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During thelate 19th and early 20th centuries, it was erroneously believed that there were "canals" on the planetMars. These were a network of long straight lines in the equatorial regions from 60° north to 60° south latitude on Mars, observed byastronomers using early telescopes without photography.
They were first described by the Italian astronomerGiovanni Schiaparelli during theopposition of 1877, and attested to by later observers. Schiaparelli called thesecanali ("channels"), which was mis-translated into English as "canals". The Irish astronomerCharles E. Burton made some of the earliest drawings of straight-line features on Mars, although his drawings did not match Schiaparelli's.
Around the turn of the century there was even speculation that they were engineering works, irrigation canals constructed by a civilization of intelligent aliens indigenous to Mars. By the early 20th century, improved astronomical observations revealed that, with the possible exception of the natural canyonValles Marineris, the "canals" were likely anoptical illusion, and modern high-resolution mapping of the Martian surface by spacecraft supports this interpretation.
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TheItalian wordcanale (pluralcanali) can mean "canal", "channel", "duct" or "gully".[1] The first person to use the wordcanale in connection with Mars wasAngelo Secchi in 1858, although he did not see any straight lines and applied the term to large features—for example, he used the name "Canale Atlantico" for what later came to be calledSyrtis Major Planum. The canals were named by Schiaparelli and others[who?] after both real and legendary rivers of various places on Earth, or the mythological underworld.
At this time in the late 19th century, astronomical observations were made without photography. Astronomers had to stare for hours through their telescopes, waiting for a moment ofstill air when the image was clear, and then draw a picture of what they had seen. Astronomers believed at the time that Mars had a relatively substantial atmosphere. They knew that therotation period of Mars (the length of its day) was almost the same as Earth's, and they knew that Mars'saxial tilt was also almost the same as Earth's, which meant it had seasons in the astronomical and meteorological sense. They could also see Mars's polar ice caps shrinking and growing with these changing seasons. The similarities with Earth led them to interpret darkeralbedo features (for instance Syrtis Major) on the lighter surface as oceans. By the late 1920s, however, it was known that Mars is very dry and has a very low atmospheric pressure.
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In 1889, American astronomerCharles A. Young reported that Schiaparelli's canal discovery of 1877 had been confirmed in 1881, though new canals had appeared where there had not been any before, prompting "very important and perplexing" questions as to their origin.[2]
During the favourable opposition of 1892,W. H. Pickering observed numerous small circular black spots occurring at every intersection or starting-point of the "canals". Many of these had been seen by Schiaparelli as larger dark patches, and were termedseas orlakes; but Pickering's observatory was atArequipa, Peru, about 2400 meters above the sea, and with such atmospheric conditions as were, in his opinion, equal to a doubling of telescopic aperture. They were soon detected by other observers, especially by Lowell.[3]
During the oppositions of 1892 and 1894, seasonal color changes were reported. This was first interpreted as the melting of polar snows, leading to overflowing of adjacent seas which spread out as far as the tropics, assuming a distinctly green colour. However, in 1894, doubts arose as to whether there were any seas at all. Under the best conditions, these supposed 'seas' were seen to lose all trace of uniformity, their appearance being that of a mountainous terrain, broken by ridges, rifts, and canyons.
The hypothesis that there was life on Mars originated from seasonal changes observed in surface features, which began to be interpreted as due to seasonal growth of plants (in fact, Martiandust storms are responsible for some of this).
During the 1894 opposition, the idea that Schiaparelli'scanali were really irrigation canals made by intelligent beings was first hinted at, and then adopted as the only intelligible explanation, by American astronomerPercival Lowell and a few others. The visible seasonal melting of Mars polar icecaps fueled speculation that an advanced alien race indigenous to Mars built canals to transport the water to drier equatorial regions. Newspaper and magazine articles about Martian canals and "Martians" captured the public imagination. Lowell published his views in three books:Mars (1895),Mars and Its Canals (1906), andMars As the Abode of Life (1908). He remained a strong proponent for the rest of his life of the idea that the canals were built for irrigation by an intelligent civilization,[4] going much further than Schiaparelli, who for his part considered much of the detail on Lowell's drawings to be imaginary. Some observers drew maps in which dozens if not hundreds of canals were shown with an elaborate nomenclature for all of them. Some observers saw a phenomenon they called "gemination", or doubling – two parallel canals.[5]
Other observers disputed the notion of canals. The influential observerEugène Antoniadi used the 83 cm (32.6 inch) aperture telescope atMeudon Observatory during the 1909opposition of Mars and saw no canals, the outstanding photos of Mars taken at the new Baillaud dome at thePic du Midi observatory also brought formal discredit to the Martian canals theory in 1909,[6] and the notion of canals began to fall out of favor. Around this time spectroscopic analysis also began to show that no water was present in the Martian atmosphere.[7] However, as of 1916Waldemar Kaempffert (editor ofScientific American and laterPopular Science Monthly) was still vigorously defending the Martian canals theory against skeptics.[8]
In 1907 the British naturalistAlfred Russel Wallace published the bookIs Mars Habitable? that severely criticized Lowell's claims. Wallace's analysis showed that the surface of Mars was almost certainly much colder than Lowell had estimated, and that the atmospheric pressure was too low for liquid water to exist on the surface. He also pointed out that several recent efforts to find evidence of water vapor in the Martian atmosphere withspectroscopic analysis had failed. He concluded that complex life was impossible, let alone the planet-girding irrigation system claimed by Lowell.[9]
The existence of Martian canals was still controversial even at the dawn of theSpace Race. In 1965, theSourcebook on the space sciences said that "Although there is no unanimous opinion concerning the existence of the canals, most astronomers would probably agree that there are apparently linear (or approximately linear) markings, perhaps 40 to 160 kilometers (25 to 100 miles) or more across and of considerable length."[10] Later in the same year, the arrival of the United States'Mariner 4 spacecraft debunked for good the idea that Mars could be inhabited by higher forms of life, or that any canal features existed. It took pictures revealingimpact craters and a generally barren Martian landscape, with a surfaceatmospheric pressure of 4.1 to 7.0 millibars (410 to 700 pascals), 0.4% to 0.7% of Earth atmospheric pressure, and daytime temperatures of −100 degreesCelsius were measured. Nomagnetic field,[11][12] norradiation belts[13] were detected.
As early as 1903,Joseph Edward Evans andEdward Maunder conducted visual experiments using schoolboy volunteers that demonstrated how the canals could arise as anoptical illusion.[14] This is because when a poor-quality telescope views many point-like features (e.g. sunspots or craters) they appear to join up to form lines.[7] Based on his own experiments, Lowell's assistant,A. E. Douglass, was led to explain the observations in essentially psychological terms.[15] In hindsight,William Kenneth Hartmann, a Mars imaging scientist from the 1960s to the 2000s, hypothesized that the "canals" were streaks of dust caused by wind on theleeward side of mountains and craters.[16]Valles Marineris has been proposed to correspond to the Coprates canal.[17][18][19]
Aclement twilight zone on a synchronously rotating Mercury, aswamp-and-jungle Venus, and acanal-infested Mars, while all classic science-fiction devices, are all, in fact, based upon earlier misapprehensions by planetary scientists.
— Carl Sagan, 1978[20]
Martian canals first appeared in fiction in the anonymously published 1883 novelPolitics and Life in Mars.[21] Following the popularization of the idea that they were artificial constructs by Lowell's books, they appeared in numerous works of fiction until the Mariner 4 flyby conclusively demonstrated that they did not exist.[22][23][24]
A critical examination of Professor Percival Lowell's bookMars and its Canals, with an alternative explanation, by Alfred Russel Wallace, F.R.S., etc.
