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Macaque

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected fromMacaque monkey)
Genus of Old World monkeys
"Macaca" redirects here. For a racial slur for dark-skinned people, seeMacaca (term).

Macaques[1]
Bonnet macaque inManegaon, Maharashtra, India
Scientific classificationEdit this classification
Domain:Eukaryota
Kingdom:Animalia
Phylum:Chordata
Class:Mammalia
Order:Primates
Suborder:Haplorhini
Infraorder:Simiiformes
Family:Cercopithecidae
Tribe:Papionini
Genus:Macaca
Lacépède, 1799
Type species
Simia inuus[1]
Linnaeus,1766
(=Simia sylvanus Linnaeus,1758)
Species

See text

Themacaques (/məˈkɑːk,-ˈkæk/)[2] constitute agenus (Macaca) ofgregariousOld World monkeys of the subfamilyCercopithecinae. The 23 species of macaques inhabitranges throughout Asia,North Africa, and Europe (inGibraltar). Macaques are principallyfrugivorous (preferring fruit), although their diet also includes seeds, leaves, flowers, and tree bark. Some species such as the long-tailed macaque (M. fascicularis; also called the crab-eating macaque) will supplement their diets with small amounts of meat from shellfish, insects, and small mammals. On average, asouthern pig-tailed macaque (M. nemestrina) inMalaysia eats about 70 large rats each year.[3][4] All macaquesocial groups are arranged around dominantmatriarchs.[5]

Macaques are found in a variety of habitats throughout the Asian continent and are highlyadaptable. Certain species aresynanthropic, having learned to live alongside humans, but they have become problematic in urban areas inSoutheast Asia and are not suitable to live with, as they can carry transmittable diseases.

Most macaque species are listed as vulnerable to critically endangered on the International Union of the Conservation of Nature(IUCN) Red List.

Description

[edit]

Aside fromhumans (genusHomo), the macaques are the most widespreadprimate genus, ranging fromJapan to theIndian subcontinent, and in the case of theBarbary macaque (Macaca sylvanus), toNorth Africa andSouthern Europe. Twenty-three macaque species are currently recognized. Macaques are robust primates whose arms and legs are about the same in length. The fur of these animals is typically varying shades of brown or black and their muzzles are rounded in profile with nostrils on the upper surface. The tail varies among each species, which can be long, moderate, short or totally absent.[6]Although several species lack tails, and their common names refer to them asapes, these are true monkeys, with no greater relationship to the true apes than any otherOld World monkeys. Instead, this comes from an earlier definition of 'ape' that included primates generally.[7]

In some species, skin folds join the second through fifth toes, almost reaching the firstmetatarsal joint.[8] The monkey's size differs depending on sex and species. Males from all species can range from 41 to 70 cm (16 to 27.5 in) in head and body length, and in weight from 5.5 to 18 kg (12 to 40 lb).[6] Females can range from a weight of 2.4 to 13 kg (5.3 to 28.7 lb). These primates live in troops that vary in size, where males dominate, however the order of dominance frequently shifts. Female dominance lasts longer and depends upon their genealogical position. Macaques are able to swim and spend most of their time on the ground and spend some time in trees. They have large pouches in their cheeks where they carry extra food. They are considered highly intelligent and are often used in the medical field for experimentation due to their remarkable similarity to humans in emotional and cognitive development. Extensive experimentation has led to the long-tailed macaque being listed as endangered.[6]

Distribution and habitat

[edit]

Macaques are highlyadaptable to different habitats and climates and can tolerate a wide fluctuation of temperatures and live in varying landscape settings. They easily adapt to human-built environments and can survive well inurban settings if they are able to obtain food. They can also survive in completelynatural settings absent of humans.

The ecological and geographic ranges of the macaque are the widest of any non-human primate. Their habitats include the tropical rainforests ofSoutheast Asia,Sri Lanka,India, arid mountains ofPakistan andAfghanistan, and temperate mountains inAlgeria,Japan,China,Morocco, andNepal. Some species also inhabit villages and towns in cities in Asia.[9] There is also an introduced population ofrhesus macaques in theUS state ofFlorida consisting, essentially, of monkeys abandoned when a failed boat ride-safari was shut down in the mid-20th century.

A probable Early Pliocene macaquemolar from theRed Crag Formation (Waldringfield, United Kingdom), represents one of the oldest and northernmost records of the genus in Europe reported to date.[10]

Ecology and behavior

[edit]

Diet

[edit]

Macaques are mainlyfrugivorous, although some species have been observed feeding on insects. In natural habitats, they have been observed to consume certain parts of over one hundred species of plants including the buds, fruit, young leaves, bark, roots, and flowers. When macaqueslive amongst people, they raid agriculturalcrops such as wheat, rice, orsugarcane; and garden crops like tomatoes, bananas, melons, mangos, orpapayas.[11] In human settings, they alsorely heavily on direct handouts from people. This includes peanuts, rice,legumes, or even prepared food.

Group structure

[edit]

Macaques live in established social groups that can range from a few individuals to several hundred, as they are social animals. A typical social group possess between 20 and 50 individuals of all ages and of both sexes. The typical composition consists of 15% adult males, 35% adult females, 20% infants, and 30% juveniles, though there exists variation in structure and size of groups across populations.[citation needed]

Thepremotor cortex of macaques is widely studied.[12]

Macaques have a very intricate social structure and hierarchy, with different classifications of despotism depending on species.[13] If a macaque of a lower level in the social chain has eaten berries and none are left for a higher-ranking macaque, then the one higher in status can, within this social organization, remove the berries from the other monkey's mouth.[14]

Reproduction and mortality

[edit]

The reproductive potential of each species differs. Populations of the rhesus macaque can grow at rates of 10% to 15% per year if the environmental conditions are favorable. However, some forest-dwelling species areendangered with much lower reproductive rates.[citation needed] After one year of age, macaques move from being dependent on their mother during infancy, to the juvenile stage, where they begin to associate more with other juveniles through rough tumble and playing activities. They sexually mature between three and five years of age. Females will usually stay with the social group in which they were born; however, young adult males tend to disperse and attempt to enter other social groups. Not all males succeed in joining other groups and may become solitary, attempting to join other social groups for many years.[citation needed] Macaques have a typical lifespan of 20 to 30 years.

As invasive species

[edit]
M. fascicularis on ascooter atKo Chang, Thailand

Certain species under the genusMacaca have becomeinvasive in certain parts of the world, while others that survive in forest habitats remainthreatened. Thelong-tailed macaque (M. fascicularis) is listed as a threat and invasive alien species inMauritius, along with therhesus macaques (M. mulatta) in Florida.[15] Despite this, the former is listed as endangered.

The long-tailed macaque causes severe damage to parts of its range where it has beenintroduced because the populations grow unchecked due to a lack of predators.[16] On the island of Mauritius, they have created serious conservation concerns for otherendemic species. They consume seeds of native plants and aid in the spread of exotic weeds throughout the forests. This changes the composition of the habitats and allows them to be rapidly overrun by invasive plants.

Long-tailed macaques are also responsible for the near extinction of several bird species on Mauritius by destroying the nests of the birds as they move through their native ranges and eat the eggs ofcritically endangered species, such as thepink pigeon and Mauritian green parrot.[17] They can be serious agricultural pests because they raid crops and gardens and humans often shoot the monkeys which can eliminate entire local populations.

In Florida, a group of rhesus macaques inhabitSilver Springs State Park. Humans often feed them, which may alter their movement and keep them close to the river on weekends where high human traffic is present.[15] The monkeys can become aggressive toward humans (largely due to human ignorance of macaque behavior), and also carry potentially fatal human diseases, including theherpes B virus.[18]

Relations with humans

[edit]

Several species of macaque are used extensively inanimal testing, particularly in theneuroscience ofvisual perception and thevisual system.

Nearly all (73–100%) captive rhesus macaques arecarriers of theherpes B virus. Thisvirus is harmless to macaques, but infections of humans, while rare, are potentially fatal, a risk that makes macaques unsuitable as pets.[19]

Urban performing macaques also carriedsimian foamy virus, suggesting they could be involved in thespecies-to-species jump of similar retroviruses to humans.[20]

Population control

[edit]

Management techniques have historically been controversial, and public disapproval can hinder control efforts. Previously, efforts to remove macaque individuals were met with public resistance.[15] One management strategy that is currently being explored is that ofsterilization. Natural resource managers are being educated by scientific studies in the proposed strategy. Effectiveness of this strategy is estimated to succeed in keeping populations in check. For example, if 80% of females are sterilized every five years, or 50% every two years, it could effectively reduce the population.[15] Other control strategies include planting specific trees to provide protection to native birds from macaque predation, live trapping, and the vaccineporcine zona pellucida (PZP), which causes infertility in females.[17]

Cloning

[edit]
See also:List of animals that have been cloned

In January 2018, scientists in China reported in the journalCell the first creation of twocrab-eating macaqueclones, namedZhong Zhong and Hua Hua, usingsomatic cell nuclear transfer – the same method that producedDolly the sheep.[21][22][23][24]

Species

[edit]
GenusMacaca –Lacépède, 1799 – 24 species
Common nameScientific name and subspeciesRangeSize and ecologyIUCN status and estimated population
Arunachal macaque

Brown monkey

M. munzala
Sinha,Datta,Madhusudan,Mishra, 2005		Eastern Himalayas
Map of range		Size: 36–77 cm (14–30 in) long, plus about 9–20 cm (4–8 in) tail[25]

Habitat: Forest[26]

Diet: Fruit, leaves, grains, buds, seeds, flowers, and bark, as well as insects and small invertebrates[25]		 EN 


250Population declining[26]

Assam macaque

Brown monkeys

M. assamensis
(McClelland, 1840)

Two subspecies
  • M. a. assamensis (Eastern Assamese macaque)
  • M. a. pelops (Western Assamese macaque)
Southeastern Asia
Map of range		Size: 36–77 cm (14–30 in) long, plus about 9–20 cm (4–8 in) tail[25]

Habitat: Forest[27]

Diet: Fruit, leaves, grains, buds, seeds, flowers, and bark, as well as insects and small invertebrates[25]		 NT 


UnknownPopulation declining[27]

Barbary macaque

Brown monkey and baby

M. sylvanus
(Linnaeus, 1758)		Northwestern Africa
Map of range		Size: 45–60 cm (18–24 in) long, plus 1–2 cm (0–1 in) tail[28]

Habitat: Forest, shrubland, grassland, rocky areas, and caves[29]

Diet: Plants, caterpillars, fruit, seeds, roots, and fungi[28]		 EN 


UnknownPopulation declining[29]

Bonnet macaque

Brown monkey

M. radiata
(Geoffroy, 1812)

Two subspecies
  • M. r. diluta (Pale-bellied bonnet macaque)
  • M. r. radiata (Dark-bellied bonnet macaque)
Southern India
Map of range		Size: 36–77 cm (14–30 in) long, plus about 9–20 cm (4–8 in) tail[25]

Habitat: Forest, savanna, and shrubland[30]

Diet: Fruit, foliage, and insects, as well as bird eggs and lizards[31]		 VU 


UnknownPopulation declining[30]

Booted macaque

Drawing of gray monkey

M. ochreata
(Ogilby, 1841)		Island ofSulawesi inIndonesia
Map of range		Size: 36–77 cm (14–30 in) long, plus about 1–15 cm (0–6 in) tail[25]

Habitat: Forest and savanna[32]

Diet: Fruit, leaves, grains, buds, seeds, flowers, and bark, as well as insects and small invertebrates[25]		 VU 


UnknownPopulation declining[32]

Celebes crested macaque

Gray monkey

M. nigra
(Desmarest, 1822)		Island of Sulawesi
Map of range		Size: 44–57 cm (17–22 in) long, plus about 2 cm (1 in) tail[33]

Habitat: Forest[34]

Diet: Fruit, as well as insects, shoots, leaves, and stems[33]		 CR 


UnknownPopulation declining[34]

Crab-eating macaque

Brown monkey

M. fascicularis
(Raffles, 1821)

Ten subspecies
  • M. f. atriceps (Dark-crowned long-tailed macaque)
  • M. f. aureus (Burmese long-tailed macaque)
  • M. f. condorensis (Con Song long-tailed macaque)
  • M. f. fascicularis (Common long-tailed macaque)
  • M. f. fusca (Simeulue long-tailed macaque)
  • M. f. karimondjawae (Kemujan long-tailed macaque)
  • M. f. lasiae (Lasia long-tailed macaque)
  • M. f. philippensis (Philippine long-tailed macaque)
  • M. f. tua (Maratua long-tailed macaque)
  • M. f. umbrosus (Nicobar long-tailed macaque)
Southeastern Asia
Map of range		Size: 40–47 cm (16–19 in) long, plus 50–60 cm (20–24 in) tail

Habitat: Forest, intertidal marine, caves, inland wetlands, grassland, shrubland, and savanna[35]

Diet: Fruit, crabs, flowers, insects, leaves, fungi, grasses, and clay[36]		 EN 


UnknownPopulation declining[35]

Formosan rock macaque

Gray monkeys

M. cyclopis
Swinhoe, 1862		Taiwan
Map of range		Size: 36–45 cm (14–18 in) long, plus 26–46 cm (10–18 in) tail[37]

Habitat: Forest[38]

Diet: Fruit, leaves, berries, seeds, insects, and small vertebrates, buds, and shoots[37]		 LC 


UnknownPopulation steady[38]

Gorontalo macaque

Black-and-white drawing of monkey

M. nigrescens
(Temminck, 1849)		Island of Sulawesi
Map of range		Size: 36–77 cm (14–30 in) long, plus about 1–15 cm (0–6 in) tail[25]

Habitat: Forest[39]

Diet: Fruit, leaves, grains, buds, seeds, flowers, and bark, as well as insects and small invertebrates[25]		 VU 


UnknownPopulation declining[39]

Heck's macaque

M. hecki
(Matschie, 1901)		Island of Sulawesi
Map of range		Size: 36–77 cm (14–30 in) long, plus about 1–15 cm (0–6 in) tail[25]

Habitat: Forest and grassland[40]

Diet: Fruit, leaves, grains, buds, seeds, flowers, and bark, as well as insects and small invertebrates[25]		 VU 


100,000Population declining[40]

Japanese macaque

Brown monkeys

M. fuscata
(Blyth, 1875)

Two subspecies
Japan
Map of range		Size: 36–77 cm (14–30 in) long, plus about 1–15 cm (0–6 in) tail[25]

Habitat: Forest[41]

Diet: Fruit, seeds, flowers, nectar, leaves, and fungi[42]		 LC 


UnknownPopulation steady[41]

Lion-tailed macaque

Gray and brown monkey

M. silenus
(Linnaeus, 1758)		Southwestern India
Map of range		Size: 40–61 cm (16–24 in) long, plus 24–38 cm (9–15 in) tail[43]

Habitat: Forest[44]

Diet: Fruit, as well as leaves, stems, flowers, buds, fungi, insects, lizards, tree frogs, and small mammals[43]		 EN 


2,400–2,500Population declining[44]

Moor macaque

Gray monkeys

M. maura
(Schinz, 1825)		Island of Sulawesi
Map of range		Size: 36–77 cm (14–30 in) long, plus about 1–15 cm (0–6 in) tail[25]

Habitat: Forest and grassland[45]

Diet: Fruit, leaves, grains, buds, seeds, flowers, and bark, as well as insects and small invertebrates[25]		 EN 


UnknownPopulation declining[45]

Muna-Buton macaque


M. brunnescens
(Matschie, 1901)		Island of Sulawesi in Indonesia
Map of range		Size: 36–77 cm (14–30 in) long, plus about 1–15 cm (0–6 in) tail[25]

Habitat: Forest[46]

Diet: Fruit, leaves, grains, buds, seeds, flowers, and bark, as well as insects and small invertebrates[25]		 VU 


UnknownPopulation declining[46]

Northern pig-tailed macaque

Gray monkey and baby

M. leonina
(Blyth, 1863)		Southeastern Asia
Map of range		Size: 36–77 cm (14–30 in) long, plus about 9–20 cm (4–8 in) tail[25]

Habitat: Forest[47]

Diet: Leaves, seeds, stems, roots, flowers, bamboo shoots, rice, gums, insects, larvae, termite eggs and spiders[47]		 VU 


UnknownPopulation declining[47]

Pagai Island macaque

Brown monkey

M. pagensis
(G. S. Miller, 1903)		Mentawai Islands in Indonesia
Map of range		Size: 36–77 cm (14–30 in) long, plus about 9–20 cm (4–8 in) tail[25]

Habitat: Forest[48]

Diet: Fruit, leaves, grains, buds, seeds, flowers, and bark, as well as insects and small invertebrates[25]		 CR 


2,100–3,700Population declining[48]

Rhesus macaque

Brown monkey

M. mulatta
(Zimmermann, 1790)		Southern and southeastern Asia
Map of range		Size: 45–64 cm (18–25 in) long, plus 19–32 cm (7–13 in) tail[49]

Habitat: Forest, savanna, and shrubland[50]

Diet: Fish, crabs, shellfish, bird eggs, honeycombs, crayfish, crabs, spiders, plants, gums and pith[50]		 LC 


UnknownUnknown[50]

Siberut macaque


M. siberu
Fuentes, 1995		Siberut island in Indonesia
Map of range		Size: 36–77 cm (14–30 in) long, plus about 9–20 cm (4–8 in) tail[25]

Habitat: Forest[51]

Diet: Fruit, as well as mushrooms, leaves, crabs, crayfish, pith, sap, shoots and flowers[51]		 EN 


UnknownPopulation declining[51]

Southern pig-tailed macaque

Brown monkeys

M. nemestrina
(Linnaeus, 1766)		Southeastern Asia
Map of range		Size: 46–57 cm (18–22 in) long, plus 13–26 cm (5–10 in) tail[52]

Habitat: Forest and shrubland[53]

Diet: Fruit, insects, seeds, leaves, dirt, and fungus, as well as birds, termite eggs and larvae, and river crabs[52]		 EN 


UnknownPopulation declining[53]

Stump-tailed macaque

Brown and red monkeys

M. arctoides
(I. Geoffroy, 1831)		Southeastern Asia
Map of range		Size: 48–65 cm (19–26 in) long, plus 3–7 cm (1–3 in) tail[54]

Habitat: Forest[55]

Diet: Fruit, seeds, flowers, roots, leaves, frogs, crabs, birds, and bird eggs[54]		 VU 


UnknownPopulation declining[55]

Tibetan macaque

Brown monkey

M. thibetana
(A. Milne-Edwards, 1870)

Four subspecies
  • M. t. esau
  • M. t. guiahouensis
  • M. t. huangshanensis
  • M. t. thibetana
East China
Map of range		Size: 36–77 cm (14–30 in) long, plus about 1–15 cm (0–6 in) tail[25]

Habitat: Forest and caves[56]

Diet: Fruit, as well as flowers, berries, seeds, leaves, stems, stalks, and invertebrates[56]		 NT 


UnknownPopulation declining[56]

Tonkean macaque

Group of gray monkeys

M. tonkeana
(von Meyer, 1899)		Island of Sulawesi
Map of range		Size: 36–77 cm (14–30 in) long, plus about 1–15 cm (0–6 in) tail[25]

Habitat: Forest[57]

Diet: Fruit, leaves, grains, buds, seeds, flowers, and bark, as well as insects and small invertebrates[25]		 VU 


UnknownPopulation declining[57]

Toque macaque

Brown monkey

M. sinica
(Linnaeus, 1771)

Three subspecies
  • M. s. aurifrons (Pale-fronted toque macaque)
  • M. s. opisthomelas (Highland toque macaque)
  • M. s. sinica (Common toque macaque)
Sri Lanka
Map of range		Size: 36–53 cm (14–21 in) long, plus at least 36–53 cm (14–21 in) tail[25]

Habitat: Forest[58]

Diet: Fruit as well as tree flowers, buds, and leaves[59]		 EN 


UnknownPopulation declining[58]

White-cheeked macaque

Brown monkey

M. leucogenys
Li,Zhao,Fan, 2015		Northeastern IndiaSize: 36–77 cm (14–30 in) long, plus about 9–20 cm (4–8 in) tail[25]

Habitat: Forest[60]

Diet: Fruit, leaves, grains, buds, seeds, flowers, and bark, as well as insects and small invertebrates[25]		 EN 


UnknownPopulation declining[60]

Prehistoric (fossil) species

[edit]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^abGroves, C. P. (2005).Wilson, D. E.; Reeder, D. M. (eds.).Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference (3rd ed.). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 161–165.ISBN 0-801-88221-4.OCLC 62265494.
  2. ^"macaque".Lexico UK English Dictionary.Oxford University Press. Archived fromthe original on October 24, 2021.
  3. ^Keach, Sean (October 22, 2019)."Rat-eating monkeys in Malaysia stun scientists".The Sun.
  4. ^Guy, Jack (October 22, 2019)."Rat-eating macaques could boost palm oil sustainability in Malaysia". CNN.
  5. ^Fleagle, John G. (8 March 2013).Primate Adaptation and Evolution. Academic. p. 123.ISBN 978-0-12-378633-3.
  6. ^abc"macaque | Classification & Facts".Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved2018-07-02.
  7. ^"ape, n." OED Online. Oxford University Press, March 2017. Web. 16 April 2017.
  8. ^Ankel-Simons, Friderun (2000)."Hands and Feet".Primate anatomy: an introduction. Academic Press. p. 340.ISBN 978-0-12-058670-7.
  9. ^Knight, John (August 1999). "Monkeys on the Move: The Natural Symbolism of People-Macaque Conflict in Japan".The Journal of Asian Studies.58 (3):622–647.doi:10.2307/2659114.ISSN 0021-9118.JSTOR 2659114.S2CID 143569917.
  10. ^Pickford, M.; Gommery, D.; Ingicco, T. (2023)."Macaque molar from the Red Crag Formation, Waldringfield, England".Fossil Imprint.79 (1):26–36.doi:10.37520/fi.2023.003.S2CID 265089167.
  11. ^"Primate Factsheets: Long-tailed macaque (Macaca fascicularis) Conservation".pin.primate.wisc.edu. Retrieved2018-07-02.
  12. ^Boussaoud, D.; Tanné-Gariépy, J.; Wannier, T.; Rouiller, E. M. (2005)."Callosal connections of dorsal versus ventral premotor areas in the macaque monkey: A multiple retrograde tracing study".BMC Neuroscience.6: 67.doi:10.1186/1471-2202-6-67.PMC 1314896.PMID 16309550.
  13. ^Matsumura, S (1999). "The evolution of "egalitarian" and "despotic" social systems among macaques".Primates.40 (1):23–31.doi:10.1007/BF02557699.PMID 23179529.S2CID 23652944 – via SpringerLink Journals.
  14. ^David Attenborough (2003).The Life of Mammals.BBC Video.
  15. ^abcd"Mapping Macaques: Studying Florida's Non-Native Primates". UF/IFAS Wildlife Ecology and Conservation Department. 2016-12-20. Retrieved2018-07-02.
  16. ^"Primate Factsheets: Long-tailed macaque (Macaca fascicularis) Conservation".pin.primate.wisc.edu. Retrieved2018-07-02.
  17. ^ab"GISD".iucngisd.org. Upane. Retrieved2018-07-02.
  18. ^Ostrowski, Stephanie (March 1998)."B-virus from Pet Macaque Monkeys: An Emerging Threat in the United States?".Emerging Infectious Diseases.4 (1):117–21.doi:10.3201/eid0401.980117.ISSN 1080-6040.PMC 2627675.PMID 9452406.
  19. ^Ostrowski, Stephanie R.; et al. (1998)."B-virus from Pet Macaque Monkeys: an Emerging Threat in the United States?".Emerging Infectious Diseases.4 (1). Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC):117–121.doi:10.3201/eid0401.980117.PMC 2627675.PMID 9452406.
  20. ^"News | University of Toronto".www.utoronto.ca. Archived fromthe original on March 22, 2006. RetrievedMay 30, 2020.
  21. ^Liu, Zhen; et al. (24 January 2018)."Cloning of Macaque Monkeys by Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer".Cell.172 (4): 881–887.e7.doi:10.1016/j.cell.2018.01.020.PMID 29395327.
  22. ^Normile, Dennis (24 January 2018)."These monkey twins are the first primate clones made by the method that developed Dolly".Science.doi:10.1126/science.aat1066. Retrieved24 January 2018.
  23. ^Briggs, Helen (24 January 2018)."First monkey clones created in Chinese laboratory".BBC News. Retrieved24 January 2018.
  24. ^"Scientists Successfully Clone Monkeys; Are Humans Up Next?".The New York Times. Associated Press. 24 January 2018. Retrieved24 January 2018.
  25. ^abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzNowak 1999, pp. 140, 142
  26. ^abKumar, A.; Sinha, A.; Kumar, S. (2020)."Macaca munzala".IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.2020: e.T136569A17948833.doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-2.RLTS.T136569A17948833.en.
  27. ^abBoonratana, R.; Chalise, M.; Htun, S.; Timmins, R. J. (2020)."Macaca assamensis".IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.2020: e.T12549A17950189.doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-2.RLTS.T12549A17950189.en.
  28. ^abJinn, Judy (2011)."Macaca sylvanus".Animal Diversity Web.University of Michigan.Archived from the original on July 24, 2023. RetrievedJuly 24, 2023.
  29. ^abWallis, J.; Benrabah, M. E.; Pilot, M.; Majolo, B.; Waters, S. (2020)."Macaca sylvanus".IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.2020: e.T12561A50043570.doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-2.RLTS.T12561A50043570.en.
  30. ^abSingh, M.; Kumara, H. N.; Kumar, A. (2020)."Macaca radiata".IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.2020: e.T12558A17951596.doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-2.RLTS.T12558A17951596.en.
  31. ^Brown, Monica (2008)."Macaca radiata".Animal Diversity Web.University of Michigan.Archived from the original on April 1, 2023. RetrievedAugust 16, 2023.
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Sources

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External links

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Data related toMacaque at Wikispecies

Wikimedia Commons has media related toMacaca.
Extant species of familyCercopithecidae(Old World monkeys) (subfamilyCercopithecinae)
Cercopithecini
Allenopithecus
Miopithecus
(Talapoins)
Erythrocebus
Chlorocebus
(Vervet monkeys)
Allochrocebus
(Terrestrial guenons)
Cercopithecus
(Arboreal guenons)
Papionini
Macaca
(Macaques)
Lophocebus
(Crested mangabeys)
Rungwecebus
Papio
(Baboons)
Theropithecus
Cercocebus
(White-eyelid
mangabeys)
Mandrillus
Microchoerinae
"Anaptomorphinae"
"Omomyinae"
Tarkadectinae
Tarsiiformes
Tarsiidae
Simiiformes
    • see below↓
Teilhardina sp.
†Afrotarsiidae?
†Eosimiidae
†Amphipithecidae
†Parapithecoidea
Proteopithecidae
Parapithecidae
Aotidae
Pitheciidae
Atelidae
Cebidae
Callitrichidae
Catarrhini
    • see below↓
Eosimias sinensis
†Oligopithecidae
†Propliopithecidae
†Pliopithecoidea
Pliopithecidae
Dionysopithecidae
Crouzeliidae
†Victoriapithecidae
Colobinae
Cercopithecinae
Cercopithecini
Papionini
Hominoidea
    • see below↓
Aegyptopithecus zeuxis
†Dendropithecidae
Hylobatidae
Ponginae
†Dryopithecini
Gorillini
Hominini
Hominina
Gigantopithecus blacki
Macaca
Authority control databases: NationalEdit this at Wikidata
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