Nutmeg is theseed, or the groundspice derived from the seed, of several tree species of the genusMyristica;[1]fragrant nutmeg ortrue nutmeg (M. fragrans) is a dark-leavedevergreen tree cultivated for twospices derived from itsfruit: nutmeg, from its seed, andmace, from the seed covering. It is also a commercial source of nutmegessential oil and nutmeg butter.Maluku'sBanda Islands are the main producer of nutmeg and mace, and the true nutmeg tree is native to the islands.[2][3]
Conifers of the genusTorreya, commonly known as the nutmeg yews, have edible seeds of similar appearance, but are not closely related toM. fragrans, and are not used as a spice.
Nutmeg is the spice made by grinding the seed of the fragrant nutmeg tree (Myristica fragrans) into powder. The spice has a distinctive pungent fragrance and a warm, slightly sweet taste; it is used to flavor many kinds of baked goods, confections,puddings, potatoes, meats, sausages, sauces, and vegetables, and beverages such aseggnog.[5]
The seeds are dried gradually in the sun over a period of 15 to 30 weeks. During this time, the nutmeg shrinks away from its hard seed coat until the kernels rattle in their shells when shaken. The shell is then broken with a wooden club and the nutmegs are picked out. Dried nutmegs are greenish brown ovoids with furrowed surfaces.[5] The nutmegs are roughly egg-shaped, about 20.5–30 mm (0.81–1.18 in) long and 15–18 mm (0.59–0.71 in) wide, weighing 5–10 g (0.18–0.35 oz) dried.[6]
Two other species of genusMyristica with different flavors,M. malabarica andM. argentea, are sometimes used to adulterate nutmeg as a spice.[7]
Mace is the spice made from the reddish seed covering (aril) of the nutmeg seed. Its flavour is similar to that of nutmeg but more delicate; it is used to flavour baked goods, meat, fish, and vegetables, and in preserving and pickling.[8]
In the processing of mace, the crimson-colored aril is removed from the nutmeg seed that it envelops and is flattened out and dried for 10 to 14 days. Its color changes to pale yellow, orange, or tan. Whole dry mace consists of flat pieces—smooth, horn-like, and brittle—about 40 mm (1+1⁄2 in) long.[9]
The most important commercial species is the common, true or fragrant nutmeg,M. fragrans (Myristicaceae), native to theMoluccas (or Spice Islands) of Indonesia.[10][11] It is also cultivated onPenang Island in Malaysia, in theCaribbean, especially inGrenada, and inKerala, a state formerly known as Malabar in ancient writings as the hub of spice trading, in southern India. In the 17th-century workHortus Botanicus Malabaricus,Hendrik van Rheede records thatIndians learned the usage of nutmeg from the Indonesians through ancient trade routes.[citation needed]
Nutmeg trees aredioecious plants (individual plants are either male or female), which are propagated sexually fromseeds and asexually fromcuttings orgrafting. Sexual propagation yields 50% male seedlings, which are unproductive. Because no reliable method has been found for determining plant sex before flowering in the sixth to eighth year, and sexual reproduction bears inconsistent yields, grafting is the preferred method of propagation. Epicotyl grafting (a variation ofcleft grafting using seedlings),approach grafting, andpatch budding have proved successful, with epicotyl grafting being the most widely adopted standard.Air layering is an alternative though not preferred method because of its low (35–40%) success rate.[citation needed]
The first harvest of nutmeg trees takes place 7–9 years after planting, and the trees reach full production after 20 years.[citation needed]
In theBanda Islands where the nutmeg is endemic, there is asymbiotic relationship between the Kenari nut tree (Canarium indicum) and the nutmeg (Myristica fragrans), the former providing the nutmeg with shade and serving as a wind-break from the strong winds.[12]
Nutmeg and mace have similar sensory qualities, with nutmeg having a slightly sweeter and mace a more delicate flavour. Mace is often preferred in light dishes for the bright orange,saffron-like hue it imparts. Nutmeg is used for flavouring many dishes. Whole nutmeg can also be ground at home usinga grater specifically designed for nutmeg[13] or amulti-purpose grating tool.[14]
InIndonesian cuisine, nutmeg is used in dishes[15] such as spicy soups including variants ofsoto,konro,oxtail soup,sup iga (ribs soup),bakso, andsup kambing. It is also used in gravy for meat dishes, such assemur, beef stew, ribs with tomato, and European derived dishes such asbistik (beef steak),rolade (minced meat roll), andbistik lidah (beef tongue steak).[citation needed]
InIndian cuisine, nutmeg is used in many sweet, as well as savoury, dishes. In KeralaMalabar region, grated nutmeg is used in meat preparations and also sparingly added to desserts for the flavour. It may also be used in small quantities ingaram masala.[16]
In traditionalEuropean cuisine, nutmeg and mace are used especially inpotato and spinach dishes and in processed meat products; they are also used in soups, sauces, and baked goods. It is also commonly used inrice pudding. InDutch cuisine, nutmeg is added to vegetables such as Brussels sprouts, cauliflower, and string beans. Nutmeg is a traditional ingredient inmulled cider,mulled wine,junket andeggnog. In Scotland, mace and nutmeg are usually both ingredients inhaggis. InItalian cuisine, nutmeg is used as part of the stuffing for many regional meat-filled dumplings liketortellini, as well as for the traditionalmeatloaf.[citation needed] Nutmeg is a common spice forpumpkin pie and in recipes for otherwinter squashes, such as bakedacorn squash. In the Caribbean, nutmeg is often used in drinks, such as theBushwacker,Painkiller, and Barbadosrum punch. Typically, it is a sprinkle on top of the drink.[citation needed]
Thepericarp (fruit covering) is used to make jam, or is finely sliced, cooked with sugar, and crystallised to make a fragrant candy. Sliced nutmeg fruit flesh is made asmanisan (sweets), either wet, which is seasoned in sugary syrup liquid, or dry coated with sugar, a dessert calledmanisan pala in Indonesia. InPenang cuisine, dried, shredded nutmeg rind with sugar coating is used as toppings on the uniquely Penangais kacang. The flesh of the nutmeg fruit is also blended, in the fresh state, into a type ofsmoothie (white in colour and having a fresh, ‘green’, tangy taste); or boiled, resulting in a brown liquid, much sweeter in taste, which is used in the preparation of iced drinks. In KeralaMalabar region of India, it is used for juice, pickles and chutney.[16]
The oil is colorless or light yellow, and smells and tastes of nutmeg. It is used as a natural food flavoring inbaked goods, syrups, beverages, and sweets. It is used to replace ground nutmeg, as it leaves no particles in the food. The essential oil is also used in the manufacturing oftoothpaste andcough syrups.[21]
Nutmeg butter is obtained from the nut byexpression. It is semisolid, reddish-brown in colour, and has the taste and smell of nutmeg itself.[17] About 75% (by weight) of nutmeg butter istrimyristin, which can be turned intomyristic acid, a 14-carbonfatty acid, which can be used as a replacement forcocoa butter, can be mixed with other fats likecottonseed oil orpalm oil, and has applications as an industriallubricant.[citation needed]
The earliest evidence of use of nutmeg comes in the form of 3,500-year-oldpotsherd residues from the island of Pulau Ai, one of theBanda Islands in eastern Indonesia.[22] The Banda Islands consist of eleven small volcanic islands, and are part of the largerMaluku Islands group. These islands were the only source of nutmeg and mace production until the mid-19th century.[23] It was one of the spices traded over theAustronesian maritimespice trade network since at least 1500 BCE.[24]
In the sixth century AD, nutmeg use spread to India, then further west toConstantinople.[25] By the 13th century, Arab traders had pinpointed the origin of nutmeg to the Banda Islands, but kept this location a secret from European traders.[25]
The Banda Islands became the scene of the earliest European ventures in Asia, to get a grip on the spice trade. In August 1511,Afonso de Albuquerque conqueredMalacca, which at the time was the hub of Asian trade, on behalf of the king ofPortugal. In November of the same year, after having secured Malacca and learning of Banda's location, Albuquerque sent an expedition of three ships led by his friendAntónio de Abreu to find it. Malay pilots guided them viaJava, theLesser Sundas, andAmbon to the Banda Islands, arriving in early 1512. The first Europeans to reach the Banda Islands, the expedition remained for about a month, buying and filling their ships with Banda's nutmeg and mace, and withcloves in which Banda had a thrivingentrepôt trade. An early account of Banda is inSuma Oriental, a book written by the Portuguese apothecaryTomé Pires, based in Malacca from 1512 to 1515. Full control of this trade by the Portuguese was not possible, and they remained participants without a foothold in the islands.[citation needed]
In order to obtain amonopoly on the production and trade of nutmeg, theDutch East India Company (VOC) waged a bloody battle with the Bandanese in 1621. HistorianWillard Hanna estimated that before this struggle the islands were populated by approximately 15,000 people, and only 1,000 were left (the Bandanese were killed, starved while fleeing, exiled, or sold as slaves).[26] The Company constructed a comprehensive nutmeg plantation system on the islands during the 17th century.[citation needed]
Connecticut may have received its nickname ("the Nutmeg State", "Nutmegger") from the claim that some unscrupulous Connecticut traders would whittle "nutmeg" out of wood, creating a "wooden nutmeg", a term which later came to mean any type of fraud.[28][29] This narrative may have to do with the issue that one has tograte to obtain the spice powder, not crack a nutmeg, and this may not have been widely known by some purchasers of the product.[28]
In 2019, global production of nutmeg was 142,000 tonnes, led byIndonesia,Guatemala, andIndia, having 38,000 to 43,000 tonnes each and a combined 85% of the world total.[30]
Varying considerably from person to person, nutmegintoxication may occur withside effects, such asdelirium, anxiety, confusion, headaches, nausea, dizziness, dry mouth, eye irritation, andamnesia.[4][20] Intoxication takes several hours to reach maximum effect,[4] and may last for several days.[20][31] Incidents of fatal poisoning from nutmeg and myristicin individually are uncommon.[4]
Nutmeg poisonings occur by accidental consumption in children and by intentional recreational use.[20] It is used recreationally with the intention of achieving a low-cost high resembling psychedelics, particularly by adolescents, drug users, college students, and prisoners.[33] Relatively large doses of nutmeg are required to produce effects; a majority of reported nutmeg intoxication cases appear to result from recreational use.[34]
Playwright and poetWilliam Shakespeare was alleged to use nutmeg for hallucinogenic purposes as nutmeg extract along withcannabis were found in analysis of fragments of his pipe.[35]
Nutmeg was once considered anabortifacient, but may be safe duringpregnancy if used only in flavoring amounts.[4] If consumed in large amounts, nutmeg could cause premature labor and miscarriage. Nutmeg may also interact with pain relievers such aspethidine, so avoiding it during pregnancy is recommended.[36]
^"Nutmeg and derivatives (Review)". Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations. September 1994. Archived fromthe original on 30 October 2018. Retrieved29 October 2018.
^Monk, Kathryn; De Fretes, Yance; Reksodiharjo-Lilley, Gayatri (2012).Ecology of Nusa Tenggara and Maluka. Vol. 4. New York: Tuttle Pub. p. 10:3 (Changes in Agriculture).ISBN9781462905065.OCLC795120066.The islands ofLontor,Banda Neira and Ai have supported extensive nutmeg and kenari (Canarium indicum) plantations since the 1600s.
^Zumbroich, Thomas J. (2005). "The Introduction of Nutmeg (Myristica fragrans Houtt.) and Cinnamon (Cinnamomumverum J. Presl)) to America / La introducción de la nuez moscada (Myristica fragrans Houtt.) y de la canela (Cinnamomum verum J.S. Presl) en América".Acta Botanica Venezuelica.28 (1): 156.
^Tan, Kim H. (2008).Soils in the Humid Tropics and Monsoon Region of Indonesia. Boca Raton: CRC Press. p. 329.ISBN9781420069075.OCLC184924770.In the past it was customary to also plant wind breakers for controlling premature fruit falls by the frequent storms occurring during the change of wet to slightly dry seasons, especially on the Banda islands. The Dutch scientists suggested the use of the tall-growing Canarium trees (Canarium commune or indicum), known locally aspohon kenari, because albiza trees, used in tea estates, provide too much shade, which should be avoided in nutmeg farms. Some shade is still necessary, which is provided by the kenari trees that grow 40 to 50 m tall.
^Oulton, Randal (18 February 2007)."Nutmeg Graters". CooksInfo.com.Archived from the original on 10 January 2018. Retrieved8 April 2018.
^Piras, A.; Rosa, A.; Marongiu, B.; Atzeri, A.; Dessì, M. A.; Falconieri, D.; Porcedda, S. (2012). "Extraction and separation of volatile and fixed oils from seeds ofMyristica fragrans by supercritical CO2: Chemical composition and cytotoxic activity on Caco-2 cancer cells".Journal of Food Science.77 (4): C448–53.doi:10.1111/j.1750-3841.2012.02618.x.PMID22429024.
^Hanna, Willard (1991).Indonesian Banda: Colonialism and Its Aftermath in the Nutmeg Islands. Moluccas, East Indonesia: Yayasan Warisan dan Budaya Banda Neira.
^Giles Milton,Nathaniel's Nutmeg, 1999, London: Hodder and Stoughton;ISBN0-340-69675-3
^abRebecca Furer (12 August 2011)."What is a Nutmegger?". Connecticut Public Radio.Archived from the original on 29 October 2018. Retrieved29 October 2018.
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