Mary's name in the original manuscripts of the New Testament was based on her originalAramaic nameמרים, transliterated asMaryam orMariam.[22] The English nameMary comes from the GreekΜαρία, a shortened form of the nameΜαριάμ. BothΜαρία andΜαριάμ appear in the New Testament.
In Christianity
In Christianity, Mary is commonly referred to as the Virgin Mary, in accordance with the belief that theHoly Spirit impregnated her, thereby conceiving her first-born son Jesusmiraculously, without sexual relations with her betrothed Joseph, "until her son [Jesus] was born".[23] The word "until" has inspired considerable analysis on whether Joseph and Mary producedsiblings after the birth of Jesus or not.[d] Among her many other names and titles are theBlessed Virgin Mary (often abbreviated to "BVM" after theLatinBeata Maria Virgo),[25]Saint Mary (occasionally), theMother of God (primarily inWestern Christianity), theTheotokos (primarily inEastern Christianity), Our Lady (MedievalItalian:Madonna), andQueen of Heaven (Regina caeli; see alsohere).[26][27] The title "queen of heaven" had previously been used as anepithet for a number of goddesses, such asIsis, orIshtar.
The three main titles for Mary used by the Orthodox areTheotokos (Θεοτόκος or "God-bearer"),Aeiparthenos (ἀειπαρθένος) which means ever-virgin, as confirmed in theSecond Council of Constantinople in 553, andPanagia (Παναγία) meaning "all-holy".[28] Catholics use a wide variety of titles for Mary, and these titles have in turn given rise to many artistic depictions.
The titleTheotokos, which means "God-bearer", was recognized at theCouncil of Ephesus in 431.[29][30] The direct equivalents of title in Latin areDeipara andDei Genitrix, although the phrase is more often loosely translated into Latin asMater Dei ("Mother of God"), with similar patterns for other languages used in theLatin Church. However, this same phrase in Greek (Μήτηρ Θεοῦ), in the abbreviated formΜΡ ΘΥ, is an indication commonly attached to her image inByzantineicons. The Council stated that theChurch Fathers "did not hesitate to speak of the holy Virgin as the Mother of God".[31][32][33]
Some Marian titles have a directscriptural basis. For instance, the title "Queen Mother" has been given to Mary, as she was the mother of Jesus, sometimes referred to as the "King of Kings" due to his ancestral descent fromKing David.[34][35][36][37][38] This is also based on the Hebrew tradition of the "Queen-Mother", theGebirah or "Great Lady".[39][40] Other titles have arisen fromreported miracles, special appeals, or occasions for calling on Mary.[e]
The earliest New Testament account of Mary is in theepistle to the Galatians, which was written before thegospels. She is referred to as "a woman" and is not named: "But when the fullness of time had come, God sent his Son, born of a woman, born under the law" (Galatians 4:4).[52]
Mary is mentioned several times in the canonical Gospels and the Acts of the Apostles:
TheGospel of Luke mentions Mary the most often, identifying her by name twelve times, all of these in the infancy narrative (Luke 1:27–2:34).[53]
TheGospel of Matthew mentions her by name five times, four of these (1:16, 18, 20; 2:11)[54] in the infancy narrative and once (Matthew 13:55)[55] outside the infancy narrative.
TheGospel of Mark names her once (Mark 6:3)[56] and mentions Jesus' mother without naming her in Mark 3:31–32.[57]
TheGospel of John refers to the mother of Jesus twice, but never mentions her name. She is first seen at thewedding at Cana (John 2:1–12).[58] The second reference has her standing near the cross of Jesus together withMary Magdalene,Mary of Clopas (or Cleophas), and her own sister (possibly the same as Mary of Clopas; the wording is semantically ambiguous), along with the "disciple whom Jesus loved" (John 19:25–26).[59] John 2:1–12[58] is the only text in the canonical gospels in which the adult Jesus has a conversation with Mary. He does not address her as "Mother" but as "Woman". InKoine Greek (the language that the Gospel of John was composed in), calling one's mother "Woman" was not disrespectful, and could even be tender.[60] Accordingly, some versions of the Bible translate it as "Dear woman".[61]
The New Testament tells little of Mary's early history. The Gospel of Matthew gives a genealogy for Jesus by his father's paternal line, only identifying Mary as the wife of Joseph. John 19:25[64] states that Mary had a sister; semantically it is unclear if this sister is the same asMary of Clopas, or if she is left unnamed.Jerome identifies Mary of Clopas as the sister of Mary, mother of Jesus.[65] According to the early 2nd century historianHegesippus, Mary of Clopas was likely Mary's sister-in-law, understanding Clopas (Cleophas) to have been Joseph's brother.[66]
According to the writer of Luke, Mary was a relative ofElizabeth, wife of the priestZechariah of the priestly division ofAbijah, who was herself part of thelineage of Aaron and so of theTribe of Levi.[67] Some of those who believe that the relationship with Elizabeth was on the maternal side, believe that Mary, like Joseph, was of the royalDavidic line and so of theTribe of Judah, and that thegenealogy of Jesus presented inLuke 3 fromNathan, is in fact the genealogy of Mary, while the genealogy fromSolomon given inMatthew 1 is that of Joseph.[68][69][70] (Aaron's wifeElisheba was of the tribe of Judah, so all their descendants are from both Levi and Judah.)[71]
Mary resided in "her own house"[72] inNazareth inGalilee, possibly with her parents, and during her betrothal—the first stage of aJewish marriage. Jewish girls were considered marriageable at the age of twelve years and six months, though the actual age of the bride varied with circumstances. The marriage was preceded by the betrothal, after which the bride legally belonged to the bridegroom, though she did not live with him till about a year later, when the marriage was celebrated.[73]
Theangel Gabriel announced to her that she was to be the mother of the promisedMessiah by conceiving him through the Holy Spirit, and, after initially expressing incredulity at the announcement, she responded, "I am the handmaid of the Lord. Let it be done unto me according to your word."[74][f] Joseph planned to quietly divorce her, but was told her conception was by the Holy Spirit in a dream by "an angel of the Lord"; the angel told him to not hesitate to take her as his wife, which Joseph did, thereby formally completing the wedding rites.[75][76]
Since the angel Gabriel had told Mary that Elizabeth—having previously been barren—was then miraculously pregnant,[77] Mary hurried to see Elizabeth, who was living with her husband Zechariah in "the hill country..., [in] a city of Juda". Mary arrived at the house and greeted Elizabeth who called Mary "the mother of my Lord", and Mary spoke the words of praise that later became known as theMagnificat from her first word in theLatin version.[78] After about three months, Mary returned to her own house.[79]
The adoration of the shepherds, anativity scene in France
According to thegospel of Luke, a decree of theRoman EmperorAugustus required that Joseph return to his hometown ofBethlehem to register for aRoman census.[g] While he was there with Mary, she gave birth to Jesus; but because there was no place for them in the inn, she used amanger as a cradle.[81]: p.14 [82] It is not told how old Mary was at the time of the Nativity,[83] but attempts have been made to infer it from the age of a typical Jewish mother of that time. Mary Joan Winn Leith represents the view that Jewish girls typically married soon after the onset of puberty,[84] while according to Amram Tropper, Jewish females generally married later in Palestine and the Western Diaspora than in Babylonia.[85] Some scholars hold the view that among them it typically happened between their mid and late teen years[86] or late teens and early twenties.[83][85] After eight days, the boy wascircumcised according to Jewish law and named "Jesus" (ישוע,Yeshu'a), which means "Yahweh is salvation".[87]
After Mary continued in the "blood of her purifying" another 33 days, for a total of 40 days, she brought herburnt offering andsin offering to theTemple inJerusalem (Luke 2:22),[88] so the priest could make atonement for her.[89] They also presented Jesus – "As it is written in the law of the Lord, Every male that openeth the womb shall be called holy to the Lord" (Luke 2:23; Exodus 13:2; 23:12–15; 22:29; 34:19–20; Numbers 3:13; 18:15).[90] After the prophecies ofSimeon and the prophetessAnna in Luke 2:25–38,[91] the family "returned into Galilee, to their own city Nazareth".[92]
According to thegospel of Matthew,magi coming from Eastern regions arrived at Bethlehem where Jesus and his family were living, and worshiped him. Joseph was then warned in a dream thatKing Herod wanted to murder the infant, and thefamilyfled by night to Egypt and stayed there for some time. After Herod's death in 4 BC, they returned to Nazareth in Galilee, rather than Bethlehem, because Herod's sonArchelaus was the ruler of Judaea.[93]
Mary is involved in the only event in Jesus' adolescent life that is recorded in the New Testament. At the age of 12, Jesus, having become separated from his parents on their return journey from thePassover celebration in Jerusalem, wasfound in the Temple among the religious teachers.[94]: p.210 [95]
Mary was present when, at her suggestion, Jesus worked his first miracle during awedding at Cana by turning water into wine.[96] Subsequently, there are events when Mary is mentioned along with theJesus' brothers.[97] According toEpiphanius,Origen andEusebius, these "brothers" would be sons of Joseph from a previous marriage. This view is still the official position of the Eastern Orthodox churches. FollowingJerome, those would be actually Jesus' cousins, children of Mary's sister. This remains the official Roman Catholic position. ForHelvidius, those would be full siblings of Jesus, born to Mary and Joseph after the firstborn Jesus. This has been the most common Protestant position.[98][99][100]
Thehagiography of Mary and theHoly Family can be contrasted with other material in the Gospels. These references include an incident which can be interpreted as Jesus rejecting his family in the New Testament: "And his mother and his brothers arrived, and standing outside, they sent in a message asking for him ... And looking at those who sat in a circle around him, Jesus said, 'These are my mother and my brothers. Whoever does the will of God is my brother, and sister, and mother'."[101][102]
In Acts 1:12–26,[105] especially verse 14, Mary is the only one other than theeleven apostles to be mentioned by name who abode in theupper room, when they returned fromMount Olivet. Her presence with the apostles during thePentecost is not explicit, although it has been held as a fact by Christian tradition.[106]
From this time, she disappears from the biblical accounts, although it is held by Catholics that she is again portrayed as theheavenly woman in theBook of Revelation.[107]
According to theapocryphalGospel of James, Mary was the daughter ofJoachim andAnne. Before Mary's conception, Anne had been barren and was far advanced in years. Mary was given to service as a consecrated virgin in the Temple in Jerusalem when she was three years old.[112] This was in spite of the patent impossibility of its premise that a girl could be kept in the Temple of Jerusalem along with some companions.[113]
Some unproven apocryphal accounts, such as the apocryphal Gospel of James, state that at the time of her betrothal to Joseph, Mary was 12–14 years old[114] and suggests she was 16 during her pregnancy.[115][1] Her age during her pregnancy has varied up to 17 in apocryphal sources.[116][117] In a large part, apocryphal texts are historically unreliable.[118] According to ancient Jewish custom, Mary technically could have been betrothed at about 12,[119] but some scholars hold the view that inJudea it typically happened later.[83]
Hyppolitus of Thebes says that Mary lived for 11 years after the death of her son Jesus, dying in 41 AD.[120]
Blue mantle, crown of 12 stars, pregnant woman, roses, woman with child, woman trampling serpent, crescent moon, woman clothed with the sun, heart pierced by sword, rosary beads
Christian Marian perspectives include a great deal of diversity. While some Christians such as Catholics and Eastern Orthodox have well established Marian traditions, Protestants at large pay scant attention toMariological themes. Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, Anglican, and Lutheransvenerate the Virgin Mary. This veneration especially takes the form ofprayer for intercession with her Son, Jesus Christ. Additionally, it includes composing poems and songs in Mary's honor, paintingicons or carving statues of her, andconferring titles on Mary that reflect her position among the saints.[27][28][125][126]
In the Catholic Church, Mary is accorded the title "Blessed" (beata,μακάρια,makaria) in recognition of her assumption to Heaven and her capacity to intercede on behalf of those who pray to her. There is a difference between the usage of the term "blessed" as pertaining to Mary and its usage as pertaining to abeatified person. "Blessed" as a Marian title refers to her exalted state as being the greatest among the saints; for a person who has been declared beatified, on the other hand, "blessed" simply indicates that they may be venerated despite not beingcanonized. Catholic teachings make clear that Mary is not considered divine and prayers to her are not answered by her, but rather by God through her intercession.[127] Thefour Catholic dogmas regarding Mary are: her status asTheotokos, or Mother of God; her perpetual virginity; the Immaculate Conception; and her bodily Assumption into Heaven.[128][129][130]
TheBlessed Virgin Mary, the mother of Jesus has a more central role in Roman Catholic teachings and beliefs than in any other major Christian group. Not only do Roman Catholics have more theological doctrines and teachings that relate to Mary, but they have more feasts, prayers, devotional and venerative practices than any other group.[125] TheCatechism of the Catholic Church states: "The Church's devotion to the Blessed Virgin is intrinsic to Christian worship."[131]
For centuries, Catholics have performed acts ofconsecration and entrustment to Mary at personal, societal and regional levels. These acts may be directed to the Virgin herself, to theImmaculate Heart of Mary and to theImmaculate Conception. In Catholic teachings, consecration to Mary does not diminish or substitute the love of God, but enhances it, for all consecration is ultimately made to God.[132][133]
Mary's participation in the processes ofsalvation and redemption has also been emphasized in the Catholic tradition, but they are not doctrines.[146][147][148][149]Pope John Paul II's 1987 encyclicalRedemptoris Mater began with the sentence: "The Mother of the Redeemer has a precise place in the plan of salvation."[150]
In the 20th century, both popes John Paul II andBenedict XVI emphasized the Marian focus of the Catholic Church. CardinalJoseph Ratzinger (later Pope Benedict XVI) suggested a redirection of the whole church towards the program of Pope John Paul II in order to ensure an authentic approach toChristology via a return to the "whole truth about Mary,"[151] writing:
"It is necessary to go back to Mary if we want to return to that 'truth about Jesus Christ,' 'truth about the Church' and 'truth about man.'"[151]
There is significant diversity in the Marian doctrines attributed to her primarily by the Catholic Church. The key Marian doctrines held primarily in Catholicism can be briefly outlined as follows:
Perpetual Virginity: Mary remained a virgin all her life, even after the act of giving birth to Jesus.
Dormition: commemorates Mary's "falling asleep" or natural death shortly before her Assumption. Dormition is part of acceptedEastern Catholic theology, but not part ofRoman Catholic doctrine.[152]
Catholics, Eastern and Oriental Orthodox (only following her natural death), some Anglicans, some Lutherans
The title "Mother of God" (Theotokos) for Mary was confirmed by theFirst Council of Ephesus, held at theChurch of Mary in 431. The Council decreed that Mary is the Mother of God because her son Jesus is one person who is both God and man, divine and human.[31] This doctrine is widely accepted by Christians in general, and the term "Mother of God" had already been used within the oldest known prayer to Mary, theSub tuum praesidium, which dates to around 250 AD.[158]
Miraculous Icon of Our Lady of Tartaków in Blessed Virgin Mary Church in Łukawiec
TheVirgin birth of Jesus was an almost universally held belief among Christians from the 2nd until the 19th century.[159] It is included in the two most widely used Christiancreeds, which state that Jesus "was incarnate of the Holy Spirit and the Virgin Mary" (theNicene Creed, in what is now its familiar form)[160] and theApostles' Creed. TheGospel of Matthew describes Mary as a virgin who fulfilled the prophecy of Isaiah 7:14,[161] The authors of the Gospels of Matthew and Luke consider Jesus' conception not the result of intercourse, and assert that Mary had "no relations with man" before Jesus' birth.[162] This alludes to the belief that Mary conceived Jesus through the action of God the Holy Spirit, and not throughintercourse with Joseph or anyone else.[163]
The doctrines of the Assumption or Dormition of Mary relate to her death and bodily assumption to heaven. Roman Catholic Church has dogmatically defined the doctrine of the Assumption, which was done in 1950 byPope Pius XII inMunificentissimus Deus. Whether Mary died or not is not defined dogmatically, however, although a reference to the death of Mary is made inMunificentissimus Deus. In the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Assumption of the Virgin Mary is believed, and celebrated with herDormition, where they believe she died.
Catholics believe in theImmaculate Conception of Mary, as proclaimedex cathedra by PopePius IX in 1854, namely that she was filled with grace from the very moment of her conception in her mother's womb and preserved from the stain oforiginal sin. TheLatin Church has a liturgicalfeast by that name, kept on 8 December.[164] Orthodox Christians reject the Immaculate Conception dogma principally because their understanding of ancestral sin (the Greek term corresponding to the Latin "original sin") differs from theAugustinian interpretation and that of the Catholic Church.[165]
The Perpetual Virginity of Mary asserts Mary's real and perpetualvirginity even in the act of giving birth to the Son of God made Man. The term Ever-Virgin (Greekἀειπάρθενος) is applied in this case, stating that Mary remained a virgin for the remainder of her life, making Jesus her biological and only son, whoseconception andbirth are held to be miraculous.[128][163][166] The Orthodox Churches hold the position articulated in theProtoevangelium of James that Jesus' brothers and sisters were Joseph's children from a marriage prior to that of Mary, which had left him widowed. Roman Catholic teaching follows the Latin fatherJerome in considering them Jesus' cousins.
Eastern Orthodox Christianity includes a large number of traditions regarding the Ever-Virgin Mary, theTheotokos.[167] The Orthodox believe that she was and remained a virgin before and after Christ's birth.[28] TheTheotokia (hymns to the Theotokos) are an essential part of theDivine Services in theEastern Church and their positioning within the liturgical sequence effectively places theTheotokos in the most prominent place after Christ.[168] Within the Orthodox tradition, the order of the saints begins with: theTheotokos, Angels, Prophets, Apostles, Fathers and Martyrs, giving the Virgin Mary precedence over the angels. She is also proclaimed as the "Lady of the Angels".[168]
The views of theChurch Fathers still play an important role in the shaping of Orthodox Marian perspective. However, the Orthodox views on Mary are mostlydoxological, rather than academic: they are expressed in hymns, praise, liturgical poetry, and the veneration of icons. One of the most loved OrthodoxAkathists (standing hymns) is devoted to Mary and it is often simply called theAkathist Hymn.[169] Five of the twelveGreat Feasts in Orthodoxy are dedicated to Mary.[28] TheSunday of Orthodoxy directly links the Virgin Mary's identity as Mother of God with icon veneration.[170]A number of Orthodox feasts are connected with the miraculous icons of theTheotokos.[168]
The Orthodox view Mary as "superior to all created beings", although not divine.[171] As such, the designation of Saint to Mary as Saint Mary is not appropriate.[172] The Orthodox does not venerate Mary as conceived immaculate.Gregory of Nazianzus,Archbishop of Constantinople in the 4th century AD, speaking on the Nativity of Jesus Christ argues that "Conceived by the Virgin, who first in body and soul was purified by the Holy Ghost, He came forth as God with that which He had assumed, One Person in two Natures, Flesh and Spirit, of which the latter defined the former."[173] The Orthodox celebrate theDormition of the Theotokos, rather than Assumption.[28]
TheProtoevangelium of James, anextra-canonical book, has been the source of many Orthodox beliefs on Mary. The account of Mary's life presented includes her consecration as a virgin at the temple at age three. Thehigh priest Zachariah blessed Mary and informed her that God had magnified her name among many generations. Zachariah placed Mary on the third step of the altar, whereby God gave her grace. While in the temple, Mary was miraculously fed by an angel, until she was 12 years old. At that point, an angel told Zachariah to betroth Mary to a widower in Israel, who would be indicated. This story provides the theme of many hymns for the Feast ofPresentation of Mary, and icons of the feast depict the story.[174] The Orthodox believe that Mary was instrumental in the growth of Christianity during the life of Jesus, and after his Crucifixion, and Orthodox theologianSergei Bulgakov has written: "The Virgin Mary is the centre, invisible, but real, of the Apostolic Church."
It was necessary that the body of the one who preserved her virginity intact in giving birth should also be kept incorrupt after death. It was necessary that she, who carried the Creator in her womb when he was a baby, should dwell among the tabernacles of heaven.[175]
From her we have harvested the grape of life; from her we have cultivated the seed of immortality. For our sake she became Mediatrix of all blessings; in her God became man, and man became God.[176]
More recently,Sergei Bulgakov expressed the Orthodox sentiments towards Mary as follows:[171]
Mary is not merely the instrument, but the direct positive condition of the Incarnation, its human aspect. Christ could not have been incarnate by some mechanical process, violating human nature. It was necessary for that nature itself to say for itself, by the mouth of the most pure human being: "Behold the handmaid of the Lord, be it unto me according to Thy word."
Protestants in general reject the veneration and invocation of the Saints.[21]: 1174 They share the belief that Mary is the mother of Jesus and "blessed among women" (Luke 1:42)[177] but they generally do not agree that Mary is to be venerated. She is considered to be an outstanding example of a life dedicated to God.[178] As such, they tend not to accept certain church doctrines such as her being preserved from sin.[179] TheologianKarl Barth wrote that "the heresy of the Catholic Church is itsMariology".[180]
Some early Protestants venerated Mary.Martin Luther wrote that: "Mary is full of grace, proclaimed to be entirely without sin. God's grace fills her with everything good and makes her devoid of all evil."[181] However, as of 1532, Luther stopped celebrating the feast of theAssumption of Mary and also discontinued his support of theImmaculate Conception.[182]John Calvin remarked, "It cannot be denied that God in choosing and destining Mary to be the Mother of his Son, granted her the highest honor."[h] However, Calvin firmly rejected the notion that Mary can intercede between Christ and man.[185]
Although Calvin andHuldrych Zwingli honored Mary as the Mother of Christ in the 16th century, they did so less than Martin Luther.[186] Thus the idea of respect and high honor for Mary was not rejected by the first Protestants; however, they came to criticize the Roman Catholics for venerating Mary. Following theCouncil of Trent in the 16th century, as Marian veneration became associated with Catholics, Protestant interest in Mary decreased. During the Age of the Enlightenment, any residual interest in Mary within Protestant churches almost disappeared, although Anglicans and Lutherans continued to honor her.[21]
In the 20th century, some Protestants reacted in opposition to the Catholic dogma of theAssumption of Mary.[187] The tone of theSecond Vatican Council began to mend the ecumenical differences, and Protestants began to show interest in Marian themes.[citation needed] In 1997 and 1998, ecumenical dialogues between Catholics and Protestants took place, but, to date, the majority of Protestants disagree with Marian veneration and some view it as a challenge to theauthority of Scripture.[21][better source needed]
The various churches that form theAnglican Communion and theContinuing Anglican movement have different views on Marian doctrines and venerative practices given that there is no single church with universal authority within the Communion and that the mother church (theChurch of England) understands itself to be both "Catholic" and "Reformed".[188] Thus unlike the Protestant churches at large, the Anglican Communion includes segments which still retain some veneration of Mary.[126]
Mary's special position within God's purpose of salvation as "God-bearer" is recognized in a number of ways by some Anglican Christians.[189] All the member churches of the Anglican Communion affirm in the historic creeds that Jesus was born of the Virgin Mary, and celebrates the feast days of thePresentation of Christ in the Temple. This feast is called in olderprayer books thePurification of the Blessed Virgin Mary on 2 February. TheAnnunciation of our Lord to the Blessed Virgin on 25 March was from before the time ofBede until the 18th century New Year's Day in England. The Annunciation is called the "Annunciation of our Lady" in the 1662Book of Common Prayer. Anglicans also celebrate in theVisitation of the Blessed Virgin on 31 May, though in some provinces the traditional date of 2 July is kept. The feast of the St. Mary the Virgin is observed on the traditional day of the Assumption, 15 August. TheNativity of the Blessed Virgin is kept on 8 September.[126]
The Conception of the Blessed Virgin Mary is kept in the 1662 Book of Common Prayer, on 8 December. In certainAnglo-Catholic parishes this feast is called the Immaculate Conception. Again, the Assumption of Mary is believed in by most Anglo-Catholics, but is considered apious opinion by moderate Anglicans. Protestant-minded Anglicans reject the celebration of these feasts.[126]
Historically, there has been enough common ground between Roman Catholics and Anglicans on Marian issues that in 2005, a joint statement calledMary: grace and hope in Christ was produced through ecumenical meetings of Anglicans and Roman Catholic theologians. This document, informally known as the "Seattle Statement", is not formally endorsed by either the Catholic Church or the Anglican Communion, but is viewed by its authors as the beginning of a joint understanding of Mary.[126][194]
Mary with an inscription referencing Luke 1:46–47 in St. Jürgen (Lutheran) church inGettorf (Schleswig-Holstein)
Despite Martin Luther's harsh polemics against his Roman Catholic opponents over issues concerning Mary and the saints, theologians appear to agree that Luther adhered to the Marian decrees of theecumenical councils and dogmas of the church. He held fast to the belief that Mary was a perpetual virgin and Mother of God.[195][196] Special attention is given to the assertion that Luther, some 300 years before the dogmatization of theImmaculate Conception byPope Pius IX in 1854, was a firm adherent of that view.[citation needed] Others maintain that Luther in later years changed his position on the Immaculate Conception, which, at that time was undefined in the church, maintaining however thesinlessness of Mary throughout her life.[197][198] For Luther, early in his life, the Assumption of Mary was an understood fact, although he later stated that the Bible did not say anything about it and stopped celebrating its feast. Important to him was the belief that Mary and the saints do live on after death.[199][200][201] "Throughout his career as a priest-professor-reformer, Luther preached, taught, and argued about the veneration of Mary with a verbosity that ranged from childlike piety to sophisticated polemics. His views are intimately linked to his Christocentric theology and its consequences for liturgy and piety."[202]
Luther, while revering Mary, came to criticize the "Papists" for blurring the line between high admiration of the grace of God wherever it is seen in a human being, and religious service given to another creature. He considered the Roman Catholic practice of celebratingsaints' days and making intercessory requests addressed especially to Mary and other departed saints to beidolatry.[203][204] His final thoughts on Marian devotion and veneration are preserved in a sermon preached at Wittenberg only a month before his death:
Therefore, when we preach faith, that we should worship nothing but God alone, the Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, as we say in the Creed: 'I believe in God the Father almighty and in Jesus Christ,' then we are remaining in the temple at Jerusalem. Again,'This is my beloved Son; listen to him.' 'You will find him in a manger'. He alone does it. But reason says the opposite:What, us? Are we to worship only Christ? Indeed, shouldn't we also honor the holy mother of Christ? She is the woman who bruised the head of the serpent. Hear us, Mary, for thy Son so honors thee that he can refuse thee nothing. HereBernard went too far in hisHomilies on the Gospel: Missus est Angelus.[205] God has commanded that we should honor the parents; therefore I will call upon Mary. She will intercede for me with the Son, and the Son with the Father, who will listen to the Son. So you have the picture of God as angry and Christ as judge; Mary shows to Christ her breast and Christ shows his wounds to the wrathful Father. That's the kind of thing this comely bride, the wisdom of reason cooks up: Mary is the mother of Christ, surely Christ will listen to her; Christ is a stern judge, therefore I will call upon St. George and St. Christopher. No, we have been by God's command baptized in the name of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit, just as the Jews were circumcised.[206][207]
Certain Lutheran churches such as theAnglo-Lutheran Catholic Church continue to venerate Mary and the saints in the same manner that Roman Catholics do, and hold all Marian dogmas as part of their faith.[208]
Methodists do not have any additional teachings on the Virgin Mary except from what is mentioned in Scripture and the ecumenical Creeds. As such, Methodists generally accept the doctrine of the virgin birth, but reject the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception.[209]John Wesley, the principal founder of the Methodist movement within the Church of England, believed that Mary "continued apure and unspotted virgin", thus upholding the doctrine of the perpetual virginity of Mary.[210][211] Contemporary Methodism holds that Mary was a virgin before, during, and immediately after the birth of Christ.[212][213] In addition, some Methodists also hold the doctrine of theAssumption of Mary as a pious opinion.[214]
In nontrinitarian groups that are alsoChristian mortalists, Mary is not seen as an intercessor between humankind and Jesus, whom mortalists would consider "asleep", awaiting resurrection.[220]
Jewish
The issue of the parentage ofJesus in the Talmud also affects Jewish views of Mary. However, the Talmud does not mention Mary by name, and is considerate rather than only polemic.[221][222] The story aboutPanthera is also found in theToledot Yeshu, the literary origins of which can not be traced with any certainty, and given that it is unlikely to go before the 4th century, the time is too late to include authentic remembrances of Jesus.[223]The Blackwell Companion to Jesus states that theToledot Yeshu has no historical facts and was perhaps created as a tool for warding off conversions to Christianity.[224] The tales from theToledot Yeshu did impart a negative picture of Mary to ordinary Jewish readers.[225] The circulation of theToledot Yeshu was widespread among European and Middle Eastern Jewish communities since the 9th century.[226] The name Panthera may be a distortion of the termparthenos ("virgin") andRaymond E. Brown considers the story of Panthera a fanciful explanation of the birth of Jesus that includes very little historical evidence.[227]Robert Van Voorst states that becauseToledot Yeshu is a medieval document with its lack of a fixed form and orientation towards a popular audience, it is "most unlikely" to have reliable historical information.[228] Stacks of the copies of the Talmud were burnt upon a court order after the1240 Disputation for allegedly containing material defaming the character of Mary.[225]
The Virgin Mary holds a singularly exalted place inIslam, and she is considered by theQuran to have been the greatest woman in the history of humankind. The Islamic scripture recounts the Divine Promise given to Mary as being: ""O Mary! Surely Allah has selected you, purified you, and chosen you over all women of the world" (3:42).
Mary is often referred to by Muslims by the honorific titleSayedetina ("Our Lady"). She is mentioned in the Quran as the daughter of Imran.[229]
Moreover, Mary is the only woman named in the Quran and she is mentioned or referred to in the scripture a total of 50 times.[i] Mary holds a singularly distinguished and honored position amongwomen in the Quran. Asura (chapter) in the Quran is titled "Maryam" (Mary), the onlysura in the Quran named after a woman, in which the story of Mary (Maryam) and Jesus (Isa) is recounted according to the view ofJesus in Islam.[13]
Birth
In a narration ofhadith from ImamJa'far al-Sadiq, he mentions thatAllah revealed toImran, "I will grant you a boy, blessed, one who will cure the blind and the leper and one who will raise the dead by My permission. And I will send him as an apostle to the Children of Israel." Then Imran related the story to his wife,Hannah, the mother of Mary. When she became pregnant, she conceived it was a boy, but when she gave birth to a girl, she stated "Oh my Lord! Verily I have delivered a female, and the male is not like the female, for a girl will not be a prophet," to whichAllah replies in the Quran, "Allah knows better what has been delivered" (3:36). When Allah bestowed Jesus to Mary, he fulfilled his promise to Imran.[230]
Motherhood
Mary shaking the palm tree for dates
Mary was declared (uniquely along with Jesus) to be a "Sign of God" to humanity;[231] as one who "guarded her chastity";[47] an "obedient one";[47] and dedicated by her mother to Allah whilst still in the womb;[48] uniquely (amongst women) "Accepted into service by God";[232] cared for by (one of the prophets as per Islam)Zakariya (Zacharias);[232] that in her childhood she resided in the Temple and uniquely had access to Al-Mihrab (understood to be theHoly of Holies), and was provided with heavenly "provisions" by God.[232][229]
Mary is also called a "Chosen One";[233] a "Purified One";[233] a "Truthful one";[234] her child conceived through "a Word from God";[235] and "chosen you above the women of the worlds(the material and heavenly worlds)".[233]
The Quran relates detailed narrative accounts of Maryam (Mary) in two places,3:35-47 and19:16-34. These state beliefs in both the Immaculate Conception of Mary and the virgin birth of Jesus.[236][237][238] The account given inSurah Maryam19 is nearly identical with that in the Gospel according toLuke, and both of these (Luke, Sura 19) begin with an account of the visitation of an angel upon Zakariya (Zecharias) and "Good News of the birth of Yahya (John)", followed by the account of the annunciation. It mentions how Mary was informed by an angel that she would become the mother of Jesus through the actions of God alone.[239]
In the Islamic tradition, Mary and Jesus were the only children who could not be touched by Satan at the moment of their birth, for God imposed a veil between them and Satan.[240][241] According to the authorShabbir Akhtar, the Islamic perspective on Mary's Immaculate Conception is compatible with the Catholic doctrine of the same topic.
"OPeople of the Book! Do not go to extremes regarding your faith; say nothing about Allah except the truth. The Messiah, Jesus, son of Mary, was no more than a messenger of Allah and the fulfilment of His Word through Mary and a spirit ˹created by a command˺ from Him. So believe in Allah and His messengers and do not say, "Trinity." Stop!—for your own good. Allah is only One God. Glory be to Him! He is far above having a son! To Him belongs whatever is in the heavens and whatever is on the earth. And Allah is sufficient as a Trustee of Affairs.
The Quran says that Jesus was the result of a virgin birth. The most detailed account of the annunciation and birth of Jesus is provided in Suras 3 and 19 of the Quran, where it is written that God sent an angel to announce that she could shortly expect to bear a son, despite being a virgin.[244]
Druze Faith
The icon ofSaidet et Tallé, also known as "the Virgin of the Druze", is venerated by both theDruze andChristian communities in Lebanon.[14]
Historical records and writings by authors like Pierre-Marie Martin and Glenn Bowman show that Druze leaders and community members have historically shown deep reverence forMarian sites.[14] They often sought her intercession before battles or during times of need, demonstrating a cultural and spiritual integration of Marian veneration into their religious practices.[14]
Bahá'í Faith
TheBahá'í Faith venerates Mary as the mother of Jesus. TheKitáb-i-Íqán, the primary theological work of the Bahá'í religion, describes Mary as "that most beauteous countenance," and "that veiled and immortal Countenance." The Bahá'í writings claim Jesus Christ was "conceived of the Holy Ghost"[248] and assert that in theBahá'í Faith "the reality of the mystery of the Immaculacy of the Virgin Mary is confessed."[249]
Biblical scholars
The statement found inMatthew 1:25 that Joseph did not have sexual relations with Mary before she gave birth to Jesus has been debated among scholars, with some saying that she did not remain a virgin and some saying that she was a perpetual virgin.[250] Other scholars contend that the Greek wordheos ("until") denotes a state up to a point, but does not mean that the state ended after that point, and that Matthew 1:25 does not confirm or deny the virginity of Mary after the birth of Jesus.[251][252][253] According to Biblical scholarBart Ehrman, the Hebrew wordalmah, meaning young woman of childbearing age, was translated into Greek asparthenos, which often, though not always, refers to a young woman who has never had sex. In Isaiah 7:14, it is commonly believed by Christians to be the prophecy of the Virgin Mary referred to in Matthew 1:23.[254] While Matthew and Luke give differing versions of the virgin birth, John quotes the uninitiated Philip and the disbelieving Jews gathered at Galilee referring to Joseph as Jesus' father.[255][256][257][258]
Other biblical verses have also been debated; for example, the reference made by Paul the Apostle that Jesus was made "of the seed of David according to the flesh" (Romans 1:3)[259] meaning that he was a descendant of David through Joseph.[260]
Pre-Christian Rome
From the early stages of Christianity, belief in the virginity of Mary and the virgin conception of Jesus, as stated in the gospels, holy and supernatural, was used by detractors, both political and religious, as a topic for discussions, debates, and writings, specifically aimed to challenge the divinity of Jesus and thus Christians and Christianity alike.[261] In the 2nd century, as part of hisanti-Christian polemicThe True Word, the pagan philosopherCelsus contended that Jesus was actually the illegitimate son of a Roman soldier namedPanthera.[262] The Church FatherOrigen dismissed this assertion as a complete fabrication in his apologetic treatiseAgainst Celsus.[263] How far Celsus sourced his view from Jewish sources remains a subject of discussion.[264]
He became man by the Virgin, in order that the disobedience which proceeded from the serpent might receive its destruction in the same manner in which it derived its origin. For Eve, who was a virgin and undefiled, having conceived the word of the serpent, brought forth disobedience and death. But the Virgin Mary received faith and joy, when the angel Gabriel announced the good tidings to her that the Spirit of the Lord would come upon her, and the power of the Highest would overshadow her: wherefore also the Holy Thing begotten of her is the Son of God; and she replied, 'Be it unto me according to thy word." And by her has He been born, to whom we have proved so many scriptures refer, and by whom God destroys both the serpent and those angels and men who are like him; but works deliverance from death to those who repent of their wickedness and believe upon Him.[266]
It is possible that the teaching of Mary as the New Eve was part of the apostolic tradition rather than merely Justin Martyr's own creation, according toSerafim Seppälä.[267]Irenaeus,bishop of Lyon, also takes up this parallel, inAgainst Heresies, written about the year 182:[268]
In accordance with this design, Mary the Virgin is found obedient, saying, "Behold the handmaid of the Lord; be it unto me according to your word." Luke 1:38 But Eve was disobedient; for she did not obey when as yet she was a virgin. ... having become disobedient, was made the cause of death, both to herself and to the entire human race; so also did Mary, having a man betrothed [to her], and being nevertheless a virgin, by yielding obedience, become the cause of salvation, both to herself and the whole human race. And on this account does the law term a woman betrothed to a man, the wife of him who had betrothed her, although she was as yet a virgin; thus indicating the back-reference from Mary to Eve,...For the Lord, having been born "the First-begotten of the dead," Revelation 1:5 and receiving into His bosom the ancient fathers, has regenerated them into the life of God, He having been made Himself the beginning of those that live, as Adam became the beginning of those who die. 1 Corinthians 15:20–22 Wherefore also Luke, commencing the genealogy with the Lord, carried it back to Adam, indicating that it was He who regenerated them into the Gospel of life, and not they Him. And thus also it was that the knot of Eve's disobedience was loosed by the obedience of Mary. For what the virgin Eve had bound fast through unbelief, this did the virgin Mary set free through faith.[269]
During the second century, the Gospel of James was also written. According toStephen J. Shoemaker, "its interest in Mary as a figure in her own right and its reverence for her sacred purity mark the beginnings of Marian piety within early Christianity".[270]
3rd to 5th centuries
During the Age of Martyrs and at the latest in the fourth century, the majority of the most essential ideas of Marian devotion already appeared in some form – in the writings of theChurch Fathers, apocrypha and visual arts. The lack of sources makes it unclear whether the devotion to Mary played a role in liturgical use during the first centuries of Christianity.[271] In the 4th century, Marian devotion in a liturgical context becomes evident.[272]
The earliest known Marian prayer (theSub tuum praesidium, orBeneath Thy Protection) is from the 3rd century (perhaps 270), and its text was rediscovered in 1917 on a papyrus in Egypt.[273][274] According to some sources,Theonas of Alexandria consecrated one of the first holy places dedicated to Mary during the late 3rd century. An even earlier place has been found in Nazareth, dated to the previous century by some scholars.[275] Following theEdict of Milan in 313, by the 5th century artistic images of Mary began to appear in public and larger churches were being dedicated to Mary, such as theBasilica di Santa Maria Maggiore in Rome.[276][277][278] At theCouncil of Ephesus in 431, Mary was officially declared theTheotokos, meaning "God-bearer"[279] or "Mother of God". The term had possibly been used for centuries[280] or at least since the early 300s, when it seems to have already been in established use.[281]
The Council of Ephesus was long thought to have been held at a church in Ephesus which had been dedicated to Mary about a hundred years before.[282][283][284] Though, recent archeological surveys indicate that St. Mary's Church in Ephesus did not exist at the time of the Council or, at least, the building was not dedicated to Mary before 500.[285] TheChurch of the Seat of Mary inJudea was built shortly after the introduction of Marian liturgy at the council of Ephesus, in 456, by a widow named Ikelia.[286]
According to the 4th-century heresiologistEpiphanius of Salamis, the Virgin Mary was worshipped as amother goddess in the Christian sect ofCollyridianism, which was found throughout Arabia sometime during the 300s AD. Collyridianism had women performing priestly acts, and made bread offerings to the Virgin Mary. The group was condemned as heretical by theRoman Catholic Church and was preached against byEpiphanius of Salamis, who wrote about the group in his writings titledPanarion.[287]
Byzantium
During the era of theByzantine Empire, Mary was venerated as the virginal Mother of God and as an intercessor.[288]
Ephesus is a cultic centre of Mary, the site of the first church dedicated to her and the rumoured place of her death. Ephesus was previously a centre for worship ofArtemis, a virgin goddess; theTemple of Artemis there is regarded as one of theSeven Wonders of the Ancient World. The cult of Mary was furthered byQueen Theodora in the 6th century.[289][290] According to William E. Phipps, in the bookSurvivals of Roman Religion,[291] "Gordon Laing argues convincingly that the worship of Artemis as both virgin and mother at the grand Ephesian temple contributed to the veneration of Mary."[292]
The Middle Ages saw many legends about Mary, her parents, and even her grandparents.[293] Mary's popularity increased dramatically from the 12th century,[294] linked to the Roman Catholic Church's designation of Mary asMediatrix.[295][296]
Over the centuries, devotion and veneration to Mary has varied greatly among Christian traditions. For instance, while Protestants show scant attention to Marian prayers or devotions, of all the saints whom the Orthodox venerate, the most honored is Mary, who is considered "more honorable than theCherubim and more glorious than theSeraphim".[28]
Orthodox theologianSergei Bulgakov wrote: "Love and veneration for the Virgin is the soul of Orthodox piety. A faith in Christ which does not include [...] His mother is another faith, another Christianity from that of the Orthodox Church."[171]
Although the Catholics and the Orthodox may honor and venerate Mary, they do not view her as divine, nor do they worship her. Roman Catholics view Mary as subordinate to Christ, but uniquely so, in that she is seen as above all other creatures.[297] Similarly, Bulgakov wrote that the Orthodox view Mary as "superior to all created beings" and "ceaselessly pray for her intercession". However, she is not considered a "substitute for the One Mediator" who is Christ.[171] "Let Mary be in honor, but let worship be given to the Lord", he wrote.[298] Similarly, Catholics do not worship Mary as a divine being, but rather "hyper-venerate" her. In Roman Catholic theology, the termhyperdulia is reserved for Marian veneration,latria for the worship of God, anddulia for the veneration of other saints and angels.[299] The definition of the three level hierarchy oflatria,hyperdulia anddulia goes back to theSecond Council of Nicaea in 787.[300]
Devotions to artistic depictions of Mary vary among Christian traditions. There is a long tradition ofCatholic Marian art and no image permeatesCatholic art as does the image ofMadonna and Child.[301] The icon of the VirginTheotokos with Christ is, without doubt, the most venerated icon in the Orthodox Church.[302] Both Roman Catholic and Orthodox Christians venerate images and icons of Mary, given that theSecond Council of Nicaea in 787 permitted their veneration with the understanding that those who venerate the image are venerating the reality of the person it represents,[303] and the 842 Synod of Constantinople confirming the same.[304] According to Orthodox piety and traditional practice, however, believers ought to pray before and venerate only flat, two-dimensional icons, and not three-dimensional statues.[305]
The Anglican position towards Mary is in general more conciliatory than that of Protestants at large and in a book he wrote about praying with the icons of Mary,Rowan Williams, formerarchbishop of Canterbury, said: "It is not only that we cannot understand Mary without seeing her as pointing to Christ; we cannot understand Christ without seeing his attention to Mary."[126][306]
On 4 September 1781, 11 families ofpobladores arrived from the Gulf of California and established a city in the name ofKing Carlos III. The small town was namedEl Pueblo de Nuestra Señora de los Ángeles de la Porciúncula (after our Lady of the Angels), a city that today is known simply asLos Angeles. In an attempt to revive the custom of religious processions within theArchdiocese of Los Angeles, in September 2011 theQueen of Angels Foundation, and founder Mark Anchor Albert, inaugurated an annual Grand Marian Procession in the heart ofDowntown Los Angeles' historic core. This yearly procession, held on the last Saturday of August and intended to coincide with the anniversary of the founding of the City of Los Angeles, begins at theCathedral of Our Lady of the Angels and concludes at the parish ofLa Iglesia de Nuestra Señora Reina de los Angeles which is part of theLos Angeles Plaza Historic District, better known as "La Placita".[307][308]
The earliest feasts that relate to Mary grew out of the cycle of feasts that celebrated theNativity of Jesus. Given that according to the Gospel of Luke (Luke 2:22–40),[309] 40 days after the birth of Jesus, along with thePresentation of Jesus at the Temple, Mary was purified according to Jewish customs. The Feast of the Purification began to be celebrated by the 5th century, and became the "Feast ofSimeon" inByzantium.[310]
In the 7th and 8th centuries, four more Marian feasts were established inEastern Christianity. In theWest, a feast dedicated to Mary, just before Christmas was celebrated in the Churches ofMilan andRavenna in Italy in the 7th century. The four Roman Marian feasts of Purification, Annunciation, Assumption and Nativity of Mary were gradually and sporadically introduced into England by the 11th century.[310]
Over time, the number and nature of feasts (and the associatedTitles of Mary) and the venerative practices that accompany them have varied a great deal among diverse Christian traditions. Overall, there are significantly more titles, feasts and venerative Marian practices amongRoman Catholics than any other Christians traditions.[125] Some such feasts relate to specific events, such as the Feast ofOur Lady of Victory, based on the 1571 victory of thePapal States in theBattle of Lepanto.[311][312]
Differences in feasts may also originate from doctrinal issues—theFeast of the Assumption is such an example. Given that there is no agreement among all Christians on the circumstances of the death,Dormition or Assumption of Mary, the feast of assumption is celebrated among some denominations and not others.[27][313] While the Roman Catholic Church celebrates the Feast of the Assumption on 15 August, someEastern Catholics celebrate it asDormition of theTheotokos, and may do so on 28 August, if they follow theJulian calendar. TheEastern Orthodox also celebrate it as the Dormition of theTheotokos, one of their 12Great Feasts. Protestants do not celebrate this, or any other Marian feasts.[27]
Relics
The veneration of Marianrelics used to be common practice before theReformation. It was later largely surpassed by the veneration of Marian images.
In this book, Calvin criticized the veneration of the Holy Milk due to the lack of biblical references to it and the doubts about the veracity of such relics:
With regard to the milk, there is not perhaps a town, a convent, or nunnery, where it is not shown in large or small quantities. Indeed, had the Virgin been a wet-nurse her whole life, or a dairy, she could not have produced more than is shown as hers in various parts. How they obtained all this milk they do not say, and it is superfluous here to remark that there is no foundation in the Gospels for these foolish and blasphemous extravagances.
Although the veneration of Marian bodily relics is no longer a common practice today, there are some remaining traces of it, such as theChapel of the Milk Grotto inBethlehem, named after Mary's milk.
The apparition ofOur Lady of the Pillar in the first century was believed to be abilocation, as it occurred inSpain while Mary was living in Ephesus or Jerusalem. The pillar on which she was standing during the apparition is believed to be kept in theCathedral-Basilica of Our Lady of the Pillar inZaragoza and is therefore venerated as a relics, as it was in physical contact with Mary.
Traditional representations of Mary include thecrucifixion scene, calledStabat Mater.[326][327] While not recorded in the Gospel accounts, Mary cradling the dead body of her son is a common motif in art, called a "pietà" or "pity".
In the Egyptian, Eritrean, and Ethiopian tradition, Mary has been portrayed in story and paint for centuries.[328] Beginning in the 1600s, however, highland Ethiopians began portraying Mary performing a variety of miracles for the faithful, including paintings of her giving water to a thirsty dog, healing monks with her breast milk, and saving a man eaten by a crocodile.[329] Over 1,000 suchstories about her exist in this tradition, and about one hundred of those have hundreds of paintings each, in various manuscripts, adding up to thousands ofpaintings.[330]
^Ancient Greek:παρθένος,romanized: "parthénos"; Matthew 1:23[15] uses the Greekparthénos, "virgin", whereas only the Hebrew of Isaiah 7:14,[16] from which the New Testament ostensibly quotes, asAlmah – "young maiden". See article onparthénos in Bauercc/(Arndt)/Gingrich/Danker,A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature.[17]
^SeeSabine R. Huebner's succinct analysis of the issue: "Jesus is described as the 'first-born son' of Mary in Mt 1:25 and Lk 2:7. From this wording alone we can conclude that there were later-born sons ... The family ... had at least five sons and an unknown number of daughters."[24]
^This event is described by some Christians as the Annunciation.
^The historicity of this census' relationship to the birth of Jesus continues to be one of scholarly disagreement; see, for example, p. 71 in Edwards, James R. (2015).[80]
^Alternately: "It cannot even be denied that God conferred the highest honour on Mary, by choosing and appointing her to be the mother of his Son."[183][184]
^Thompson, A. Keith (2020). "The Character and Knowledge of Mary, the Mother of Christ".Interpreter: A Journal of Latter-day Saint Faith and Scholarship.36: 110.ISSN2372-126X.
^Richard, France (2011)."The Birth of Jesus". In Holmen, Tom; Porter, Stanley E. (eds.).Handbook for the Study of the Historical Jesus. Brill. p. 2376.ISBN978-90-04-16372-0.
^Brown, Raymond Edward; Fitzmyer, Joseph A.; Donfried, Karl Paul (1978).Mary in the New Testament. NJ: Paulist Press. p. 140.ISBN978-0809121687.Archived from the original on 17 August 2021. Retrieved23 February 2021....consonant with Mary's Jewish background
^Quran 3:42; cited in Stowasser, Barbara Freyer, "Mary", in:Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān, General Editor: Jane Dammen McAuliffe, Georgetown University, Washington DC.
^abcdBowman, Glenn (2012).Sharing the Sacra: The Politics and Pragmatics of Intercommunal Relations Around Holy Places. Berghahn Books. p. 17.ISBN9780857454867.
^Bauercc/(Arndt)/Gingrich/Danker,A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature, 2nd ed., University of Chicago Press, 1979, p. 627.
^Mark Miravalle, Raymond L. Burke; (2008).Mariology: A Guide for Priests, Deacons, Seminarians, and Consecrated Persons,ISBN978-1-57918-355-4, p. 178.
^Mary for evangelicals by Tim S. Perry, William J. Abraham 2006ISBN0-8308-2569-X p. 142
^"Mary, the mother of Jesus."The New Dictionary of Cultural Literacy, Houghton Mifflin. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2002. Credo Reference. Web. 28 September 2010.
^What Every Catholic Should Know about Mary by Terrence J. McNallyISBN1-4415-1051-6 p. 128
^Hahn, Scott (2006).Hail, Holy Queen: The Mother of God in the Word of God. Image. p. 78.ISBN978-0385501699.
^Smith, Scott (2018).What You Need to Know About Mary: But Were Never Taught. Holy Water Books. p. 87.ISBN978-0998360324.
^Legends of the Madonna by Anna Jameson 2009ISBN1406853380 p. 50
^Ann Ball, 2003Encyclopedia of Catholic Devotions and PracticesISBN0-87973-910-X p. 515
^Candice Lee Goucher, 2007World history: journeys from past to presentISBN0-415-77137-4 p. 102
^Ann Ball, 2003Encyclopedia of Catholic Devotions and PracticesISBN0-87973-910-X p. 525
^Glassé, Cyril (2008)."Mary".The New Encyclopedia of Islam (3rd ed.). Plymouth, United Kingdom: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. pp. 340–341.ISBN978-0742562967.Archived from the original on 17 November 2019. Retrieved2 June 2016.
^abcLevine, Amy-Jill & Witherington III, Ben:The Gospel of Luke, p. 34. Cambridge University Press, 2018.ISBN9780521859509.
^Leith, Mary Joan Winn: Mary, Mother of Jesus. In Coogan, Michael (ed.):Oxford Encyclopedias of the Bible: Digital Collection. Oxford University Press, 2022. ISBN 9780197669402.
^abTropper, A: Children and Childhood in Light of the Demographics of the Jewish Family in Late Antiquity.Journal for the Study of Judaism in the Persian, Hellenistic, and Roman Period, Vol. 37, 2006, 3, pp. 299–343.
^Maas, Anthony."The Blessed Virgin Mary".The Catholic Encyclopedia. Robert Appleton Company.Archived from the original on 10 October 2018. Retrieved11 February 2022.
^abcdeMakdisi, Ussama (2000).The Culture of Sectarianism: Community, History, and Violence in Nineteenth-Century Ottoman Lebanon. University of California Press. p. 35.ISBN978-0520218468.
^abcFlinn, Frank K., J. Gordon MeltonEncyclopedia of Catholicism. 2007ISBN0-8160-5455-X pp. 443–444
^Geisler, Norman L.; MacKenzie, Ralph E. (1995),Roman Catholics and Evangelicals: agreements and differences, Baker Publishing, p. 143,ISBN978-0-8010-3875-4
^White, James (1998).Mary – Another Redeemer?. Bethany House Publishers.
^Barth, Karl (2004),Church dogmatics, vol. 1, A&C Black, pp. 143–144,ISBN978-0-567-05069-4
^Lehmann, H., ed.Luther's Works, American edition, vol. 43, p. 40, Fortress, 1968.
^Lee (1993),Catholic, Lutheran, Protestant: a doctrinal comparison, Lulu.com, p. 249,ISBN978-0-615-16635-3
^Commentary on a Harmony of the Evangelists, Matthew, Mark, and Luke, 1845, Jean Calvin, Rev. William Pringle, Edinburgh, Volume 2,p. 87 quoteArchived 8 December 2021 at theWayback Machine
^"Neque etiam negari potest, quin Deus Mariam Filio suo matrem eligens ac destinans summo eam honore dignatus sit." Calvin'sOpera, vol. 45 (Corpus Reformatorum, vol. 73), p. 348.no preview
^McKim, Donald K. (2004),The Cambridge companion to John Calvin, Cambridge University Press,ISBN978-0-521-01672-8.
^Williams, Paul (2007). pp. 238, 251, quote: "Where Anglican writers discuss the doctrine of the Assumption, it is either rejected or held to be of theadiaphora."
^Perrier, Jacques,Lourdes Today and Tomorrow 2008ISBN1565483057 p. 56
^Mary: grace and hope in Christ: the Seattle statement of the Anglican-Roman Catholics by the Anglican/Roman Catholic International Group 2006ISBN0-8264-8155-8 pp. 7–10
^Colonna, Vittoria; Matraini, Chiara; Marinella, Lucrezia (2009).Who Is Mary?. University of Chicago Press. p. 34.ISBN978-0-226-11400-2.
^Eric W. Gritsch (1992). H. George Anderson; J. Francis Stafford; Joseph A. Burgess (eds.).The One Mediator, The Saints and Mary, Lutherans and Roman Catholic in Dialogue. Vol. VII. Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress. p. 235.
^Doberstein, John W.; Lehmann, Helmut T., eds. (1959) [1546], "Sermon on the Second Sunday after Epiphany",Sermons I, Luther's Works, vol. 51, Fortress Press, p. 375,ISBN978-0-8006-0351-9{{citation}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
^Dr. Martin Luthers Werke, Kritische Gesamtausgabe, vol. 51, Weimar, 1883, p. 128{{citation}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
^"More FAQ". The Anglo-Lutheran Catholic Church. Archived fromthe original on 23 May 2010. Retrieved11 September 2014.
^Stepp, Todd (23 December 2009)."Theotokos; Mary, Mother of God". Wesleyan/Anglican Society.We Protestants (for the most part) tend to say something to the affect [sic] that, if it is not found in Scripture it is not held to be required as an article of faith. Thus, the assumption of Mary would not be held as an article of faith (i.e., as a required doctrine). However, in as much as the Scripture does not say that Mary was not assumed into heaven, and, in as much as we do have other instances of some sort of "assumption" in Scripture (e.g., Elijah, as mentioned, before), there seems to be nothing that would require that a Protestant Christian could not have a private "opinion" (in the Wesleyan sense of the term) that agrees with Rome or Constantinople (at least regarding Mary's assumption).
^Introduction to New and Alternative Religions in America 2006 p. 73 Eugene V. Gallagher, W. Michael Ashcraft: "Jehovah's Witnesses pray to God in the name of Jesus, but insist that the Bible never identifies Christ as an eternal ... Jehovah God caused an ovum, or egg cell, in Mary's womb to become fertile, accomplishing this by the transferral of."
^Christian mortalism from Tyndale to Milton Norman T. Burns – 1972
^The Talmud Yerushalmi and Graeco-Roman culture: Volume 3 – p. 369Peter Schäfer,Catherine Hezser – 2002 The Mother of the Messiah in the Talmud Yerushalmi andSefer Zerubbabel byMartha Himmelfarb "Through the centuries the Virgin Mary has played a central role in Christian piety. Unlike so many aspects of Christianity, veneration of the…"
^Peter Schäfer,Mirror of His beauty: feminine images of God from the Bible to the early Kabbalah. 2002, p. 233: "On the one hand, it mockingly disapproves of the idea of the mother of God; on the other hand, it treats Mary considerately and by no means only polemically. The talmudic and post-talmudic discussions about the Virgin Mary are classic…"
^Van Voorst, Robert E (2000).Jesus Outside the New Testament: An Introduction to the Ancient Evidence WmB Eerdmans Publishing.ISBN0-8028-4368-9 pp. 122, 127
^Michael J. CookJewish Perspectives on Jesus Chapter 14 in "The Blackwell Companion to Jesus" edited by Delbert Burkett 2011ISBN978-1-4443-2794-6
^Van Voorst, Robert E. (2000).Jesus Outside the New Testament: An Introduction to the Ancient Evidence, WmB Eerdmans Publishing.ISBN0-8028-4368-9, p. 128.
^Qa'im, Mahdi Muntazir (2007).Jesus Through the Qur'an and Shi'ite Narrations (bilingual ed.). Queens, New York: Tahrike Tarsile Qur'an. p. 16.ISBN978-1879402140.
^abDana, Nissim (2008).The Druze in the Middle East: Their Faith, Leadership, Identity and Status. Michigan University press. p. 47.ISBN978-1-903900-36-9.
^abMunro, Dane; Haddad, Nour Fara (2019).Peace Journeys: A New Direction in Religious Tourism and Pilgrimage Research. Cambridge: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 7.ISBN9781527543133.
^Grehan, James (2016).Twilight of the Saints: Everyday Religion in Ottoman Syria and Palestine. Oxford University Press. p. 178.ISBN9780190619145.On Mt. Lebanon, so many Druze flocked to the shrine of the Virgin of the Mountain, located in the Shihabi administrative seat of Dayr al-Qamr, that it became known as the "Virgin of the Druze".
^Also see:Schaberg, Jane.Illegitimacy of Jesus: A Feminist Theological Interpretation of the Infancy Narratives (Biblical Seminar Series, No 28),ISBN1-85075-533-7.
^Osborne, John L. "Early Medieval Painting in San Clemente, Rome: The Madonna and Child in the Niche"Gesta 20.2 (1981:299–310) and (note 9) referencing T. Klauser, Rom under der Kult des Gottesmutter Maria,Jahrbuch für der Antike und Christentum 15 (1972:120–135).
^Brown, Jeremy, Mehari Worku, Dawit Muluneh, and Evgeniia Lambrinaki. 2023. "The Ethiopian Stories about the Miracles of the Virgin Mary (Täˀammərä Maryam)." In Ethiopia at the Crossroads: Exhibition Catalogue, edited by Christine Sciacca. Baltimore, MD: Walters Art Museum.
Brown, Raymond E.,The Birth of the Messiah: A Commentary on the Infancy Narratives of Matthew and Luke: New and Updated Edition, Anchor Bible Reference Library/Doubleday, 1993,ISBN0-385-47202-1
Brown, Raymond, E., Donfried, Karl, P., Fitzmyer, Joseph A., & Reumann, John, (eds.),Mary in the New Testament, Fortress/Paulist Press, 1978,ISBN0-8006-1345-7
Kugeares, Sophia Manoulian.Images of the Annunciation of the Virgin Mary of the 13th, 14th and 15th Century. n.p.: 1991, University of South Florida Libraries Catalog. Web. 8 April 2016. Hahn, Scott,Hail, Holy Queen: The Mother of God in the Word of God, Doubleday, 2001,ISBN0-385-50168-4
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