also wears masks but often remove them mid-performance.
Dance Mask (Takü), 20th century,Brooklyn Museum; These full-body masks are worn for the mourning, or ónyo ("weeping"), ceremony, a multi-day ritual held approximately a year after an individual's death
^A famous example is the images of theTrois-Frères cave (circa 15,000 years old). According to John W. Nunley, "The earliest evidence of masking comes from the Mousterian site of Hortus in the south of France. There the archaeologist Henry de Lumley found remnants of a leopard skin that was probably worn as a costume more than 40,000 years ago" (Nunley, 1999, p. 22).
^Pernet emphasizes that masks are not a wholly universal cultural phenomenon, raising the question why some cultures do not have a masking tradition.
References
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^Kupferblum, Markus (2007). "Menschen, masken, Charaktere: the Arbeit mit Masken am Theater". In Kreissl, Eva (ed.).Die Macht der Maske. Weitra, Austria: Bibliothek der Provinz Verlag für Literatur, Kunst und Musikalien. pp. 165, 193n.ISBN978-3852528205.
^Dall, William Healey (2010) [1884], "On masks, labrets, and certain aboriginal customs, with an inquiry into the bearing of their geographical distribution",Bureau of American Ethnology, Annual Report, vol. 3, Washington D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, pp. 73–151
^Klemm, Harald; Winkler, Reinhard (1996).Masken. Gesichter hinter dem Gesicht: Persönlichkeitsentfaltung und Therapie in der Arbeit mit Masken [Masks. Faces Behind the Face: Personality Development and Therapy in Working with Masks] (in German). Oberhofen: Zytglogge-Verlag.ISBN978-3729605121.
^Guénon, René (2004).Symbols of Sacred Science. Hillsdale, New York: Sophia Perennis. p. 141.
^Forbes, Jamie Ellin (Spring 2010). "The resurrection of the beauty of Spring: Jeanette Korab at Carnevale de Venezia".Fine Art Magazine. p. 21.
^Danan, Julie Hilton (21 March 1997)."Purim wears many masks".Jewish News of Greater Phoenix. Vol. 49, no. 27. Archived fromthe original on 10 June 2012. Retrieved26 October 2012....in many parts of the world and throughout Jewish history it was the time for adults to engage in masquerade.
^Pannier, François; Mangin, Stéphane (1989).Masques de l'Himalaya, du primitif au classique. Paris: Editions Raymond Chabaud. p. 44.
^Bradley, Lisa; Chazot, Eric (1990).Masks of the Himalayas. New York: Pace Primitive Gallery.
^Blanc, Dominique; d'Hauterives, Arnaud; Geoffroy-Schneiter, Bérénice; Pannier, François (2009).Masks of the Himalayas. Milan: 5 Continents Editions.
^Charette, Phillip John (n.d.)."About Yup'ik Masks".Phillip Charette, Contemporary Art in the Yupik Tradition. Archived fromthe original on 26 December 2010.
^Kak, Subhash (2004). "Ritual, masks, and sacrifice".Studies in Humanities and Social Services.11. Shimla, India: Indian Institute of Advanced Study.
^abRevelard, Michel; Kostadonova, Guergana (2000).Masques du Monde... L'univers du Masque Dans les Collections du Musée International du Carnaval et du Masque de Binche [Masks of the World... The Universe of Masks in the Collections of the International Museum of Carnivals and the Binche Mask] (in French). Tournai, Belgium: La Renaissance du Livre.ISBN2-8046-0413-6.
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^Bortolot, Alexander Ives (October 2003)."Idia: The First Queen Mother of Benin".Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Retrieved25 March 2007.
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