TheChinese monarchs were the rulers ofChina duringAncient andImperial periods.[a] The earliest rulers in traditionalChinese historiography are ofmythological origin, and followed by theXia dynasty of highly uncertain and contested historicity. During the subsequentShang (c. 1600–1046 BCE) andZhou (1046–256 BCE) dynasties, rulers were referred to asWang王, meaningking.[4] China wasfully united for the first time byQin Shi Huang (r. 259–210 BCE), who established thefirst Imperial dynasty, adopting the titleHuangdi (皇帝), meaning Emperor, which remained in use until the Imperial system'sfall in 1912.[4]
At no point during Ancient or Imperial China was there a formalized means to confer legitimate succession between rulers.[5] From the Zhou dynasty onwards, monarchs justified their reigns by claiming theMandate of Heaven (天命;Tiānmìng).[6][b] The mandate held that a ruler and their successors had permission from the heavens to rule as long as they did so effectively.[6] It also declared a ruler theSon of Heaven (天子;Tiānzǐ), giving them the right to rule "all under heaven" (天下;Tiānxià).[10] Given the Mandate's subjective nature, rulers also utilized a variety of methods to retain support and justify their accession.[6] This ranged from military enforcement,political patronage, establishing peace and solidity, institutional reform, andhistorical revisionism to legitimize the dissolution of previous dynasties and their own succession.[11] For most of Imperial China, thewuxing (五行; "Five Elements") philosophical scheme was also central to justify dynastic succession.[12]
Most Chinese monarchs had many names. They were given apersonal name (名字;Míngzi) at birth, but later referred to by aposthumous name (謚號;Shìhào)—which memorialized their accomplishments or character—due to a culturalnaming taboo.[13] Most emperors of the Imperial period also received atemple name (廟號;Miàohào), used to venerate them inancestor worship.[14] From the rule ofEmperor Wu of Han (r. 141–87 BCE) onwards,[c] emperors also adopted one or severalera names (年號;Niánhào), or "reign mottos",[17] to divide their rule by important events or accomplishments.[18]Ming (1368–1644) andQing (1644–1912) rulers are referred to solely by their era names, of which they only had one.[19]
Apart from ethnicHan rulers, China was also ruled by various non-Han monarchs, includingJurchen,Khitan,Manchu,Mongol andTangut and many others.[20] To justify their reign, non-Han rulers sometimes aligned themselves with the Confucian sages or theChakravarti ofChinese Buddhism.[5] There are numerous lengthy periods where many competing kingdoms claimed the throne, many of whose legitimacy is still debated by scholars.[20]
In traditionalChinese historiography, various models of mythological founding rulers exist.[21] The relevancy of these figures to the earliest Chinese people is unknown, since most accounts of them were written from theWarring States period (c. 475–221 BCE) onwards.[22] The sinologistKwang-chih Chang has generalized the typical stages: "the first period was populated bygods, the second bydemigods/culture hero, and the third by thelegendary kings."[23] The primordial godPangu is given by many texts as the earliest figure and is credited withforming the world by separating heaven and earth.[24] Other gods includeNüwa, who repaired heaven;Hou Yi, a mythical archer; andGonggong, a serpent-likewater deity.[25]
Demigod and hero rulers from hero myths—the largest groupChinese myths—are attributed the invention of specific items, practices or traditions.[26] Among the more important of them areFuxi, the inventor of hunting;Suiren, who invented fire; andShennong, who invented both agriculture and medicine.[27] The subsequent legendary kings began with theYellow Emperor (黃帝), known asHuangdi, a majorculture hero of Chinese civilization whose reign was considered exemplary.[27] Succeeding rulers include some combination ofShaohao,Zhuanxu,Emperor Ku,Emperor Yao andEmperor Shun.[28] Since the late Warring States onwards, early Chinese monarchs have traditionally been ground into the concept of theThree Sovereigns and Five Emperors;[28] however, the chosen figures of this grouping varies considerably between sources.[27] Generally, most accounts include at least Fuxi and Shennong among the Three Sovereigns as well as the Yellow Emperor, Yao and Shun among the Five Emperors.[28]
The Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors period was followed by theXia dynasty in traditional historiography.[29] Founded byYu the Great, both the dynasty and its rulers are of highly uncertain and controversial historicity.[29][30]
| Name | Speculative reign length[d] | Traditional succession | Capital[31] | Purported life details | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ZTW | Trad[32] | ||||
| Yu 禹 | 45 | 7 | Chosen by the mythicalEmperor Shun | Ji | Awarded the throne after his institution offlood control. He is often known as "Yu the Great" and his passing of the throne to his son marked the beginning of China'shereditary succession[33] |
| Qi 啟 | 10 | 8 | Son ofYu | Xiayi | Prevented a rebellion led by his son Wuguan[34] |
| (Tai) Kang （太）康 | 29 | 28 | Son ofQi | Zhenxun | Traditionally considered an ineffective king, either due to tyranny or incompetence. May have been briefly dethroned by the mythical heroHan Zhuo and later murdered by Han's son Ao[35] |
| (Zhong) Kang (#) （仲）康 | 13 | 13 | Son ofQi | Zhenxun | May not have ruled as his existence is sometimes absent from Xia king lists[36] |
| Xiang 相 | 28 | 28 | Son of(Zhong) Kang | Shang, then Zhenxun | Killed by a son ofHan Zhuo[37] |
| Interregnum, ruled byHan Zhuo | |||||
| (Shao) Kang （少）康 | 21 | 21 | Son ofXiang | Yuan | Restored the dynasty after killingHan Zhuo and his sons[38] |
| Zhu 杼 | 17 | 16 | Son of(Shao) Kang | Yuan, then Laoqiu | Little is known of his reign[39] |
| Huai 槐 | 26 | 25 | Son ofZhu | – | Little is known of his reign; may have ruled up to 40 years[40] |
| Mang 芒 | 18 | 17 | Son ofHuai | – | Little is known of his reign[40] |
| Xie 泄 | 16 | 15 | Son ofMang | – | Little is known of his reign[41] |
| (Bu) Jiang （不）降 | 59 | 58 | Son ofXie | – | Little is known of his reign; campaigned against the northwesternJiuyuan [zh] peoples[40] |
| Jiong 扃 | 21 | 20 | Son ofXie | – | Little is known of his reign[40] |
| Jin 廑 | 21 | 20 | Son ofJiong | Xihe | Little is known of his reign[40] |
| Kong Jia 孔甲 | 31 | 30 | Son of(Bu) Jiang | Xihe | His reign inaugurated the Xia's gradual decline[40] |
| Gao 皋 | 11 | 10 | Son ofKong Jia | – | Little is known of his reign[40] |
| Fa 發 | 11 | 20? | Son ofGao | – | May have only reigned 7 years. His reign saw the earliest recorded earthquake, identified with theMount Tai earthquake.[40] |
| Jie 桀 | 52 | 52 | Son ofFa | Zhenxun, then Henan | Traditionally considered a cruel and oppressive ruler. Fled the empire after losing theBattle of Mingtiao to the state of Shang[42] |
Unlike the Xia, theShang dynasty's historicity is firmly established, due towritten records on divination objects known asOracle bones. The oldest such oracle bones date to theLate Shang (c. 1250—1046 BCE), during the reign ofWu Ding (1250–1192), putting the exact details of earlier rulers into doubt.[43][44]
| Posthumous name[45] | Personal name[45] | Tentative reign (BCE)[e] | Traditional succession[46][47] | Residence[48] | Purported life details | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| XSZ Project[49][50] | CHAC[51] | |||||||
Early Shang[edit] | ||||||||
| Tang 汤 Da Yi 大乙 | Zi Lü 子履 | fl. c. 1600 | fl. c. 1570[52] | Defeated the purportedly tyrannousJie of Xia at theBattle of Mingtiao and established theShang dynasty | Bo, then Shangyi | Traditionally considered a noble and virtuous ruler[53] | ||
| Da Ding (#) 大丁 Tai Ding (#) 太丁 | unknown | – | – | Son of Tang | – | Uncertain whether he was ever enthroned; may have died before succeeding his father[54][53] | ||
| Wai Bing 外丙 | Zi Sheng 子勝 | — | — | Son of Tang | Bo | —[53] | ||
| Zhong Ren (#) 中壬 | Zi Yong 子庸 | — | — | Son of Tang | Bo | Not listed in the oracle bones inscriptions[53] | ||
| Tai Jia 太甲 | Zi Zhi 子至 | — | — | Son of Da Ding | Bo | Traditionally considered anautocratic and cruel ruler[53] | ||
| Wo Ding (#) 沃丁 Qiang Ding 羌丁 | Zi Xuan 子絢 | — | — | Son of Tai Jia | Bo | His name is not found in oracle bone inscriptions, making his certainty as a ruler less secure.[54][53] | ||
| Tai Geng 太庚 Da Geng 大庚 | Zi Bian 子辯 | — | — | Son of Tai Jia | Bo | –[55] | ||
| Xiao Jia 小甲 | Zi Gao 子高 | — | — | Son of Tai Geng | Bo | –[55] | ||
| Yong Ji 雍己 | Zi Zhou 子伷 | — | — | Son of Tai Geng | Bo | May have reigned afterTai Wu[55] | ||
| Tai Wu 太戊 Da Wu 大戊 | Zi Mi 子密 | — | — | Son of Tai Geng | Bo | Said to have had a particularly long reign; one source records 75 years. The astronomerWuxian was active under him[55] | ||
| Zhong Ding 仲丁 | Zi Zhung 子莊 | — | — | Son of Tai Wu | Ao | May have succeededYong Ji[55] | ||
| Wai Ren 外壬 | Zi Fā 子發 | — | — | Son of Tai Wu | Ao | –[55] | ||
| He Dan Jia 河亶甲 | Zi Zheng 子整 | — | — | Son of Tai Wu | Xiang | Moved the capital to Xiang (相) and engaged in military campaigns[55] | ||
| Zu Yi 祖己 | Zi Teng 子滕 | — | — | Son of Zhong Ding | Geng | The dynasty flourished particularly during his reign[55] | ||
| Zu Xin 祖辛 | Zi Dan 子旦 | — | — | Son of Zu Yi | Bi | –[55] | ||
| Wo Jia 沃甲 Qiang Jia 羌甲 | Zi Yu 子踰 | — | — | Son of Zu Yi | Bi | –[55] | ||
| Zu Ding 祖丁 | Zi Xin 子新 | — | — | Son of Zu Xin | Bi | –[55] | ||
| Nan Geng 南庚 | Zi Geng 子更 | — | — | Son of Wo Jia | Bi, then Yan | Moved the capital from Bi (庇) to Yan (奄)[55] | ||
| Yang Jia 陽甲 | Zi He 子和 | — | — | Son of Zu Ding | Yan | His reign marked the decline of the Shang[56] | ||
| Pan Geng 盤庚 | Zi Xun 子旬 | 1300–1251 (48–49 years) | — | Son of Zu Ding | Yan, then Yin | Traditionally said to have moved the dynasty's capital from Yan (奄) toYin (殷)[57] Led a prosperous reign[56] | ||
| Xiao Xin 小辛 | Zi Song 子颂 | — | Son of Zu Ding | Yin | His reign saw the continuation of the Shang's decline[56] | |||
| Xiao Yi 小乙 | Zi Lian 子敛 | — | Son of Zu Ding | Yin | –[56] | |||
Late Shang[edit]See also:Late Shang andPeriodization of the Shang dynasty | ||||||||
| Wu Ding 武丁 | Zi Zhao 子昭 | 1250–1192 (57–58 years) | ?–1189 | Son of Xiao Yi | Yin | A powerful king with a lengthy reign. Made his wifeFu Hao the a military general and is purportedly defeated the mostly-unknownGuifang people.[58] The first ruler whose name is included inoracle bones which date to his reign.[59][56] | ||
| Zu Geng 祖庚 | Zi Yue 子躍 | 1191–1148 (42–43 years) | 1188–1178 (9–10 years) | Son of Wu Ding | Yin | Possibly commissioned theHoumuwu ding in memory of his motherFu Jing[60][56][f] | ||
| Zu Jia 祖甲 | Zi Zai 子載 | 1177–1158 (18–19 years) | Son of Wu Ding | Yin | Reformed the ritual and calendar systems, as recording in theBook of Documents[56] | |||
| Lin Xin (#) 廩辛 | Zi Xian 子先 | 1157–1149 (7–8 years) | Son of Zu Jia | Yin | Due to inconsistencies in the oracle bone inscriptions, it is possible he did not reign.[62][63] | |||
| Geng Ding 庚丁 Kang Ding 康丁 | Zi Xiao 子囂 | 1148–1132 (15–16 years) | Son of Zu Jia | Yin | His reign accelerated the dynasty's decline[64] | |||
| Wu Yi 武乙 | Zi Qu 子瞿 | 1147–1131 (15–16 years) | 1131–1117 (13–14 years) | Son of Geng Ding | Yin, Hebei, then Mo | Engaged in numerous military campaigns, including against the state ofYiqu. Traditionally held to have been killed by a lightning strike, considered a bad omen[64] | ||
| Wen Wu Ding 文武丁 Wen Ding 文丁 | Zi Tuo 子托 | 1112–1102 (9–10 years) | 1116–1106 (9–10 years) | Son of Wu Yi | Yin | ThePredynastic Zhou rose in power during his reign, led byJi, King of Zhou[64] | ||
| Di Yi 帝乙 | Zi Xian 子羡 | 1101–1076 (24–25 years) | 1105–1087 (17–18 years) | Son of Wen Wu Ding | Yin | Supposedly married his daughter toKing Wen of Zhou,[65][66] or married his sister toJi, King of Zhou[67] | ||
| Di Xin 帝辛 (紂) | Zi Shou 子受 | 1075–1046 (28–29 years) | 1086–1045 (40–41 years) | Son of Di Yi | Yin | Killed byJi Fa during theBattle of Muye[68][64] | ||
| Posthumous name[69] | Personal name | Tentative reign (BCE) | Traditional succession[70] | Purported life details | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| XSZ Project[49][50] | CHAC[69] | |||||
Western Zhou[edit]See also:Western Zhou | ||||||
| Wu 武 | Ji Fa 姬發 | 1046–1043 (2–3 years) | 1049–1043 (5–6 years) | Son ofKing Wen | Defeated the tyrannicalKing Zhou of Shang in theBattle of Muye[71] | |
| Cheng 成 | Ji Song 姬誦 | 1042–1021 (20–21 years) | 1042–1006 (35–36 years) | Son of Wu | Most of his reign was controlled by theDuke of Zhou, who suppressed theRebellion of the Three Guards[71] | |
| Kang 康 | Ji Zhao 姬釗 | 1020–996 (23–24 years) | 1005–978 (26–27 years) | Son of Cheng | His accession established Zhouprimogeniture. A largely peaceful reign[71] | |
| Zhao 昭 | Ji Xia 姬瑕 | 995–977 (17–18 years) | 977–957 (19–20 years) | Son of Kang | Lost theZhou–Chu War, during which he died. His reign marked the Zhou's gradual decline[72] | |
| Mu 穆 | Ji Man 姬滿 | 976–922 (53–54 years) | 956–918 (39–40 years) | Son of Zhao | Engaged in many destabilizing territory conflicts[73] | |
| Gong 共 | Ji Yihu 姬繄扈 | 922–900 (21–22 years) | 917–900 (16–17 years) | Son of Mu | Little is known of his reign[73] | |
| Yih 懿 | Ji Jian 姬囏 | 899–892 (6–7 years) | 899–873 (25–26 years) | Son of Gong | Little is known of his reign; may have been removed from power byXiao[73] | |
| Xiao 孝 | Ji Pifang 姬辟方 | 891–886 (4–5 years) | 872–866 (5–6 years) | Son of Mu | Little is known of his reign[73] | |
| Yí 夷 | Ji Xie 姬燮 | 885–878 (6–7 years) | 865–858 (6–7 years) | Son of Yih | Continued decline of the Zhou[73] | |
| Li 厲 | Ji Hu 姬胡 | 877–841 (35–36 years) | 857–842 (14–15 years) | Son of Yí | Traditionally considered a corrupt and cruel ruler. Exiled amid a peasant rebellion[74] | |
| Gonghe Regency (共和; 841–828)[75] | ||||||
| Xuan 宣 | Ji Jing 姬靜 | 827–782 | Son of Li | Had military successes, aiming to restore Zhou authority[75] | ||
| You 幽 | Ji Gongnie 姬宮涅 | 781–771 (9–10 years) | 782–771 (10–11 years) | Son of Xuan | Numerous natural disasters occurred, after whichQuanrong him and overran the capital[75] | |
Eastern Zhou[edit]See also:Eastern Zhou | ||||||
| Spring and Autumn period (春秋時代; 770–476 BCE) | ||||||
| Ping 平 | Ji Yijiu 姬宜臼 | 770–720 (49–50 years) | Son of You | Moved the capital toLuoyang[76] | ||
| Huan 桓 | Ji Lin 姬林 | 719–697 (21–22 years) | Grandson of Ping | Defeated by theDuke of Zheng at theBattle of Xuge, accelerating the Zhou dynasty's decline in power[76] | ||
| Zhuang 莊 | Ji Tuo 姬佗 | 696–682 (13–14 years) | Son of Huan | Royal court's authority began declining[76] | ||
| Xi 釐 | Ji Huqi 姬胡齊 | 681–677 (3–4 years) | Son of Zhuang | Briefly reigned as theDuke Huan led theQi to surpass the Zhou in power[76] | ||
| Hui 惠 | Ji Lang 姬閬 | 676–652 (23–24 years) | Son of Xi | Slowed theChu state's rise[76] | ||
| Xiang 襄 | Ji Zheng 姬鄭 | 651–619 (31–32 years) | Son of Hui | Briefly deposed by his brother, but reinstated byDuke Wen[76] | ||
| Qing 頃 | Ji Renchen 姬壬臣 | 618–613 (4–5 years) | Son of Xiang | Briefly reigned[76] | ||
| Kuang 匡 | Ji Ban 姬班 | 612–607 (4–5 years) | Son of Qing | Increasing fighting between surrounding kingdoms[76] | ||
| Ding 定 | Ji Yu 姬瑜 | 606–586 (19–20 years) | Son of Qing | Continued fighting of surrounding kingdoms[77] | ||
| Jian 簡 | Ji Yi 姬夷 | 585–572 (12–13 years) | Son of Ding | Continued fighting of surrounding kingdoms[77] | ||
| Ling 靈 | Ji Xiexin 姬泄心 | 571–545 (25–26 years) | Son of Jian | Weakened relations with surrounding kingdoms[77] | ||
| Jing 景 | Ji Gui 姬貴 | 544–521 (22–23 years) | Son of Ling | Died without an heir, causing a power struggle and rebellion[77] | ||
| Dao 悼 | Ji Meng 姬猛 | 520 (less than a year) | Son of Jing (544–521) | Briefly ruled before being murdered by his brother[77] | ||
| Jing 敬 | Ji Gai 姬丐 | 519–476 (42–43 years) | Son of Jing (544–521) | Briefly exiled during a revolt. Ruled during the lifetime ofConfucius[77] | ||
| Warring States period (戰國時代; 475–221 BCE) | ||||||
| Yuan 元 | Ji Ren 姬仁 | 475–469 (5–6 years) | Son of Jing (519–476) | Decline in Zhou's power[77] | ||
| Zhending 貞定 | Ji Jie 姬介 | 468–442 (25–26 years) | Son of Yuan | Continued decline of Zhou[78] | ||
| Ai 哀 | Ji Quji 姬去疾 | 441 (less than a year) | Son of Zhending | Continued decline of Zhou. Killed bySi[79] | ||
| Si 思 | Ji Shu 姬叔 | 441 (less than a year) | Son of Zhending | Continued decline of Zhou. Killed byKao[79] | ||
| Kao 考 | Ji Wei 姬嵬 | 440–426 (13–14 years) | Son of Zhending | –[79] | ||
| Weilie 威烈 | Ji Wu 姬午 | 425–402 (22–23 years) | Son of Kao | –[79] | ||
| An 安 | Ji Jiao 姬驕 | 401–376 (24–25 years) | Son of Weilie | Wei increased in power[79] | ||
| Lie 烈 | Ji Xi 姬喜 | 375–369 (5–6 years) | Son of An | –[79] | ||
| Xian 顯 | Ji Bian 姬扁 | 368–321 (46–47 years) | Son of An | Qin began to rise in power[79] | ||
| Shenjing 慎靚 | Ji Ding 姬定 | 320–315 (5–6 years) | Son of Xian | Qin's power grew significantly during his reign[79] | ||
| Nan 赧 | Ji Yan 姬延 | 314–256 (57–58 years) | Son of Shenjing | Longest reigning Zhou ruler, though held little power amid the divided kingdom. Conquered and deposed byKing Zhaoxiang of Qin[79] | ||
| Dynastic name | Personal name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Qin Shi Huang[g] 秦始皇 | Ying Zheng 嬴政 Zhao Zheng 趙政 | 221[h] – July 210 BCE[i] (11 years) | Son ofKing Zhuangxiang ofQin. As King Zheng of Qin, heconquered thesix other states during theWarring States period and proclaimed himselfEmperor (皇帝;Huangdi).[84] | 259 – July 210 BCE (48–49 years) Instilled aLegalist philosophy, combined preexisting walls into theGreat Wall of China, and built theLingqu canal and theTerracotta Army. Died of sudden illness,[85] possiblyalchemical elixir poisoning[86] |
| Qin Er Shi[j] 秦二世 | Ying Huhai 嬴胡亥 | 210[k] – October 207 BCE (3 years) | Second son ofQin Shi Huang. Put on the throne byLi Si andZhao Gao, who forced the appointed heirFusu to commit suicide.[87] | 231/222 – October 207 BCE (23–24/14–15 years) His reign was completely dominated byZhao Gao. Forced by Zhao to commit suicide[88] |
| As theQin dynasty greatly weakened in power, theChu–Han Contention began in 206 BCE and ended withLiu Bang inaugurating theHan dynasty in 202 BCE[l] | ||||
| Posthumous name | Personal name | Reign[92] | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|
Western Han (202 BCE – 9 CE)[edit]See also:Han dynasty § Western Han | ||||
| Gaozu 高祖 Gao 高帝 | Liu Bang 劉邦 | 28 February 202[m]– 1 June 195 BCE (7 years, 3 months and 4 days) | Unified China and proclaimed himself Emperor after victory in theChu–Han Contention | 256 – 1 June 195 BCE (aged 61) Among the most revered Chinese emperors. Died from an arrow injury in a campaign againstYing Bu[94] |
| Hui 惠帝 | Liu Ying 劉盈 | 23 June 195 – 26 September 188 BCE (7 years, 3 months and 3 days) | Son ofGao | 210 – 26 September 188 BCE (aged 22) His reign was largely dominated by his motherEmpress Lü. Died from an unknown illness[95] |
| Qianshao[n] (#) 前少帝 | Liu Gong 劉恭 | 19 October 188 – 15 June 184 BCE (3 years, 7 months and 27 days) | Purportedly a son ofHui[o] | ? – after 184 BCE An infant emperor whose reign was completely dominated byEmpress Lü. Deposed and put underhouse arrest; unknown date of death after 184[98] |
| Houshao[p] (#) 後少帝 | Liu Yi 劉盈 Liu Hong 劉弘 | 15 June 184 – 15 August 180 BCE (4 years and 2 months) | Purportedly a son ofHui[o] | ? – 14 November 180 An infant emperor whose reign was completely dominated byEmpress Lü. Put to death by the House of Lü[100] |
| Wen 文帝 | Liu Heng 劉恆 | 14 November 180 – 6 July 157 BCE (22 years, 5 months and 23 days) Era(s)
| Son ofGao | 203/202 – 6 July 157 BCE (aged 46) Died of natural causes[101] |
| Jing 景帝 | Liu Qi 劉啟 | 14 July 157 – 10 March 141 BCE (15 years, 7 months and 24 days) Era(s)
| Son ofWen | 188 – 10 March 141 BCE (aged 47) Died of natural causes[102] |
| Wu 武帝 | Liu Che 劉徹 | 10 March 141 – 29 March 87 BCE[q] (54 years and 19 days) Era(s)
| Son ofJing | 157/156 – 29 March 87 BCE[q] (aged 69) Among the longest reigning and highly regarded Chinese emperors.Expanded the Han dynasty considerably. Died from an unknown illness[103] |
| Zhao 昭帝 | Liu Fuling 劉弗陵 | 30 March 87 – 5 June 74 BCE (13 years, 2 months and 6 days) Era(s)
| Son ofWu | 94 – 5 June 74 BCE (aged 20) Died from natural causes[104] |
| None, known as Marquis of Haihun (#) 海昏侯 | Liu He 劉賀 | 18 July – 14 August 74 BCE (27 days) | Grandson ofWu | 92–59 BCE (aged 32–33) Briefly installed byHuo Guang and not often considered legitimate. Died from natural causes[105] |
| Xuan 宣帝 | Liu Bingyi 劉病已 Liu Xun 劉詢 | 10 September 74 – 10 January 48 BCE (25 years and 4 months) Era(s)
| Great-grandsonWu | 91 – 10 January 48 BCE (aged 43) His reign is sometimes considered a cultural and political 'renaissance'. Died from natural causes[106] |
| Yuan 元帝 | Liu Shi 劉奭 | 29 January 48 – 3 July 33 BCE (15 years, 5 months and 4 days) Era(s)
| Son ofXuan | 75 – 8 July 33 BCE (aged 42) Died from an unknown illness[107] |
| Cheng 成帝 | Liu Ao 劉驁 | 4 August 33 – 17 April 7 BCE (25 years, 8 months and 13 days) Era(s)
| Son ofYuan | 51 – 17 April 7 BCE (aged 44) Died from a stroke or possibly complications from anaphrodisiac overdose[108] |
| Ai 哀帝 | Liu Xin 劉欣 | 7 May 7 – 15 August 1 BCE (6 years, 3 months and 8 days) Era(s)
| Grandson ofYuan | 27 – 15 August 1 BCE (aged 26) Died from an unknown illness[109] |
| Ping 平帝 | Liu Kan 劉衎 | 17 October 1 BCE – 3 February 6 CE (6 years, 3 months and 17 days) Era(s)
| Grandson ofYuan | 9 BCE – 3 February 6 CE (aged 14) His reign was dominated byWang Zhengjun andWang Mang. He was murdered, possibly by orders from the latter.[110] |
| None, known as Ruzi Ying (#) 孺子嬰 | Liu Ying 劉嬰 | 17 April 6 – 10 January 9 CE (2 years, 8 months and 24 days) Era(s)
| Cousin-once-removed ofPing | 5 – 25 CE (aged 20) A child puppet ofWang Mang; often not considered legitimate. He later attempted to succeed theGengshi Emperor, but was killed by him[111] |
Xin dynasty (9–23 CE)[edit]See also:Xin dynasty | ||||
| — | Wang Mang 王莽 | 10 January 9 – 6 October 23 CE (14 years, 8 months and 26 days) Era(s)
| After dominating the reign of Emperor Ping, Wang Mang overthrew him and established the short-livedXin dynasty | 46 BCE – 6 October 23 CE (aged 68) Established theXin dynasty, but his drastic reforms incited theRed Eyebrows andLulin peasant rebellions which collapsed the dynasty.[112] |
Gengshi Emperor (23–25 CE)[edit] | ||||
| None, known by his era: Gengshi (#) 更始帝 | Liu Xuan 劉玄 | 11 March 23 – November 25 CE (2 years and 8 months) Era(s)
| Descendant ofJing | ? – November 25 CE Strangled on the orders ofXie Lu [zh], a leader of theRed Eyebrows. Sometimes considered apretender and illegitimate[113] |
Eastern Han (25–220 CE)[edit]See also:Han dynasty § Eastern Han | ||||
| Guangwu 光武帝 | Liu Xiu 劉秀 | 5 August 25 – 29 March 57 CE (31 years, 7 months and 24 days) Era(s)
| Descendant ofJing | 15 January 5 BCE – 29 March 57 CE (aged 62) Died of natural causes[114] |
| Ming 明帝 | Liu Yang 劉陽 Liu Zhuang 劉莊 | 29 March 57 – 5 September 75 CE (18 years, 5 months and 7 days) Era(s)
| Son ofGuangwu | 28 – 5 September 75 CE (aged 48) Died of natural causes[115] |
| Zhang 章帝 | Liu Da 劉炟 | 5 September 75 – 9 April 88 CE (12 years, 7 months and 4 days) Era(s)
| Son ofMing | 56 – 9 April 88 CE (aged 32) His reign marked the beginning of the Han's decline. Died of natural causes[116] |
| He 和帝 | Liu Zhao 劉肇 | 9 April 88 – 13 February 106 CE (17 years, 10 months and 4 days) Era(s)
| Son ofZhang | 79 – 13 February 106 (aged 27) Died of natural causes[117] |
| Shang 殤帝 | Liu Long 劉隆 | 13 February – 21 September 106 CE (7 months and 8 days) Era(s)
| Son ofHe | 105 – 21 September 106 (aged 4) Died of natural causes[118] |
| An 安帝 | Liu Hu 劉祜 Liu You 劉友 | 23 September 106 – 30 April 125 CE (18 years, 7 months and 7 days) Era(s)
| Grandson ofZhang | 94 – 30 April 125 (aged 32) Died of natural causes[119] |
| None, known as Marquess of Beixiang (#) 北鄉侯 | Liu Yi 劉懿 | 18 May – 10 December 125 CE[r] (6 months and 22 days) | Grandson ofEmperor Zhang | ?–125 CE Briefly reigned, probably as a child; often not considered legitimate. Died of natural causes[120] |
| Shun 順帝 | Liu Bao 劉保 | 16 December 125 – 20 September 144 (18 years, 9 months and 4 days) Era(s)
| Son ofAn | 115 – 20 September 144 CE (aged 29) Died of natural causes[121] |
| Chong 沖帝 | Liu Bing 劉炳 | 20 September 144 – 15 February 145 (4 months and 26 days) Era(s)
| Son ofShun | 143 – 15 February 145 CE (aged 2) Died of natural causes[122] |
| Zhi 質帝 | Liu Zuan 劉纘 | 6 March 145 – 26 July 146 (1 year, 4 months and 20 days) Era(s)
| Cousin ofChong and great-grandson ofEmperor Zhang | 138 – 26 July 146 CE (aged 7–8) His reign was dominated byLiang Ji, who may have poisoned him. Otherwise he died fromfood poisoning[123] |
| Huan 桓帝 | Liu Zhi 劉志 | 1 August 146 – 25 January 168 (21 years, 5 months and 24 days) Era(s)
| Great-grandson ofZhang | 132 – 25 January 168 CE (aged 36) Died of natural causes[124] |
| Ling 靈帝 | Liu Hong 劉宏 | 17 February 168 – 13 May 189 (21 years and 24 days) Era(s)
| Great-great-grandson ofZhang | 156 – 13 May 189 CE (aged 32–33) Died of an unknown illness[125] |
| Prince of Hongnong (#) 弘農王 | Liu Bian 劉辯 | 15 May – 28 September 189 CE (6 months and 13 days) Era(s)
| Son ofLing | 173/176 – 22 March 190 CE (aged 13–14) Briefly reigned as a child; often not considered legitimate. Poisoned byDong Zhuo[126] |
| Xian 獻帝 | Liu Xie 劉協 | 28 September 189 – 11 December 220[s] (31 years, 2 months and 23 days) Era(s)
| Son ofLing | 2 April 181 – 21 April 234 (aged 53) A puppet ofDong Zhuo and laterCao Cao. Forced to abdicate byCao Pi, but spared. Died of natural causes[127] |
| Cao Cao is defeated at theBattle of Red Cliffs bySun Quan andLiu Bei, preventing him from uniting seceded southern Han territory. The region becomes split intothree competing powers:Cao Wei,Eastern Wu, andShu Han.[128] | ||||
| Personal name | Posthumous name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cao Pi 曹丕 | Emperor Wen 文帝 | 11 December 220 – 29 June 226 (5 years, 6 months and 18 days) Era(s)
| The eldest surviving son ofCao Cao. Inherited what lands theEastern Han dynasty still controlled to found theCao Wei state | 187 – 29 June 226 (aged 38–39) Died of natural causes[129] |
| Cao Rui 曹叡 | Emperor Ming 明帝 | 29 June 226 – 22 January 239 (12 years, 6 months and 24 days) Era(s)
| Son ofCao Pi and grandson ofCao Cao | c. 206 – 22 January 239 (aged 34–35) Died of natural causes[130] |
| Cao Fang 曹芳 | Emperor Shao 少帝 Emperor Fei 廢帝 | 22 January 239 – 16 October 254 (15 years, 8 months and 24 days) Era(s)
| Adopted heir byCao Rui, who had no sons of his own. He was presumably related to the imperial family in some way | 231–274 (aged 42–43) His reign was completely dominated byCao Shuang,Sima Yi andSima Shi, the latter of which eventually deposed Cao Fang. Died of natural causes[131] |
| Cao Mao 曹髦 | Duke of Gaogui District 高貴鄉公 | 2 November 254 – 2 June 260 (5 years and 7 months) Era(s)
| The cousin ofCao Fang and grandson ofCao Pi. Put on the throne bySima Shi | c. 241 – 9 July 260 (aged 18–19) His reign was completely dominated bySima Shi andSima Zhao. Died in afailed coup to regain power from Sima Zhao[132] |
| Cao Huan 曹奐 | Emperor Yuan 元皇帝 | 27 July 260 – 4 February 266 (5 years, 6 months and 8 days) Era(s)
| Grandson ofCao Cao and thefirst cousin once-removed ofCao Mao | 245–302 (aged 56–57) His reign was completely dominated bySima Zhao andSima Yan. Died of natural causes[133] |
| Personal name | Posthumous name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Liu Bei 劉備 | Emperor Zhaolie 昭烈皇帝 | 15 May 221 – 10 June 223 (2 years and 26 days) Era(s)
| Claimed to descend fromEmperor Jing of Han.Conquered theYi Province to found theShu Han state | 161 – 10 June 223 (aged 61–62) Died of natural causes[134] |
| Liu Shan 劉禪 | Emperor Xiaohuai 孝懷皇帝 | June 223 – December 263 (40 years and 6 months) Era(s)
| The son ofLiu Bei | 207–271 (aged 63–64) Abdicated after thefall on the Shu capital ofChengdu in 263.[135] |
| Personal name | Posthumous name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Sun Quan 孫權 | Emperor Da 大皇帝 | 23 May 229 – May 252 (22 years, 11 months and 8 days) Era(s)
| The son ofSun Jian; inheritedthe conquests of his brotherSun Ce. Proclaimed "King of Wu" in 221 and later "Emperor" in 229 | 182–252 (aged 69–70) Died of natural causes[136] |
| Sun Liang 孫亮 | Emperor Fei 吳廢帝 | May 252 – 9 November 258 (6 years, 6 months and 8 days) Era(s)
| Son ofSun Quan | 243–260 (aged 16–17) His reign was completely dominated by three successive regents:Zhuge Ke,Sun Jun andSun Chen. He was later deposed and died of natural causes[137] |
| Sun Xiu 孫休 | Emperor Jing 景皇帝 | 30 November 258 – 3 September 264 (5 years, 11 months and 4 days) Era(s)
| Son ofSun Quan | 235–264 (aged 28–29) Died of natural causes[137] |
| Sun Hao 孫皓 | Emperor Mo 末帝 | 3 September 264 – 1 May 280 (15 years, 5 months and 28 days) Era(s)
| Son ofSun He, formerheir apparent toSun Quan | 241–283 (aged 41–42) Eastern Wu wasconquered bySima Yan in 280. Died of natural causes[138] |
| Posthumous name | Personal name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|
Western Jin (266–316)[edit]See also:Jin dynasty (266–420) § Western Jin | ||||
| Emperor Wu 晉武帝 | Sima Yan 司馬炎 | 8 February 266 – 16 May 290 (24 years, 4 months and 8 days) Era(s)
| Son of PrinceSima Zhao, proclaimed emperor after the abdication ofCao Huan ofWei. He unified China after conqueringEastern Wu in 280 | 236–290 (aged 53–54) Died of natural causes[140] |
| Emperor Hui 晉惠帝 | Sima Zhong 司馬衷 | 16 May 290 – 8 January 307 (16 years, 7 months and 23 days) Era(s)
| Son of Emperor Wu, ruled under the regency of his wife,Jia Nanfeng, until her death in 300 CE | 259–307 (aged 47–48) Possibly mentally unstable, his reign was marked by the disastrousWar of the Eight Princes. He was poisoned bySima Yue[141] |
| — | Sima Lun 司馬倫 | 3 February – 30 May 301 (3 months and 27 days) Era(s)
| Prince of Zhao and son ofSima Yi, briefly usurped power from Emperor Hu | One of the infamousEight Princes; often seen as an usurper. He was forced to commit suicide by PrincesJiong,Ying andYong[142] |
| Emperor Huai 晉懷帝 | Sima Chi 司馬熾 | 8 January 307 – 14 March 311 (4 years, 2 months and 6 days) Era(s)
| Younger brother of Emperor Hui | 284–313 (aged 30–31) His reign, dominated bySima Yue, saw widespread ethnic rebellions. He was deposed and killed by theHan-Zhao[143] |
| Emperor Min 晉愍帝 | Sima Ye 司馬鄴 | 14 March 313 – 7 February 316 (2 years, 10 months and 24 days) Era(s)
| Nephew of Emperor Huai, proclaimed emperor inChang'an after the fall ofLuoyang to theFive Barbarians. | 300 – 7 February 316 (aged 15–16) Killed byLiu Cong ofHan-Zhao[144] |
Eastern Jin (318–420)[edit]See also:Jin dynasty (266–420) § Eastern Jin | ||||
| Emperor Yuan 晉元帝 | Sima Rui 司馬睿 | 26 April 318 – 3 January 323 (4 years, 8 months and 8 days) Era(s)
| Great-grandson ofSima Yi, proclaimed himself emperor with the help ofWang Dun inJiankang after the fall ofChang'an. | 276 – 323 (aged 47) Died of natural causes[145] |
| Emperor Ming 晉明帝 | Sima Shao 司馬紹 | 3 January 323 – 18 October 325 (2 years, 9 months and 15 days) Era(s)
| Son of Emperor Yuan | 299 – 325 (aged 26) His reign was dominated byWang Dao and antagonized byWang Dun. Died of natural causes[146] |
| Emperor Cheng 晉成帝 | Sima Yan 司馬衍 | 19 October 325 – 26 July 342 (16 years, 9 months and 7 days) Era(s)
| Son of Emperor Ming, ruled initially under the regency ofYu Wenjun | 321 – 342 (aged 21) Dominated byYu Liang, he was briefly deposed in 328 by rebelSu Jun. Died of natural causes[147] |
| Emperor Kang 晉康帝 | Sima Yue 司馬岳 | 27 July 342 – 17 November 344 (2 years, 3 months and 21 days) Era(s)
| Son of Emperor Ming | 322 – 344 (aged 22) Died of natural causes[148] |
| Emperor Mu 晉穆帝 | Sima Dan 司馬聃 | 18 November 344 – 10 July 361 (16 years, 7 months and 22 days) Era(s)
| Son of Emperor Kang, "ruled" under the regency ofEmpress Dowager Chu until 357 | 343 – 361 (aged 18) The youngest Chinese emperor.[t] Died of natural causes[149] |
| Emperor Ai 晉哀帝 | Sima Pi 司馬丕 | 13 July 361 – 30 March 365 (3 years, 8 months and 17 days) Era(s)
| Son of Emperor Cheng, reigned alongsideEmpress Dowager Chu | 341 – 365 (aged 24) Died of drug poisoning[150] |
| none, known as: Emperor Fei[u] 晉廢帝 | Sima Yi 司馬奕 | 31 March 365 – 6 January 372 (6 years, 9 months and 6 days) Era(s)
| Son of Emperor Cheng | 342 – 386 (aged 44) Deposed byHuan Wen, later dying of natural causes[152] |
| Emperor Jianwen 晉簡文帝 | Sima Yu 司馬昱 | 6 January – 19 August 372 (7 months and 13 days) Era(s)
| Son of Emperor Yuan and great-great-grandson ofSima Yi, enthroned byHuan Wen | 320 – 372 (aged 52) Died of natural causes[153] |
| Emperor Xiaowu 晉孝武帝 | Sima Yao 司馬曜 | 19 August 372 – 6 November 396 (24 years, 2 months and 18 days) Era(s)
| Son of Emperor Jianwen | 362 – 396 (aged 34) His army's defeat of theFormer Qin army at theBattle of Fei River led to the eventual collapse of the Former Qin. Killed by a jealous concubine[154] |
| Emperor An 晉安帝 | Sima Dezong 司馬德宗 | 7 November 396 – 28 January 419 (22 years, 2 months and 21 days) Era(s)
| Son of Emperor Xiaowu | 382/3 – 419 (aged 36–37) Dominated bySima Daozi,Huan Xuan andLiu Yu, he was killed by the latter[155] |
| Emperor Gong 晉恭帝 | Sima Dewen 司馬德文 | 28 January 419 – 5 July 420 (1 year, 5 months and 7 days) Era(s)
| Son of Emperor Xiaowu | 386 – 12 November 421 (aged 35) Abdicated in favor of Liu Yu (Emperor Wu of Song), later assassinated[156] |
| Personal name | Posthumous name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Li Xiong 李雄 | Emperor Wu 武皇帝 | 304–334 (29–30 years) Era(s)
| Son of rebelLi Te, proclaimed himself King in 304 and then Emperor in 306 | 274–334 (aged 59–60) Died of disease[158] |
| Li Ban 李班 | Emperor Ai 哀皇帝 | 334 (less than a year) | Nephew ofLi Xiong | 274–334 (aged 59–60) Killed byLi Qi[159] |
| Li Qi 李期 | Duke You 幽公 | 334–338 (3–4 years) Era(s)
| Son ofLi Xiong | 314–338 (aged 23–24) Committed suicide[160] |
| Li Shou 李壽 | Emperor Xiaowen 昭文皇帝 | 338–343 (4–5 years) Era(s)
| Nephew ofLi Te, usurped power from Li Qi and renamed the state from "Cheng” to “Han” | 300–343 (aged 42–43) Died of natural causes[160] |
| Li Shi 李勢 | Marquess of Guiyi 歸義侯 | 343–347 (3–4 years) Era(s)
| Son ofLi Shou | Abdicated toHuan Wen after the fall of Cheng in 347. Died of natural causes in 361 in theEastern Jin capital[160] |
| Personal name | Posthumous name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Liu Yuan 劉淵 | Emperor Guangwen 光文皇帝 | 304–310 (5–6 years) Era(s)
| Rebelled against the Jin dynasty. Proclaimed himself King of Han in 304 and Emperor in 308 | c. 250–310 (aged approx. 60) Died of natural causes[162] |
| Liu He 劉和 | – | 310 (less than a year) | Son ofLiu Yuan | Killed by his brother Liu Cong[163] |
| Liu Cong 劉聰 | Emperor Zhaowu 昭武皇帝 | 310–318 (7–8 years) Era(s)
| Son ofLiu Yuan | Died of natural causes in 318[163] |
| Liu Can 劉粲 | Emperor Yin 隱皇帝 | 318 (less than a year) | Son ofLiu Cong | Killed by officerJin Zhun in 318[163] |
| Liu Yao 劉曜 | – | 318–329 (10–11 years) Era(s)
| Nephew ofLiu Yuan, changed the dynastic title from "Han" to "Zhao" | Ended theWestern Jin in 316. Captured and killed byShi Le ofLater Zhao[162] |
| Personal name | Posthumous name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Shi Le 石勒 | Emperor Ming 明皇帝 | 319–333 (13–14 years) Era(s)
| Rebelled withJi Sang during theWar of the Eight Princes. Proclaimed himself King of Zhao in 319 and then Emperor in 330 | 374–333 (aged 58–59) Ended theFormer Zhao in 329. Died of natural causes[164] |
| Shi Hong 石弘 | – | 333–334 (0–1 years) Era(s)
| Son ofShi Le | 313–334 (aged 20–21) Deposed and killed byShi Hu[164] |
| Shi Hu 石虎 | Emperor Wu 武皇帝 | 334–349 (14–15 years) Era(s)
| Nephew ofShi Le, usurped power fromShi Hong in 334. Ruled asHeavenly King until 349 | 295–349 (aged 53–54) Died of natural causes[164] |
| Shi Shi 石世 | – | 349 (less than a year) | Son ofShi Hu | 339–349 (aged 9–10) Murdered[164] |
| Shi Zun 石遵 | – | 349 (less than a year) | Son ofShi Hu | Killed byRan Min[164] |
| Shi Jian 石鑒 | – | 349–350 (0–1 years) Era(s)
| Son ofShi Hu, enthroned byRan Min | Killed byRan Min[164] |
| Shi Zhi 石祇 | – | 350–351 (0–1 years) Era(s)
| Son ofShi Hu | Gave up the imperial title in 351, later killed by a subordinate officer[164] |
| Personal name | Posthumous name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Zhang Mao 張茂 | Duke Cheng 成公 | 320–324 (3–4 years) | Son of governorZhang Gui | 377–324 (aged 52–53) Made vassal ofFormer Zhao in 323. Died of natural causes[166] |
| Zhang Jun 張駿 | Duke Zhongcheng 忠成公 | 324–346 (21–22 years) | Son of governorZhang Shi | 307–346 (aged 38–39) Died of natural causes[167] |
| Zhang Chonghua 張重華 | Duke Huan 桓公 | 346–353 (6–7 years) | Son of Zhang Jun, didn't assume the dynastic title until 349 | 327–353 (aged 25–26) Died of natural causes[168] |
| Zhang Yaoling 張曜靈 | Duke Ai 哀公 | 353 (less than a year) | Son ofZhang Chonghua | 344–355 (aged 25–26) Killed byZhang Zuo[167] |
| Zhang Zuo 張祚 | King Wei 威王 | 354–355 (0–1 years) Era(s)
| Son ofZhang Jun | Discontinued the use ofWestern Jin era names before being killed in 355[167] |
| Zhang Xuanjing 張玄靚 | Duke Chong 沖公 | 355–363 (7–8 years) Era(s)
| Son ofZhang Chonghua | 350–363 (aged 12–13) Killed byZhang Tianxi[167] |
| Zhang Tianxi 張天錫 | Duke Dao 悼公 | 363–376 (12–13 years) Era(s)
| Son ofZhang Jun | 346–406 (aged 59–60) Surrendered to theFormer Qin, later dying of natural causes inEastern Jin[167] |
| Personal name | Posthumous name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Murong Huang 慕容皝 | Emperor Wenming 文明皇帝 | 337–348 (10–11 years) | Son of governorMurong Hui, proclaimed himself Prince of Yan in 337. Remained loyal to theJin | 297–348 (aged 50–51) Died of natural causes[170] |
| Murong Jun 慕容儁 | Emperor Jingzhao 景昭皇帝 | 348–360 (11–12 years) Era(s)
| Son ofMurong Huang, proclaimed himself Emperor in 352 | 319–360 (aged 38–39) Died of natural causes[167] |
| Murong Wei 慕容暐 | Emperor You 幽皇帝 | 360–370 (9–10 years) Era(s)
| Son ofMurong Jun, ruled under the regency ofMurong Ping | 350–384 (aged 33–34) Captured byFormer Qin in 370, executed byFu Jiān in 384 after a failed coup[168] |
| Personal name | Posthumous name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Fu Jiàn 苻健 | Emperor Jingming 景明皇帝 | 351–355 (3–4 years) Era(s)
| Son of PrinceHong, leader of theDi. ProclaimedHeavenly King and GreatChanyu after Hong's murder in 351, became Emperor in 352 | 307 or 317–355 (aged 48 or 38) Died of natural causes[172] |
| Fu Sheng 苻生 | Prince Li 厲王 | 355–357 (1–2 years) Era(s)
| Son ofFu Jiàn | 335–357 (aged 22) Killed by his cousin[172] |
| Fu Jiān 苻堅 | Emperor Xuanzhao 宣昭皇帝 | 357–385 (27–28 years) Era(s)
| Grandson ofFu Hong, ruled asHeavenly King | 338–385 (aged 47) ConqueredFormer Yan,Former Liang, andDai. Killed byYao Chang.[172] |
| Fu Pi 苻丕 | Emperor Aiping 哀平皇帝 | 385–386 (0–1 years) Era(s)
| Son ofFu Jiān | Defeated byMurong Yong ofWestern Yan, later killed by theEastern Jin army[172] |
| Fu Deng 苻登 | Emperor Gao 高皇帝 | 386–394 (7–8 years) Era(s)
| Grandnephew ofFu Jiān | 343–394 (aged 51) Killed byYao Xing ofLater Qin[172] |
| Fu Chong 苻崇 | – | 394 (less than a year) Era(s)
| Son ofFu Deng | Killed byQifu Qiangui ofWestern Qin[172] |
| Personal name | Posthumous name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Murong Chui 慕容垂 | Emperor Wucheng 成武皇帝 | 384–396 (11–12 years) Era(s)
| Son of PrinceMurong Huang ofFormer Yan, reestablished his kingdom after theBattle of Fei River | 326–396 (aged 70) ConqueredWestern Yan in 394[173] |
| Murong Bao 慕容寶 | Emperor Huimin 惠愍皇帝 | 396–398 (1–2 years) Era(s)
| Son ofMurong Chui | 355–398 (aged 43) Killed by the usurperLan Han[173] |
| Murong Sheng 慕容盛 | Emperor Zhaowu 昭武皇帝 | 398–401 (2–3 years) Era(s)
| Son ofMurong Bao, came to power after killingLan Han | 373–401 (aged 28) Killed by general Duan Ji[173] |
| Murong Xi 慕容熙 | Emperor Zhaowen 昭文皇帝 | 401–407 (5–6 years) Era(s)
| Son ofMurong Chui | 385–407 (aged 22) Killed byFeng Ba[173] |
| Personal name | Posthumous name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Yao Chang 姚萇 | Emperor Wuzhao 武昭皇帝 | 384–393 (8–9 years) Era(s)
| Proclaimed King after theBattle of Fei River, then Emperor after killingFu Jiān ofFormer Qin | 343–394 (aged 51) Died of natural causes[174] |
| Yao Xing 姚興 | Emperor Wenhuan 文桓皇帝 | 394–416 (21–22 years) Era(s)
| Son ofYao Chang | 366–416 (aged 50) ConqueredFormer Qin andLater Liang. FavoredBuddhism andTaoism.[174] |
| Yao Hong 姚泓 | – | 416–417 (0–1 years) Era(s)
| Son ofYao Xing | 388–417 (aged 29) Executed by theEastern Jin[174] |
| Personal name | Posthumous name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Qifu Guoren 乞伏國仁 | Prince Xuanlie 宣烈王 | 385–388 (2–3 years) Era(s)
| Former general ofFormer Qin | Died of natural causes[175] |
| Qifu Gangui 乞伏乾歸 | Prince Wuyuan 武元王 | 388–412 (23–24 years) Era(s)
| Younger brother ofQifu Guoren | Surrendered toLater Qin in 400, reclaimed the throne in 409. Killed by his nephew[175] |
| Qifu Chipan 乞伏熾磐 | Prince Wenzhao 文昭王 | 412–428 (15–16 years) Era(s)
| Son ofQifu Gangui | ConqueredSouthern Liang in 414[175] |
| Qifu Mumo 乞伏暮末 | – | 428–431 (2–3 years) Era(s)
| Son ofQifu Chipan | Killed by theXia[175] |
| Personal name | Posthumous name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Lü Guang 呂光 | Emperor Yiwu 懿武皇帝 | 386–399 (12–13 years) Era(s)
| Former general ofFormer Qin, proclaimed himself Duke of Jiuquan in 386 andHeavenly King in 396 | 337–399 (aged 19) Abdicated in favor of his son[177] |
| Lü Shao 呂紹 | Prince Yin 隱王 | 399 (less than a year) | Son ofLü Guang | Forced to commit suicide by his brother[177] |
| Lü Zuan 呂纂 | Emperor Ling 靈皇帝 | 399–401 (1–2 years) Era(s)
| Son ofLü Guang | Killed by Lü Chao, Guang's nephew[177] |
| Lü Long 呂隆 | – | 401–403 (1–2 years) Era(s)
| Nephew ofLü Guang | Killed byYao Hong ofLater Qin[177] |
| Personal name | Posthumous name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Tufa Wugu 禿髮烏孤 | Prince Wu 武王 | 397–399 (1–2 years) Era(s)
| Proclaimed himself GreatChanyu | Died of natural causes[179] |
| Tufa Lilugu 禿髮利鹿孤 | Prince Kang 康王 | 399–402 (2–3 years) Era(s)
| Elder brother ofTufa Wugu | Died of natural causes[179] |
| Tufa Rutan 禿髮傉檀 | Prince Jing 景王 | 402–414 (11–12 years) Era(s)
| Elder brotherTufa Lilugu | 364–415 (aged 51) Captured and killed byWestern Qin[179] |
| Personal name | Posthumous name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Duan Ye 段業 | – | 397–401 (3–4 years) Era(s)
| Governor ofLater Liang, proclaimed himself Prince of Liang in 397 | Killed byJuqu Mengxun[180] |
| Juqu Mengxun 沮渠蒙遜 | – | 401–433 (31–32 years) Era(s)
| Former ally ofDuan Ye, proclaimed himself Duke of Zhangye | ConqueredWestern Liang in 421[181] |
| Juqu Mujian 沮渠牧犍 | Prince Ai 哀王 | 433–439 (5–6 years) Era(s)
| Son ofJuqu Mengxun | Defeated byNorthern Wei, later forced to commit suicide in 449 for sedition[181] |
| Personal name | Posthumous name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Murong De 慕容德 | Emperor Xianwu 獻武皇帝 | 398–405 (6–7 years) Era(s)
| Younger brother ofMurong Chui ofLater Yan, declared himself Prince in 398 and then Emperor in 400 | 336–405 (aged 69) Captured and killed byWestern Qin[182] |
| Murong Chao 慕容超 | – | 405–410 (4–5 years) Era(s)
| Uncertain succession | 385–410 (aged 25) Captured and killed byEastern Jin[182] |
| Personal name | Posthumous name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Li Gao 李暠 | Prince Wuzhao 武昭王 | 400–417 (16–17 years) Era(s)
| Governor ofDunhuang underDuan Ye ofNorthern Liang, declared himself Duke | 351–417 (aged 66) Died of natural causes[183] |
| Li Xin 李歆 | – | 417–420 (2–3 years) Era(s)
| Son ofLi Gao | Killed byJuqu Mengxun ofNorthern Liang[184] |
| Li Xun 李恂 | – | 420–421 (0–1 years) Era(s)
| Son ofLi Gao | Committed suicide after the fall ofDunhuang[184] |
| Personal name | Posthumous name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Helian Bobo 赫連勃勃 | Emperor Wulie 武烈皇帝 | 407–425 (17–18 years) Era(s)
| Subordinate ofYao Xing ofLater Qin, declared himselfHeavenly King in 407 and then Emperor atChang'an in 418 | 381–425 (aged 44) Died of natural causes[185] |
| Helian Chang 赫連昌 | – | 425–428 (2–3 years) Era(s)
| Son ofHelian Bobo | Executed byNorthern Wei in 434[185] |
| Helian Ding 赫連定 | – | 428–431 (2–3 years) Era(s)
| Son ofHelian Bobo | Executed byTuyuhun in 432[185] |
| Personal name | Posthumous name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Gao Yun 高雲 | Emperor Huiyi 惠懿皇帝 | 407–409 (1–2 years) Era(s)
| Adopted son ofMurong Bao orLater Yan, proclaimedHeavenly King byFeng Ba | Killed by his underlings[185] |
| Feng Ba 馮跋 | Emperor Wencheng 文成皇帝 | 409–430 (20–21 years) Era(s)
| Seized power after Yun's death | Died of natural causes[186] |
| Feng Hong 馮弘 | Emperor Zhaocheng 昭成皇帝 | 430–436 (5–6 years) Era(s)
| Younger brother ofFeng Ba | Defeated byNorthern Wei, later murdered inGoguryeo[185] |
| Posthumous name | Personal name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Emperor Daowu 道武皇帝 | Tuoba Gui 拓拔珪 | 20 February 386 – 409 Era(s)
| Leader of theTuoba, refounded theDai State as Wei | 371–409 (aged 39) Killed by his son Tuoba Shao[188] |
| Emperor Mingyuan 明元皇帝 | Tuoba Si 拓拔嗣 | 409–423 Era(s)
| Son of Emperor Daowu | 392–423 (aged 31) Died of disease[188] |
| Emperor Taiwu 太武皇帝 | Tuoba Tao 拓拔燾 | 423–452 Era(s)
| Son of Emperor Mingyuan | 408–452 (aged 43–44) ConqueredXia,Northern Yan andLiang. Killed by eunuchZong Ai[188] |
| Tuoba Yu 拓拔余 | Tuoba Yu 拓拔余 | 452 Era(s)
| Son of Taiwu. Put on the throne by eunuchZong Ai | Killed byZong Ai[189] |
| Emperor Wencheng 文成皇帝 | Tuoba Jun 拓拔濬 | 452–465 Era(s)
| Grandson of Taiwu. Ascended to the throne after the murder of Zong. | 440–465 (aged 24–25) Died of natural causes[190] |
| Emperor Xianwen 獻文皇帝 | Tuoba Hong 拓拔弘 | 465–471 Era(s)
| Son of Wencheng | 454–476 (aged 21–22) Abdicated in favor of his son Yuan Hong, later dying of natural causes[191] |
| Emperor Xiaowen 孝文皇帝 | Tuoba Hong 拓拔宏 Yuan Hong 元宏 | 471–499 Era(s)
| Son of Xianwen, ruled under the regency ofEmpress Dowager Feng until 470. | 467–499 (aged 31–32) One of the most significant reformers in medieval China. Died of natural causes[192] |
| Emperor Xuanwu 宣武皇帝 | Yuan Ke 元恪 | 499–515 Era(s)
| Son of Xiaowen | 483–515 (aged 31–32) His reign marked the decline of Wei[193] |
| Emperor Xiaoming 孝明皇帝 | Yuan Xu 元詡 | 515–528 Era(s)
| Son of Xuanwu | 510–528 (aged 17–18) Killed in a power struggle againstEmpress Dowager Hu[194] |
| None, known as Youzhu of Northern Wei 北魏幼主 | Yuan Zhao 元釗 | 528 | Enthroned byEmpress Dowager Hu | 526–528 (aged 2) Killed by generalErzhu Rong[195] |
| Emperor Xiaozhuang 孝莊皇帝 | Yuan Ziyou 元子攸 | 528–530 Era(s)
| Enthroned byErzhu Rong | 507–early 531 (aged 24) Killed by generalErzhu Zhao[196] |
| Yuan Ye 元曄 | Yuan Ye 元曄 | 530–531 Era(s)
| Enthroned by the Erzhu Clan in opposition to Xiaozhuang | Executed in 532[197] |
| Emperor Jiemin 節閔皇帝 | Yuan Gong 元恭 | 531–532 Era(s)
| Enthroned byErzhu Shilong | 498–532 (aged 33–34) Deposed and executed byGao Huan[198] |
| Yuan Lang 元朗 | Yuan Lang 元朗 | 531–532 Era(s)
| Enthroned byGao Huan | 513–532 (aged 19–18) Deposed and executed byGao Huan[198] |
| Emperor Xiaowu 孝武皇帝 | Yuan Xiu 元脩 | 532–535 Era(s)
| Enthroned byGao Huan | 510–early 535 (aged 25) Fled to Chang’an, where he was poisoned byYuwen Tai ofNorthern Zhou[199] |
| Posthumous name | Personal name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Emperor Xiaojing 孝靜皇帝 | Yuan Shanjian 元善見 | 534–550 Era(s)
| Enthroned byGao Huan | 524–552 (aged 27–28) Forced to abdicate and later poisoned byGao Yang[201] |
| Posthumous name | Personal name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Emperor Wenxuan 文宣皇帝 | Gao Yang 高洋 | 550–559 Era(s)
| Regent ofEastern Wei, proclaimed himself emperor after deposingEmperor Xiaojing | 529–559 (aged 29–30) Supposedly suffered insanity in his late reign. Died of natural causes[202] |
| Emperor Fei 廢皇帝 | Gao Yin 高殷 | 559–560 Era(s)
| Son of Emperor Wenxuan, enthroned by officialYang Yin | 545–561 (aged 15–16) Forced to abdicate by his unclesGao Yan andGao Zhan, later executed[202] |
| Emperor Xiaozhao 孝昭皇帝 | Gao Yan 高演 | 560–561 Era(s)
| Son ofGao Huan, seized power through a palace coup | 535–559 (aged 25–26) Died of natural causes[202] |
| Emperor Wucheng 武成皇帝 | Gao Zhan 高湛 | 561–565 Era(s)
| Brother of Xiaozhao | 537–569 (aged 31–32) Abdicated in favor of his son, later dying of natural causes[203] |
| Gao Wei 高緯 | Gao Wei 高緯 | 565–577 Era(s)
| Son of Wucheng, ruled under his father's regency until 569 | 557–577 (aged 19–20) Abdicated in favor of his son, later killed byNorthern Zhou[204] |
| Gao Heng 高恆 | Gao Heng 高恆 | 577 Era(s)
| Son of Gao Wei | 557–577 (aged 19–20) Abdicated in favor of his uncle Gao Jie, but was soon killed alongside him[205] |
| Posthumous name | Personal name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Emperor Wen 文皇帝 | Yuan Baoyu 元寶炬 | 535–551 Era(s)
| Grandson ofEmperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei | 507–551 (aged 43–44) Killed byYuwen Tai ofNorthern Zhou[206] |
| Emperor Fei 廢帝 | Yuan Qin 元欽 | 551–554 | Son of Emperor Wen, enthroned byYuwen Tai | Poisoned to death by Yuwen Tai[206] |
| Emperor Gong 恭皇帝 | Yuan Kuo 元廓 | 554–556 | Son of Emperor Wen, enthroned byYuwen Tai | 537–557 (aged 19–20) Abdicated in favor ofYuwen Jue, Tai's son. Killed shortly after[206] |
| Posthumous name | Personal name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Emperor Xiaomin 孝閔皇帝 | Yuwen Jue 宇文覺 | 557 | Son ofYuwen Tai, proclaimed himselfHeavenly King underYuwen Hu's patronage and refounded the Northern Wei State asZhou | 542–557 (aged 14–15) Poisoned to death after a failed coup against Yuwen Hu[208] |
| Emperor Ming 明皇帝 | Yuwen Yu 宇文毓 | 557–560 Era(s)
| Son ofYuwen Tai, ruled alongsideYuwen Hu | 534–560 (aged 25–26) Poisoned to death by Yuwen Hu[209] |
| Emperor Wu 武皇帝 | Yuwen Yong 宇文邕 | 561–578 Era(s)
| Son ofYuwen Tai, sole ruler after deposingYuwen Hu in 572 | 543–578 (aged 34–35) Died of natural causes[209] |
| Emperor Xuan 宣皇帝 | Yuwen Yun 宇文贇 | 578–579 Era(s)
| Son of Yuwen Yong | 559–580 (aged 34–35) He neglected government and abdicated in favor of his son[209] |
| Emperor Jing 靜皇帝 | Yuwen Yan 宇文衍 Yuwen Chan 宇文闡 | 579–581 Era(s)
| Son of Yuwen Yun | 573–581 (aged 7–8) Killed by officer Yang Jian, the futureEmperor Wen of Sui[209] |
| Posthumous name | Personal name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Emperor Wu 武皇帝 | Liu Yu 劉裕 | 420–422 (1–2 years) Era(s)
| Proclaimed himself emperor after defeatingHuan Xuan ofJin in 404, conqueringSouthern Yan in 410 and takingLater Qin in 417. | 363–422 (aged 58–59) Died of natural causes[211] |
| Emperor Shao 少帝 | Liu Yifu 劉義符 | 422–424 (1–2 years) Era(s)
| Son of Emperor Wu | 406–424 (aged 17–18) Killed by officerXu Xianzhi[212] |
| Emperor Wen 文皇帝 | Liu Yilong 劉義隆 | 424–453 (28–29 years) Era(s)
| Son of Emperor Wu | 407–453 (aged 45–46) Killed by his son[213] |
| Liu Shao 劉劭 | Liu Shao 劉劭 | 453 (less than a year) Era(s)
| Son of Emperor Wen | c. 426–453 (aged c. 27) Killed by his brother[214] |
| Emperor Xiaowu 孝武皇帝 | Liu Jun 劉駿 | 453–464 (10–11 years) Era(s)
| Son of Emperor Wen | 430–464 (aged 13–14) Died of natural causes[215] |
| Emperor Qianfei 前廢帝 | Liu Ziye 劉子業 | 464–465 (0–1 years) Era(s)
| Son of Emperor Xiaowu | 449–465 (aged 15–16) Killed in a conspiracy[216] |
| Emperor Ming 明皇帝 | Liu Yu 劉彧 | 466–472 (5–6 years) Era(s)
| Son of Emperor Wen | 439–472 (aged 15–16) Died of natural causes[217] |
| Emperor Houfei 後廢帝 | Liu Yu 劉昱 | 472–477 (4–5 years) Era(s)
| Son of Emperor Ming | 463–477 (aged 13–14) Killed byXiao Daocheng[218] |
| Emperor Shun 順皇帝 | Liu Zhun 劉準 | 477–479 (1–2 years) Era(s)
| Son of Emperor Ming, enthroned by Xiao Daocheng, the futureEmperor Gao of Southern Qi | 467–479 (aged 13–14) Killed byXiao Daocheng[219] |
| Posthumous name | Personal name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Emperor Gao 高皇帝 | Xiao Daocheng 蕭道成 | 479–482 (2–3 years) Era(s)
| Proclaimed himself emperor after overthrowing theLiu Song dynasty | 427–482 (aged 54–55) Died of natural causes[220] |
| Emperor Wu 武皇帝 | Xiao Ze 蕭賾 | 482–493 (10–11 years) Era(s)
| Son of Emperor Gao | 440–493 (aged 54–55) Died of natural causes[221] |
| Prince of Yulin 鬱林王 | Xiao Zhaoye 蕭昭業 | 493–494 (0–1 years) Era(s)
| Grandson of Emperor Wu | 473–494 (aged 20–21) Killed byXiao Luan[221] |
| Xiao Zhaowen 蕭昭文 | Xiao Zhaowen 蕭昭文 | 494 (less than a year) Era(s)
| Younger brother ofXiao Zhaoye | 480–494 (aged 13–14) Killed byXiao Luan[222] |
| Emperor Ming 明皇帝 | Xiao Luan 蕭鸞 | 494–498 (3–4 years) Era(s)
| Nephew of Emperor Gao | 452–498 (aged 45–46) Died of natural causes[223] |
| Marquess of Donghun 東昏侯 | Xiao Baojuan 蕭寶卷 | 498–501 (2–3 years) Era(s)
| Son ofXiao Luan | 483–501 (aged 17–18) Killed by his underlings[224] |
| Emperor He 和皇帝 | Xiao Baorong 蕭寶融 | 501–502 (0–1 years) Era(s)
| Son ofXiao Luan, set up inJiangling in opposition to his brother | 488–502 (aged 13–14) Deposed and killed byXiao Yan[225] |
| Posthumous name | Personal name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Emperor Wu 武皇帝 | Xiao Yan 蕭衍 | 502–549 (46–47 years) Era(s)
| Overthrew theSouthern Qi | 464–549 (aged 85) Imprisoned during the rebellion ofHou Jing, died of hunger[226] |
| Emperor Jianwen 簡文皇帝 | Xiao Gang 蕭綱 | 549–551 (1–2 years) Era(s)
| Son of Emperor Wu, enthroned byHou Jing | 503–551 (aged 47–48) Deposed and killed byHou Jing[227] |
| None, known by his personal name | Xiao Dong 蕭棟 | 551 (less than a year) Era(s)
| Grandson ofXiao Tong and great-grandson ofEmperor Wu, enthroned byHou Jing | 503–551 (aged 47–48) Deposed byHou Jing and killed byXiao Yi[227] |
| Emperor Yuan 元皇帝 | Xiao Yi 蕭繹 | 552–555 (2–3 years) Era(s)
| Son of Wu. Sole ruler after defeatingHou Jing in 552 andXiao Ji in 553. | 508–555 (aged 46–47) Captured and killed byWestern Wei[227] |
| Emperor Min 閔皇帝 | Xiao Yuanming 蕭淵明 | 555 (less than a year) Era(s)
| Nephew of Wu, enthroned by officialWang Sengbian | Deposed byChen Baxian, died of natural causes in 556[228] |
| Emperor Jin 敬皇帝 | Xiao Fangzhi 蕭方智 | 555–557 (1–2 years) Era(s)
| Son of Yuan, enthroned byChen Baxian | 543–558 (aged 14–15) Deposed and killed byChen Baxian[229] |
| Posthumous name | Personal name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Emperor Xuan 宣皇帝 | Xiao Cha 蕭詧 | 555–562 (6–7 years) Era(s)
| Son ofXiao Tong and grandson ofEmperor Wu, enthroned byWestern Wei | 519–562 (aged 42–43) Died of natural causes[231] |
| Emperor Ming 明皇帝 | Xiao Kui 蕭巋 | 562–585 (22–23 years) Era(s)
| Son ofXiao Cha | 542–585 (aged 42–43) Died of natural causes[232] |
| Emperor Jing 靖皇帝 | Xiao Cong 蕭琮 | 585–587 (1–2 years) Era(s)
| Son ofXiao Kui | Deposed byEmperor Wen of Sui in 587, died of natural causesc. 607[231] |
| Posthumous name | Personal name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Emperor Wu 武皇帝 | Chen Baxian 陳霸先 | 557–559 (1–2 years) Era(s)
| Overthrew theLiang Dynasty | 503–559 (aged 55–56) Died of natural causes[233] |
| Emperor Wen 文皇帝 | Chen Qian 陳蒨 | 559–566 (6–7 years) Era(s)
| Nephew ofChen Baxian | 522–566 (aged 43–44) Died of natural causes[234] |
| Emperor Fei 廢帝 | Chen Bozong 陳伯宗 | 566–568 (1–2 years) Era(s)
| Son of Emperor Wen | 554–570 (aged 15–16) Deposed by his uncle[235] |
| Emperor Xuan 宣皇帝 | Chen Xu 陳頊 | 569–582 (12–13 years) Era(s)
| Younger brother of Emperor Wen | 528–582 (aged 59–60) Died of natural causes[236] |
| Chen Houzhu 陳後主 | Chen Shubao 陳叔寶 | 582–589 (6–7 years) | Son of Emperor Xuan | 553–604 (aged 50–51) Neglect of government, he was captured by the Sui army. Died of natural causes[237] |
| Portrait | Posthumous name | Personal name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
 | Wen 文 | Yang Jian 楊堅 | 4 March 581 – 13 August 604 (23 years, 5 months and 9 days) Era(s)
| Son ofYang Zhong, Duke of Sui. Overthrew theNorthern Zhou and conquered the other Chinese states | 21 July 541 – 13 August 604 (aged 63) Instituted several institutional reforms and promoted Buddhism. Murdered by his son[238] |
 | Yang 煬 | Yang Guang 楊廣 | 21 August 604 – 11 April 618 (13 years, 7 months and 21 days) Era(s)
| Son ofWen | 569 – 11 April 618 (aged 51) Led several construction projects and military campaigns. Overthrown in a rebellion and killed by his underlings[239] |
| Gong 恭 | Yang You 楊侑 | 18 December 617 – 12 June 618[v] (5 months and 25 days) Era(s)
| Grandson ofWen | 605 – 619 (aged 14) A puppet ofLi Yuan. Deposed and later executed[241] | |
| Portrait | Temple name | Personal name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Early Tang (618–690)[edit] | |||||
 | Gaozu 高祖 Other names
| Li Yuan 李淵 | 18 June 618 – 4 September 626 (8 years, 2 months and 17 days) Era(s)
| Son ofLi Bing, Duke of Tang and officer ofNorthern Zhou. Claimed descent fromLi Gao, founder ofWestern Liang | 566 – 25 June 635 (aged 69) Abdicated in favor of his son following theXuanwu Gate Incident. A fair and capable ruler, his reign is said to have started a golden age in Chinese history, although imperial propaganda often underestimated his reign to exalt that of his son[242] |
 | Taizong 太宗 Other names
| Li Shimin 李世民 | 4 September 626 – 10 July 649 (23 years, 10 months and 6 days) Era(s)
| Son ofGaozu; named heir after the murder of Crown PrinceLi Jiancheng in theXuanwu Gate Incident | 23 January 597/99 – 10 July 649 (aged 50–52) Considered one of the greatest emperors in Chinese history, both as a conqueror and administrator. His reign saw a territorial expansion and economic growth not seen since theHan dynasty. Died after a period of prolonged illness, possibly due toalchemical elixir poisoning[243] |
 (non-contemporary) | Gaozong 高宗 Other names
| Li Zhi 李治 | 15 July 649 – 27 December 683 (34 years, 5 months and 12 days) Era(s)
| Son ofTaizong | 20 July 628 – 27 December 683 (aged 55) A well-meaning but ineffectual ruler, his reign was dominated by several successive regencies. Suffered a serious stroke in late 660, whereafter the government was run by his wife, the future EmpressWu Zetian. Died after several years of illness[244] |
 (non-contemporary) | Zhongzong 中宗 Other names
| Li Xian 李顯 | 3 January 684 – 26 February 684 (1 month and 23 days) Era(s)
| Son ofGaozong andWu Zetian | 26 November 656 – 3 July 710 (aged 53) Deposed by his mother after challenging her authority[245] |
 | Ruizong 睿宗 Other names
| Li Dan 李旦 | 27 February 684 – 16 October 690 (6 years, 7 months and 19 days) Era(s)
| Son ofGaozong andWu Zetian | 22 June 662 – 13 July 716 (aged 54) A complete puppet of his mother; forced to abdicate[246] |
Wu Zhou (690–705)[edit]See also:Wu Zhou | |||||
_-_%25E6%25AD%25A6%25E5%2589%2587%25E5%25A4%25A9.png) | none, known as Wu Zetian 武則天[w] Other names
| Wu Zhao 武曌 | 16 October 690 – 21 February 705 (14 years, 4 months and 5 days) Era(s)
| Former consort of emperorsTaizong andGaozong; regent since November 660,de facto ruler since January 683 | 623/625 – 16 December 705 (aged 81–83) Only female sovereign in Chinese history. Notable for her contribution to theImperial examination system and her support forBuddhism, but also for her violent methods of enforcement. Deposed byZhang Jianzhi; died of natural causes[248] |
Tang restoration (705–907)[edit] | |||||
(non-contemporary) | Zhongzong (second reign) | Li Xian 李顯 | 23 February 705 – 3 July 710 (5 years, 4 months and 10 days) Era(s)
| Restored to the throne by Tang loyalists | 26 November 656 – 3 July 710 (aged 53) A weak ruler; he died after eating a poisoned cake delivered by his wife,Empress Wei[249] |
| none, known as Emperor Shang 唐殤帝[x] | Li Chongmao 李重茂 | 8 July 710 – 25 July 710 (17 days) Era(s)
| Son of Zhongzong; installed byEmpress Wei | 698–714(aged 16) Second shortest-reigning emperor; deposed in a palace coup[250] | |
(non-contemporary) | Ruizong (second reign) | Li Dan 李旦 | 25 July 710 – 8 September 712 (2 years, 1 month and 14 days) Era(s)
| Restored to the throne by detractors ofEmpress Wei | 22 June 662 – 13 July 716 (aged 54) Spent his reign in a constant power struggle with his sister,Princess Taiping. Abdicated in favor of his son to undermine her influence[251] |
 (non-contemporary) | Xuanzong 玄宗 Other names
| Li Longji 李隆基 | 8 September 712 – 12 August 756 (43 years, 11 months and 4 days) Era(s)
| Son ofRuizong | 8 September 685 – 3 May 762 (aged 76) One of the greatest and longest reigning Chinese emperors. The Tang empire reached its peak during his early reign, but fell of grace at the end as a result of the disastrousAn Lushan Rebellion. Abdicated in favor of his son[252] |
 | Suzong 肅宗 Other names
| Li Jun 李浚 | 12 August 756 – 16 May 762 (5 years, 9 months and 4 days) Era(s)
| Son ofXuanzong; proclaimed emperor inLingwu | 711 – 16 May 762 (aged 51) RecapturedChang'an in November 757. During his reign the eunuchs grew increasingly powerful.[253] |
 | Daizong 代宗 Other names
| Li Chu 李俶 | 18 May 762 – 10 June 779 (17 years and 23 days) Era(s)
| Son ofSuzong; proclaimed emperor inChang'an | 9 January 727 – 10 June 779 (aged 52) Ended theAn–Shi Rebellion, but failed to maintain control over the far provinces[254] |
 | Dezong 德宗 Other names
| Li Kuo 李适 | 12 June 779 – 25 February 805 (25 years, 8 months and 13 days) Era(s)
| Son ofDaizong | 27 May 742 – 25 February 805 (aged 62) Notable for his tax reforms, he also attempted to control regionaljiedushi, but this backfired and caused a military mutiny in 783[255] |
| Shunzong 順宗 Other names
| Li Song 李誦 | 28 February – 28 August 805 (6 months) Era(s)
| Son ofDezong | February 761 – 11 February 806 (aged 45) Aphasic, weak and ill, he was urged toabdicate by the courteunuchs[256] | |
 (non-contemporary) | Xianzong 憲宗 Other names
| Li Chun 李純 | 5 September 805 – 14 February 820 (14 years, 5 months and 9 days) Era(s)
| Son of Shunzong | March 778 – 14 February 820 (aged 41) Ended thewarlord threat, but ended up becoming a puppet of the eunuchs. A drug addict, he was poisoned to death by eunuch Chen Hongzhi[257] |
 | Muzong 穆宗 Other names
| Li Heng 李恆 | 20 February 820 – 25 February 824 (4 years and 5 days) Era(s)
| Son ofXianzong | July 795 – 25 February 824 (aged 28) Suffered a serious stroke in 822 (while playingpolo), whereafter the government was run by eunuchsWang Shoucheng andLi Fengji.[258] |
_(cropped).jpg) (non-contemporary) | Jingzong 敬宗 Other names
| Li Zhan 李湛 | 29 February 824 – 9 January 827 (2 years, 10 months and 11 days) Era(s)
| Son ofMuzong | 22 July 809 – 9 January 827 (aged 17) A reckless player offootball; he was killed by eunuchs[259] |
 | Wenzong 文宗 Other names
| Li Ang 李昂 | 13 January 827 – 10 February 840 (13 years lacking 3 days) Era(s)
| Son ofMuzong | 20 November 809 – 10 February 840 (aged 30) Attempted to eradicate the eunuchs in theSweet Dew incident (835), but ended up making them stronger. Died of natural causes[260] |
 (non-contemporary) | Wuzong 武宗 Other names
| Li Yan 李炎 | 20 February 840 – 22 April 846 (6 years, 2 months and 2 days) Era(s)
| Son ofMuzong | 2 July 814 – 22 April 846 (aged 31) Notable for hispersecution of Buddhism. Died ofdrug overdose[261] |
| Xuanzong 宣宗 Other names
| Li Chen 李忱 | 25 April 846 – 7 September 859 (13 years, 4 months and 13 days) Era(s)
| Son ofXianzong | 27 July 810 – 7 September 859 (aged 49) Arguably the last capable Tang emperor. Notable for his campaigns against theTibetan Empire. Died ofdrug overdose[262] | |
 | Yizong 懿宗 Other names
| Li Cui 李漼 | 13 September 859 – 15 August 873 (13 years, 11 months and 2 days) Era(s)
| Son of Xuanzong | 28 December 833 – 15 August 873 (aged 39) A devout Buddhist, but also a cruel and unstable ruler. His reign, which was dominated by eunuchs, saw various revolts that severely weakened imperial power[263] |
 (non-contemporary) | Xizong 僖宗 Other names
| Li Xuan 李儇 | 16 August 873 – 20 April 888 (14 years, 8 months and 4 days) Era(s)
| Son ofYizong | 8 June 862 – 20 April 888 (aged 25) A puppet ofTian Lingzi, had to flee Chang'an twice due to internal strife[264] |
| None, known by his personal name | Li Yun 李熅 | 31 October 886 – January 887 (3 months) Era(s)
| Great-grandson of Suzong, took power inChang'an | Died in 887 Killed byXizong's forces; often seen as an usurper[265] | |
 | Zhaozong 昭宗 Other names
| Li Ye 李曄 | 20 April 888 – 22 September 904 (12 years, 7 months and 11 days)[y] Era(s)
| Son ofYizong | 31 March 867 – 22 September 904 (aged 37) His reign saw the final collapse of imperial authority and the rise of new powerful warlords. He was killed by rebelZhu Wen[267] |
| better known as Emperor Ai 唐哀帝 Other names
| Li Zhu 李柷 | 26 September 904 – 1 June 907 (2 years, 8 months and 6 days)[z] | Son ofZhaozong, proclaimed emperor inLuoyang | 27 October 892 – 25 March 908 (aged 15) Installed, deposed, and later killed byZhu Wen[268] | |
| Personal name | Temple name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Zhu Wen 朱溫 | Taizu 太祖 | 907–912 (4–5 years) Eras
| Former ally of rebelHuang Chao, defected to the Imperial army in 882 but later betrayed the Tang and proclaimed himself Emperor inKaifeng | 852–912 (aged 60) Killed by his son[269] |
| Zhu Yougui 朱友珪 | — | 912–913 (0–1 years) Eras
| Son of Zhu Wen, usurped power after learning of his father's intentions of adoptingZhu Youwen as heir | Died in 913 Described as murderous and lustful, he was killed by his brother[269] |
| Zhu Youzhen 朱瑱 | — | 913–923 (9–10 years) Eras
| Son of Zhu Wen | 888–923 (aged 35) Killed by the forces ofLi Cunxu[269] |
| Personal name | Temple name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Li Cunxu 李存勗 | Zhuangzong 莊宗 | 923–926 (2–3 years) Eras
| Proclaimed himself Emperor after conqueringLater Liang | 885–926 (aged 41) Killed in a coup[270] |
| Li Siyuan 李嗣源 | Mingzong 明宗 | 926–933 (6–7 years) Eras
| Adopted son ofLi Keyong, tookLuoyang and proclaimed himself Emperor after the murder of Li Cunxu | 867–933 (aged 66) Died of natural causes[271] |
| Li Conghou 李從厚 | — | 934 (less than a year) Eras
| Son of Li Siyuan | 914–early 934 (aged 20) Killed by Li Congke[272] |
| Li Congke 李從珂 | — | 934–937 (2–3 years) Eras
| Adopted son of Li Siyuan, he usurped power from Li Conghou | 884/6–936 (aged 50–52) Defeated byShi Jingtang ofLater Jin, he burned himself to death[272] |
| Personal name | Temple name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Shi Jingtang 石敬瑭 | Gaozu 高祖 | 936–942 (5–6 years) Eras
| Proclaimed himself emperor with the help of theShatuo andKhitan people | 892–942 (aged 50) Died of natural causes[273] |
| Shi Chonggui 石重貴 | — | 942–947 (4–5 years) Eras
| Nephew ofShi Jingtang | 914–947 (aged 33) Captured byEmperor Taizong of Liao but spared; died of natural causes[273] |
| Personal name | Temple name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Liu Zhiyuan 劉知遠 | Gaozu 高祖 | 947–948 (0–1 years) Eras
| Jiedushi under theLater Jin, proclaimed himself emperor after the capture ofShi Chonggui by theKhitan | 895–948 (aged 53) Died of natural causes[274] |
| Liu Chengyou 劉承祐 | — | 948–951 (2–3 years) Eras
| Son ofLiu Zhiyuan | 931–951 (aged 20) Killed by the forces ofGuo Wei[275] |
| Personal name | Temple name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Guo Wei 郭威 | Taizu 太祖 | 951–954 (2–3 years) Eras
| Officer of Later Han, proclaimed himself emperor and dethronedLiu Chengyou | 904–954 (aged 50) Died of natural causes; introduced reforms that greatly benefited farming[276] |
| Chai Rong 柴榮 | Shizong 世宗 | 954–959 (4–5 years) Eras
| Adopted son ofGuo Wei | 921–959 (aged 38) Conquered Eastern and Southwest China; died of natural causes[277] |
| Chai Zongxun 柴宗訓 | — | 959–960 (0–1 years) Eras
| Son ofChai Rong | 953–973 (aged 20) Deposed byEmperor Taizu of Song[278] |
| Personal name | Temple name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Wang Jian 王建 | Gaozu 高祖 | 907–918 (10–11 years) | Rebelled against theTang in 891, named Prince in 903 and later proclaimed himself emperor in 907 | 847–918 (aged 69) Died of natural causes; known for his great tomb and stone statues[279] |
| Wang Zongyan 王宗衍 | — | 918–925 (6–7 years) | Son ofWang Jian | 899–926 (aged 27) Lustful and neglected of government, he was killed byLi Cunxu[280] |
| Personal name | Temple name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Yang Xingmi 楊行密 | Taizu 太祖 | 902–905 (2–3 years) | Took overYangzhou in 892 and was named "Prince of Wu" in 902, became independent after the fall of the Tang | 852–905 (aged 53) Died of natural causes[281] |
| Yang Wo 楊渥 | — | 905–908 (2–3 years) | Son ofYang Xingmi | 886–908 (aged 22) Killed byZhang Hao andXu Wen[282] |
| Yang Longyan 楊隆演 | — | 908–920 (11–12 years) | Son ofYang Xingmi, enthroned byXu Wen | 897–920 (aged 23) Died of natural causes[282] |
| Yang Pu 楊溥 | — | 920–937 (16–17 years) | Son ofYang Xingmi and enthroned byXu Zhigao (Li Bian), declared himself Emperor in 927 | 901–938 (aged 37) Forced to abdicate toLi Bian ofSouthern Tang; died of natural causes[283] |
| Personal name | Posthumous name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Ma Yin 馬殷 | Prince Wumu 武穆王 | 907–930 (22–23 years) | A carpenter who rose from the ranks to become prefect ofTanzhou in 896, he was named Prince in 927 byLi Siyuan | 852–930 (aged 78) Died of natural causes[284] |
| Ma Xisheng 馬希聲 | Prince of Hengyang 衡陽王 | 930–932 (1–2 years) | Son ofMa Yin | 899–932 (aged 33) An admirer ofZhu Wen, he cooked 50 chickens a day; died of natural causes[284] |
| Ma Xifan 馬希範 | Prince Wenzhao 文昭王 | 932–947 (14–15 years) | Son ofMa Yin, didn't assume his title until later in his reign | 899–947 (aged 48) Known for his extravagance and his building projects; died of natural causes[285] |
| Ma Xiguang 馬希廣 | — | 947–951 (3–4 years) | Son ofMa Yin | Died in 951 Deposed and later killed by his brother[286] |
| Ma Xi'e 馬希萼 | — | 951 (less than a year) | Son ofMa Yin | Deposed by his brother, fate unknown[286] |
| Ma Xichong 馬希崇 | — | 951 (less than a year) | Son ofMa Yin | Deposed by theSouthern Tang with the help of Xi’e's supporters, fate unknown[286] |
| Personal name | Posthumous name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Qian Liu 錢鏐 | Prince Wusu 武肅王 | 907–932 (24–25 years) | Named "Prince of Wuyue" byLater Liang | 852–932 (aged 80) Died of natural causes[287] |
| Qian Yuanguan 錢元瓘 | Prince Wensu 文肅王 | 932–941 (8–9 years) | Son ofQian Liu | 887–941 (aged 54) Died of natural causes[287] |
| Qian Hongzuo 錢弘佐 | Prince Zhongxian 忠獻王 | 941–947 (5–6 years) | Son ofQian Yuanguan | 928–947 (aged 69) Died of natural causes[288] |
| Qian Hongzong 錢弘倧 | Prince Zhongxun 忠遜王 | 947–early 948 (0–1 years) | Son ofQian Yuanguan | c. 929–c. 971 (aged approx. 42) Deposed by generalHu Jinsi, fate unknown[289] |
| Qian Chu 錢俶 | Prince Zhongyi 忠懿王 | 978 (less than a year) | Son ofQian Yuanguan | 929–988 (aged 59) Surrendered to theSong dynasty, died of sudden illness or poisoning[290] |
| Personal name | Temple name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Wang Shenzhi 王審知 | Taizu 太祖 | 909–925 (15–16 years) | Younger brother of warlordWang Chao, named wang of Min byLater Liang | 862–925 (aged 63) One of the most peaceful reign periods of the period; died of natural causes[291] |
| Wang Yanhan 王延翰 | — | 926–927 (0–1 years) | Son ofWang Shenzhi | Died in 927 Killed by his brother[292] |
| Wang Yanjun 王延鈞 | Huizong 惠宗 | 927–935 (7–8 years) | Son ofWang Shenzhi, proclaimed Prince in 928 and later Emperor in 933 | Died in 935 Killed by his son[292] |
| Wang Jipeng 王繼鵬 Wang Chang 王昶 | Kangzong 康宗 | 935–939 (3–4 years) | Son ofWang Yanjun | Died in 939 A devout Taoist, he was killed in a coup[293] |
| Wang Yanxi 王延羲 | Jingzong 景宗 | 939–944 (4–5 years) | Son ofWang Shenzhi | Died in 944 A despotic ruler, he was killed byLian Chongyu and his associates[294] |
| Wang Yanzheng 王延政 | Gongyi 恭懿王 | 945 (less than a year) | Proclaimed himself "Prince of Yin" to rival his brotherWang Yanxi | Died in 945 Defeated bySouthern Tang, died of natural causes in captivity[294] |
| Personal name | Temple name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Liu Yan 劉巖 | Gaozu 高祖 | 917–942 (24–25 years) | Took over ofGuangzhou in 911, proclaimed himself Emperor of Yue (renamed "Han" in 918) | 889–942 (aged 63) A despotic and extravagant ruler; died of natural causes[295] |
| Liu Bin 劉玢 | — | 942–943 (0–1 years) | Son ofLiu Yan | 920–943 (aged 63) An hedonistic ruler; he was killed by his brother[296] |
| Liu Sheng 劉晟 | Zhongzong 中宗 | 943–958 (14–15 years) | Son ofLiu Yan | 920–958 (aged 38) Died of natural causes[297] |
| Liu Chang 劉鋹 | — | 958–971 (12–13 years) | Son ofLiu Sheng | 943–980 (aged 37) Another hedonistic ruler, he surrendered to the Song army and was spared[296] |
| Personal Name | Temple name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Gao Jixing 高季興 | — | 924–early 929 (4–5 years) | Named King ofNanping byLater Tang in 924, ruled under the vassalage ofWu | 858–929 (aged 71) Died of natural causes[298] |
| Gao Conghui 高從誨 | — | 929–948 (18–19 years) | Son ofGao Jixing | 891–948 (aged 57) A weak ruler, he was nicknamed "Gao the Jerk" (高賴子); died of natural causes[298] |
| Gao Baorong 高寶融 | — | 948–960 (11–12 years) | Son ofGao Conghui | 920–960 (aged 40) Died of natural causes[298] |
| Gao Baoxu 高寶勗 | — | 960–962 (1–2 years) | Son ofGao Conghui, effective ruler during the reign of his brother | 924–962 (aged 38) Died of natural causes[298] |
| Gao Jichong 高繼沖 | — | 962–963 (0–1 years) | Son ofGao Baorong | 943–973 (aged 30) Surrendered to theSong but spared[298] |
| Personal Name | Temple name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Meng Zhixiang 孟知祥 | Gaozu 高祖 | 934 (less than a year) | Later Tang governor from 926, proclaimed King in 933 and later Emperor in 93 | 874–934 (aged 60) Died of natural causes[299] |
| Meng Chang 孟昶 | — | 934–965 (30–31 years) | Son ofMeng Zhixiang | 919–965 (aged 60) Defeated by theSong dynasty, died of natural causes[299] |
| Personal Name | Temple name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Li Bian 李昪 | Liezu 烈祖 | 937–943 (5–6 years) | Adopted son ofXu Wen, proclaimed himself Emperor after overthrowing theYang Wu | 888–943 (aged 55) Died of natural causes[300] |
| Li Jing 李璟 | Yuanzong 元宗 | 943–961 (17–18 years) | Son ofLi Bian | 888–943 (aged 55) ConqueredMin andChu, but failed to ward the attacks ofLater Zhou. A distinguished poet, he died of natural causes[301] |
| Li Yu 李煜 | — | 961–976 (14–15 years) | Son ofLi Jing | 937–978 (aged 41) A master of theci poetry, he surrendered to theSong dynasty but was spared[302] |
| Personal Name | Temple name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Liu Chong 劉崇 | Shizu 世祖 | 951–954 (2–3 years) | Cousin ofLiu Zhiyuan ofLater Tang, proclaimed himself Emperor | 895–954 (aged 59) Died of natural causes[303] |
| Liu Jun 劉鈞 | Ruizong 睿宗 | 954–968 (13–14 years) | Son ofLiu Chong | 926–968 (aged 42) Died of natural causes[304] |
| Liu Ji'en 劉繼恩 | – | 968 (less than a year) | Adopted son ofLiu Jun | 935–968 (aged 33) Killed by Hou Barong[305] |
| Liu Jiyuan 劉繼元 | Yingwu 英武 | 968–979 (10–11 years) | Adopted son ofLiu Jun | 956–991 (aged 35) Surrendered to theSong and spared[305] |
| Portrait | Temple name | Personal name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Northern Song (960–1127)[edit]See also:Northern Song | |||||
 | Taizu 太祖 Other names
| Zhao Kuangyin 趙匡胤 | 4 February 960 – 14 November 976 (16 years, 9 months and 10 days) Era(s)
| Proclaimed emperor after deposingChai Zongxun ofLater Zhou. Unified most of China under his rule | 21 March 927 – 14 November 976 (aged 49) Significantly reduced the power of the military in favor of civilian officers. Died in uncertain circumstances, probably illness[306] |
 | Taizong 太宗 Other names
| Zhao Jiong 趙炅 | 14 November 976 – 8 May 997 (20 years, 5 months and 24 days) Era(s)
| Younger brother ofTaizu | 20 November 939 – 8 May 997 (aged 57) Conquered the last remaining Chinese state in 978, but failed the reconquer former Tang territories, likeVietnam. Died of natural causes[307] |
 | Zhenzong 真宗 Other names
| Zhao Heng 趙恆 | 8 May 997 – 23 March 1022 (24 years, 10 months and 15 days) Era(s)
| Son ofTaizong | 23 December 968 – 23 March 1022 (aged 53) Suffered significant defeats to the northernLiao dynasty, leading to theChanyuan Treaty. Died after a prolonged period of illness[308] |
 | Renzong 仁宗 Other names
| Zhao Zhen 趙禎 | 23 March 1022 – 30 April 1063 (41 years, 1 month and 7 days) Era(s)
| Son ofZhenzong | 30 May 1010 – 30 April 1063 (aged 52) Ruled under the regency ofEmpress Liu until 1033. His long reign, the longest of the Song dynasty, saw several developments in culture, philosophy and arts[309] |
 | Yingzong 英宗 Other names
| Zhao Shu 趙曙 | 1 May 1063 – 25 January 1067 (3 years, 8 months and 24 days) Era(s)
| Son ofZhao Yunrang, a grandson ofEmperor Taizong, and adopted son of EmperorRenzong | 16 February 1032 – 25 January 1067 (aged 34) Ruled initially under the regency ofEmpress Dowager Cao. Died after several years of illness[310] |
 | Shenzong 神宗 Other names
| Zhao Xu 趙頊 | 25 January 1067 – 1 April 1085 (18 years, 2 months and 7 days) Era(s)
| Son ofYingzong | 25 May 1048 – 1 April 1085 (aged 36) Best known by the implementation of the "New Policies". Died of illness[311] |
 | Zhezong 哲宗 Other names
| Zhao Xu 趙煦 | 1 April 1085 – 23 February 1100 (14 years, 6 months and 25 days) Era(s)
| Son ofShenzong | 4 January 1077 – 23 February 1100 (aged 23) Ruled under the regency ofEmpress Dowager Gao until 1093. Died of illness[312] |
 | Huizong 徽宗 Other names
| Zhao Ji 趙佶 | 23 February 1100 – 18 January 1126 (25 years, 10 months and 26 days) Era(s)
| Son ofShenzong | 7 June 1082 – 4 June 1135 (aged 52) A remarkable patron of the arts and an artist himself, but a weak ruler and politician. Abdicated during theJurchen Jin siege ofKaifeng. Captured by the Jin shortly after; died in captivity[313] |
 | Qinzong 欽宗 Other names
| Zhao Huan 趙桓 | 19 January 1126 – 25 March 1127 (1 year, 2 months and 6 days) Era(s)
| Son ofHuizong | 23 May 1100 – 14 June 1161 (aged 62) Refused to negotiate with the Jin, which led to a second invasion. Captured alongside his father during theJingkang incident; died in captivity[314] |
Southern Song (1127–1279)[edit]See also:Southern Song | |||||
 | Gaozong 高宗 Other names
| Zhao Gou 趙構 | 12 June 1127 – 24 July 1162 (35 years, 1 month and 12 days)[aa] Era(s)
| Son ofHuizong, proclaimed emperor inJiankang after fleeing the Jurchen invasion of the North | 12 June 1107 – 9 November 1187 (aged 80) A competent ruler that managed to preserve the Song dynasty, but often criticized for his military defeats and political failures. Abdicated in favor of his adopted son, later dying of natural causes[316] |
| None, known by his personal name | Zhao Fu 趙旉 | March – April 1129 (1 month or less) Era(s)
| Son ofGaozong, proclaimed emperor during a mutiny | An infant installed by officers Miao Fu and Liu Zhengyan. They lost power within a month[315] | |
 | Xiaozong 孝宗 Other names
| Zhao Shen[ab] 趙眘 | 24 July 1162 – 18 February 1189 (26 years, 6 months and 25 days) Era(s)
| Son of Zhao Zicheng, a descendant of thefirst Song Emperor, and adopted son ofGaozong | 27 November 1127 – 28 June 1194 (aged 66) Often regarded as the most peaceful and stable ruler of the Southern Song. Abdicated in favour of his son, later dying of natural causes[318] |
 | Guangzong 光宗 Other names
| Zhao Dun 趙惇 | 18 February 1189 – 24 July 1194 (5 years, 5 months and 6 days) Era(s)
| Son ofXiaozong | 30 September 1147 – 17 September 1200 (aged 53) Forced to abdicate in favor of his son, allegedly because of his mental instability. Died of natural causes[319] |
 | Ningzong 寧宗 Other names
| Zhao Kuo 趙擴 | 24 July 1194 – 17 September 1224 (30 years, 1 month and 24 days) Era(s)
| Son ofGuangzong | 19 November 1168 – 17 September 1224 (aged 55) A weak and indecisive ruler who spent most of his life in isolation at the palace. Died of illness[320] |
 | Lizong 理宗 Other names
| Zhao Yun 趙昀 | 17 September 1224 – 16 November 1264 (40 years, 1 month and 30 days) Era(s)
| Son of Zhao Xilu, a descendant of the first Song Emperor,Taizu | 26 January 1205 – 16 November 1264 (aged 59) An emperor devoted to philosophy and the arts, he had to face the first Mongol incursions following the fall of the Jin. Died of illness[321] |
 | Duzong 度宗 Other names
| Zhao Qi 趙禥 | 16 November 1264 – 12 August 1274 (9 years, 8 months and 27 days) Era(s)
| Son of Zhao Yurui, a brother ofLizong | 2 May 1240 – 12 August 1274 (aged 34) Relegated most imperial duties to his officers. Died of sudden illness[322] |
 | Gongzong 恭宗 Other names
| Zhao Xian 趙㬎 | 12 August 1274 – 21 February 1276 (1 year, 6 months and 5 days) Era(s)
| Son ofDuzong | 2 November 1270 – 1323 Ruled under the regency ofEmpress Xie, who was forced to surrender to the Mongols. Became a monk inTibet, but was later executed of forced to commit suicide; died in Gansu[323] |
 | Duanzong 端宗 Other names
| Zhao Shi 趙昰 | 14 June 1276 – 8 May 1278 (1 year and 11 months) Era(s)
| Son ofDuzong, proclaimed emperor inFuzhou after the fall of the capital | 1268 – 8 May 1278 (aged 10) Spent most of his life fleeing from the Mongols by sea. Died of illness after barely surviving the sinking of his ship[324] |
 | None, known by his personal name | Zhao Bing 趙昺 | 10 May 1278 – 19 March 1279 (10 months and 9 days) Era(s)
| Son ofDuzong | 1271 – 19 March 1279 (aged 8) Thrown into theXi River during theBattle of Yamen alongside several soldiers and officers as part of a mass suicide[325] |
| Temple name | Personal name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Taizu 太祖 Other names
| Yelü Abaoji 耶律阿保机 | 27 February 907 – 6 September 926 (19 years, 6 months and 10 days) Era(s)
| Led theYelü clan asKhagan to unite theKhitan people | 872 – 6 September 926 (aged 53–54) Died of natural causes[326] |
| Taizong 太宗 Other names
| Yelü Deguang 耶律德光 | 11 December 927 – 15 May 947 (19 years, 4 months and 23 days) Era(s)
| Son ofTaizu | 902 – 15 May 947 (aged 44–45) Died from a sudden illness[328] |
| Shizong 世宗 Other names
| Yelü Ruan 耶律阮 | 16 May 947 – 7 October 951 (4 years, 4 months and 21 days) Era(s)
| Grandson ofTaizu | 918 – 7 October 951 (aged 32–33) Murdered by his cousin in a coup d'état[329] |
| Muzong 穆宗 Other names
| Yelü Jing 耶律璟 | 11 October 951 – 12 March 969 (17 years, 5 months and 1 day) Era(s)
| Son ofTaizong | 931 – 12 March 969 (aged 37–38) Killed by his personal attendants[330] |
| Jingzong 景宗 Other names
| Yelü Xian 耶律贤 | 13 May 969 – 13 October 982 (13 years and 5 months) Era(s)
| Son ofShizong | 948 – 13 October 982 (aged 33–34) Died of illness on a hunting trip[331] |
| Shengzong 聖宗 Other names
| Yelü Longxu 耶律隆绪 | 14 October 982 – 25 June 1031 (48 years, 8 months and 11 days) Era(s)
| Son ofJingzong | 971 – 25 June 1031 (aged 59–60) Longest reigning Liao ruler, though he was controlled by his motherXiao Yanyan until 1009. Died of natural causes[332] |
| Xingzong 興宗 Other names
| Yelü Zongzhen 耶律宗真 | 25 June 1031 – 28 August 1055 (24 years, 2 months and 3 days) Era(s)
| Son ofShengzong | 1016 – 28 August 1055 (aged 38–39) Died of natural causes[333] |
| Daozong 道宗 Other names
| Yelü Hongji 耶律洪基 | 28 August 1055 – 12 February 1101 (45 years, 5 months and 15 days) Era(s)
| Son ofXingzong | 1032 – 12 February 1101 (aged 68–69) Died of natural causes[334] |
| None, known by his posthumous name: Tianzuo 天祚帝 | Yelü Yanxi 耶律延禧 | 12 February 1101 – 6 September 1125 (24 years, 6 months and 25 days) Era(s)
| Grandson ofDaozong | 1075 – after 6 September 1125 (aged 49–50) Died in captivity from natural causes[335] |
| Temple name[ah] | Personal name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Jingzong 景宗 Other names
| Li Yuanhao 李元昊 | 1038 – 1048[ai] (9–10 years) Era(s)
| Son of theTangut leaderLi Deming | 1003–1048[ai] (aged 44–45) Assassinated by his son,Ningling Ge[337] |
| Yizong 毅宗 Other names
| Li Liangzuo 李諒祚 | 1048 – January 1068 (19–20 years) Era(s)
| Son ofJingzong | 1047 – January 1068 (aged 20–21) Infant emperor whose reign was controlled byLady Mozang and laterMozang Epang. Died of natural causes[338] |
| Huizong 惠宗 Other names
| Li Bingchang 李秉常 | January 1068 – 21 August 1086 (17–18 years) Era(s)
| Son ofYizong | 1061 – 21 August 1086 (aged 24–25) Struggled with his mother for power throughout his reign. Died of natural causes[339] |
| Chongzong 崇宗 Other names
| Li Qianshun 李乾順 | 11 November 1086 – 1 July 1139 (52–53 years) Era(s)
| Son ofHuizong | 1084 – 1 July 1139 (aged 54–55) Died of natural causes[340] |
| Renzong 仁宗 Other names
| Li Renxiao 李仁孝 | July 1139 – 16 October 1193 (53–54 years) Era(s)
| Son ofChongzong | 1124 – 16 October 1193 (aged 68–69) Longest ruling ruler of the dynasty. Died of natural causes[340] |
| Huanzong 桓宗 Other names
| Li Chunyou 李純佑 | 1193 – 1 March 1206 (12–13 years) Era(s)
| Son ofRenzong | 1177 – 1 March 1206 (aged 28–29) Overthrown in a coup d'état led byXiangzong. Died of natural causes[341] |
| Xiangzong 襄宗 Other names
| Li Anquan 李安全 | March 1206 – 13 September 1211 (4–5 years) Era(s)
| Grandson ofRenzong | 1170 – 13 September 1211 (aged 40–41) Suffered many losses from the Mongols. Died of natural causes[341] |
| Shenzong 神宗 Other names
| Li Zunxu 李遵頊 | 12 August 1211 – 1223 (14–15 years) Era(s)
| Descendant ofJingzong | 1163 – 1226 (aged 62–63) Abdicated amid Mongol invasions. Died of natural causes[341] |
| Xianzong 獻宗 | Li Dewang 李德旺 | 1223 – August 1226 (2–3 years) Era(s)
| Son ofShenzong | 1181 – August 1226 (aged 44–45) Died of natural causes[341] |
| None, known by his personal name | Li Xian 李晛 | 1226 – 1227 (1 year or less) Era(s)
| Grandson ofShenzong | ? – 1227 (aged ?) Killed by the Mongols[341] |
| Temple name | Personal name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Taizu 太祖 Other names
| Wanyan Min 完顏旻 | 28 January 1115 – 19 September 1123 (8 years, 7 months and 22 days) Era(s)
| Son ofHelibo from theWanyan tribe | 1 August 1068 – 19 September 1123 (aged 55) Conquered theLiao dynasty[343] |
| Taizong 太宗 Other names
| Wanyan Sheng 完顏晟 | 27 September 1123 – 7 February 1135 (11 years, 4 months and 11 days) Era(s)
| Brother ofTaizu | 1075 – 7 February 1135 (aged 59–60) Sacked the North Song dynasty's capital. Died of natural causes[343] |
| Xizong 熙宗 Other names
| Wanyan Dan 完顏亶 | 8 February 1135 – 9 January 1150 (14 years, 11 months and 1 day) Era(s)
| Grandson ofTaizu | 1119 – 9 January 1150 (aged 30–31) Assassinated by his chancellor and successorWanyan Liang[343] |
| None, informally known as Prince of Hailing 海陵王 | Wanyan Liang 完顏亮 | 9 January 1150 – 15 December 1161 (11 years, 11 months and 6 days) Era(s)
| Grandson ofTaizu | 1122 – 15 December 1161 (aged 38–39) Assassinated by his military commanders after losing theBattle of Caishi[344] |
| Shizong 世宗 Other names
| Wanyan Yong 完顏雍 | 27 October 1161 – 20 January 1189 (27 years, 2 months and 24 days) Era(s)
| Grandson ofTaizu | 1123 – 20 January 1189 (aged 65–66) Had the longest and most stable reign of the dynasty[345] |
| Zhangzong 章宗 Other names
| Wanyan Jing 完顏璟 | 20 January 1189 – 29 December 1208 (19 years, 11 months and 9 days) Era(s)
| Grandson ofShizong | 31 August 1168 – 29 December 1208 (aged 40) Died of natural causes[346] |
| None, informally known as Prince Shao of Wei 衛紹王 | Wanyan Yongji 完顏永濟 | 29 December 1208 – 11 September 1213 (4 years, 8 months and 13 days) Era(s)
| Son ofShizong | ? – 11 September 1213[aj] (aged ?) Assassinated under the orders of the generalHushahu [zh][346] |
| Xuanzong 宣宗 Other names
| Wanyan Xun 完顏珣 | 22 September 1213 – 14 January 1224 (10 years, 3 months and 23 days) Era(s)
| Grandson ofShizong | 1163 – 14 January 1224 (aged 60–61) Suffered heavy losses from the Mongols. Died of natural causes[346] |
| Aizong 哀宗 | Wanyan Shouxu 完顏守緒 | 15 January 1224 – 8 February 1234 (10 years and 24 days) Era(s)
| Son ofXuanzong | 25 September 1198 – 9 February 1234 (aged 35) Committed suicide amid Mongol invasions[346] |
| Mo 末 | Wanyan Chenglin 完顏承麟 | 9 February 1234 (less than a day) | Descendant ofHelibo | ? – 9 February 1234 (aged ?) The shortest reigning Chinese monarch, ruled for less than a day. Died during theMongol conquest of the Jin[346] |
| Portrait | Khan name | Personal name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
 | Setsen Khan 薛禪汗 better known as Kublai Khan Other names
| Borjigin Kublai 孛兒只斤忽必烈 | 18 December 1271 – 18 February 1294 (22 years and 2 months) Era(s)
| Grandson ofGenghis Khan; declared emperor after defeating the Song in theBattle of Yamen | 23 September 1215 – 18 February 1294 (aged 78) Fully conquered the Song dynasty, won theToluid Civil War, moved the capital toKhanbaliq and employedMarco Polo[347] |
 | Öljeytü Khan 完澤篤汗 Other names
| Borjigin Temür 孛兒只斤鐵穆耳 | 10 May 1294 – 10 February 1307 (12 years and 9 months) Era(s)
| Grandson ofKublai | 15 October 1265 – 10 February 1307 (aged 41) Died of natural causes[348] |
 | Külüg Khan 曲律汗 Other names
| Borjigin Haishan 孛兒只斤海山 | 21 June 1307 – 27 January 1311 (3 years, 7 months and 6 days) Era(s)
| Great-grandson ofKublai | 4 August 1281 – 27 January 1311 (aged 29) Died of natural causes[349] |
 | Buyantu Khan 普顏篤汗 Other names
| Borjigin Ayurbarwada 孛兒只斤愛育黎拔力八達 | 7 April 1311 – 1 March 1320 (8 years, 10 months and 23 days) Era(s)
| Great-grandson ofKublai | 9 April 1285 – 1 March 1320 (aged 34) Died of natural causes[350] |
| Gegeen Khan 格堅汗 Other names
| Borjigin Shidibala 孛兒只斤硕德八剌 | 19 April 1320 – 4 September 1323 (3 years, 4 months and 16 days) Era(s)
| Son ofAyurbarwada | 22 February 1302 – 4 September 1323 (aged 21) Killed in a coup led byTemuder [zh][351] | |
| None, known either by his personal or era name | Borjigin Yesün Temür 孛兒只斤也孫鐵木兒 | 4 October 1323 – 15 August 1328 (4 years, 10 months and 11 days) Era(s)
| Great-Grandson ofKublai | 28 November 1293 – 15 August 1328[ak] (aged 34) Died of natural causes[352] | |
| None, known either by his personal or era name | Borjigin Ragibagh 孛兒只斤阿剌吉八 | October 1328 – 14 November 1328 (1 month) Era(s)
| Son ofYesün | 1320 – 14 November 1328 (aged 8) Child emperor; probably murdered amid theWar of the Two Capitals[353] | |
 | Jayaatu Khan 札牙篤汗 Other names
| Borjigin Tugh Temür 孛兒只斤圖帖睦爾 | 16 October 1328 – 26 February 1329 (4 months and 10 days) Era(s)
| Son ofKülüg | 16 February 1304 – 2 September 1332 (aged 28) Abdicated in favor of his brotherKhutughtu Khan[354] |
 | Khutughtu Khan 忽都篤汗 Other names
| Borjigin Kusala 孛兒只斤和世剌 | 27 February 1329 – 30 August 1329 (6 months and 3 days) Era(s)
| Son ofKülüg | 22 December 1300 – 30 August 1329 (aged 28) Briefly ruled before killed byEl Temür[353] |
| Jayaatu Khan 札牙篤汗 (second reign) | Borjigin Tugh Temür 孛兒只斤圖帖睦爾 | 8 September 1329 – 2 September 1332 (2 years, 11 months and 25 days) Era(s)
| Son ofKülüg | 16 February 1304 – 2 September 1332 (aged 28) A patron of the arts and scholarship, his reign was dominated by the ministersEl Temür andBayan of the Merkid. Died of natural causes[354] |
 | None, known by his personal name Other names
| Borjigin Rinchinbal 孛兒只斤懿璘質班 | 23 October 1332 – 14 December 1332 (1 month and 21 days) Era(s)
| Son ofKhutughtu | 1 May 1326 – 14 December 1332 (aged 6) Child emperor; died of sudden illness[355] |
| Ukhaghatu Khan 烏哈噶圖汗 Other names
| Borjigin Toghon Temür 孛兒只斤妥懽帖睦爾 | 19 July 1333 – 10 September 1368 (35 years, 2 months and 22 days) Era(s)
| Son ofKhutughtu | 25 May 1320 – 23 May 1370 (aged 49) Died of natural causes[357] |
| Portrait | Era name | Personal name | Reign[am] | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
 | Hongwu 洪武 Other names
| Zhu Yuanzhang 朱元璋 | 23 January 1368 – 24 June 1398 (30 years, 5 months and 1 day) Era(s)
| Born into poverty, he led theRed Turban Rebellions to establish the Ming dynasty | 21 October 1328 – 24 June 1398 (aged 69) Initiated cultural reconstruction and political reform, also noted for his extreme and violent methods of enforcement. Died of natural causes[359] |
| Jianwen 建文 | Zhu Yunwen 朱允炆 | 30 June 1398 – 13 July 1402 (4 years and 13 days) Era(s)
| Grandson ofHongwu | 5 December 1377 – 13 July 1402 (aged 24) Overthrown by the futureYongle Emperor, his uncle. Either died in or disappeared after the fires in theMing Palace.[361] | |
 | Yongle 永樂 Other names
| Zhu Di 朱棣 | 17 July 1402 – 12 August 1424 (22 years and 26 days) Era(s)
| Son ofHongwu | 2 May 1360 – 12 August 1424 (aged 64) Raised the Ming to its highest power. Patron of many projects, including thePorcelain Tower of Nanjing,Yongle Encyclopedia and theMing treasure voyages. Died of natural causes.[362] |
 | Hongxi 洪熙 Other names
| Zhu Gaochi 朱高熾 | 7 September 1424 – 29 May 1425 (8 months and 22 days) Era(s)
| Son ofYongle | 16 August 1378 – 29 May 1425 (aged 46) Focused primarily on domestic affairs. Died of natural causes[363] |
 | Xuande 宣德 Other names
| Zhu Zhanji 朱瞻基 | 27 June 1425 – 31 January 1435 (9 years, 7 months and 4 days) Era(s)
| Son ofHongxi | 16 March 1399 – 31 January 1435 (aged 35) A noted painter. Died of natural causes[364] |
 | known by his temple: Yingzong 英宗 Other names
| Zhu Qizhen 朱祁镇 | 7 February 1435 – 1 September 1449 (14 years, 6 months and 25 days)[aq] Era(s)
| Son ofXuande | 29 November 1427 – 23 February 1464 (aged 36) His reign was dominated by eunuchs, particularlyWang Zhen, which led to growing instability. Captured by theNorthern Yuan dynasty during theTumu Crisis.[366] |
| Jingtai 景泰 Other names
| Zhu Qiyu 朱祁鈺 | 22 September 1449 – 24 February 1457 (7 years, 5 months and 2 days) Era(s)
| Son ofXuande | 11 September 1428 – 14 March 1457 (aged 28) Briefly ruled while his brother was held captive; deposed soon after. Died a month later, possibly from murder.[367] | |
| Yingzong 英宗 (second reign) | Zhu Qizhen 朱祁镇 | 11 February 1457 – 23 February 1464 (7 years and 12 days)[aq] Era(s)
| Son ofXuande | 29 November 1427 – 23 February 1464 (aged 36) Restored to power after his release. Died of natural causes[368] |
 | Chenghua 成化 Other names
| Zhu Jianshen 朱見濡 | 28 February 1464 – 9 September 1487 (23 years, 6 months and 12 days) Era(s)
| Son ofYingzong | 9 December 1447 – 9 September 1487 (aged 39) Died of natural causes[369] |
 | Hongzhi 弘治 Other names
| Zhu Youcheng 朱祐樘 | 22 September 1487 – 8 June 1505 (17 years, 8 months and 17 days) Era(s)
| Son ofChenghua | 30 July 1470 – 9 June 1505 (aged 34) Died of natural causes[370] |
 | Zhengde 正德 Other names
| Zhu Houzhao 朱厚㷖 | 19 June 1505 – 20 April 1521 (15 years, 10 months and 1 day) Era(s)
| Son ofHongzhi | 14 November 1491 – 20 April 1521 (aged 29) His reign saw the rise of influence from eunuchs, particularlyLiu Jin. Probably drowned after his boat sank.[371] |
 | Jiajing 嘉靖 Other names
| Zhu Houcong 朱厚熜 | 27 May 1521 – 23 January 1567 (45 years, 7 months and 26 days) Era(s)
| Grandson ofChenghua, brother ofZhengde | 16 September 1507 – 23 January 1567 (aged 59) Died of natural causes[372] |
 | Longqing 隆慶 Other names
| Zhu Zaiji 朱載坖 | 4 February 1567 – 5 July 1572 (5 years, 5 months and 1 day) Era(s)
| Son ofJiajing | 4 March 1537 – 5 July 1572 (aged 35) Died of natural causes[373] |
.jpg) | Wanli 萬曆 Other names
| Zhu Yijun 朱翊鈞 | 19 July 1572 – 18 August 1620 (48 years and 30 days) Era(s)
| Son ofLongqing | 4 September 1563 – 18 August 1620 (aged 56) Despite early successes, the gradualdecline of Ming began towards the end of his reign. Died of natural causes[374] |
 | Taichang 泰昌 Other names
| Zhu Changluo 朱常洛 | 28 August – 26 September 1620 (29 days) Era(s)
| Son ofWanli | 28 August 1582 – 26 September 1620 (aged 38) Died suddenly after a reign of around a month, possibly murdered by poison[375] |
 | Tianqi 天啓 Other names
| Zhu Youjiao 朱由校 | 1 October 1620 – 30 September 1627 (6 years, 11 months and 29 days) Era(s)
| Son ofTaichang | 23 December 1605 – 30 September 1627 (aged 21) A weak ruler, his reign was dominated by the eunuchWei Zhongxian. Died from an unknown illness[376] |
| Chongzhen 崇禎 Other names
| Zhu Youjian 朱由檢 | 2 October 1627 – 25 April 1644 (16 years, 6 months and 23 days) Era(s)
| Son ofTaichang, brother ofTianqi | 6 February 1611 – 25 April 1644 (aged 33) Committed suicide, possibly byhanging himself on a tree.[377] | |
| Portrait | Era name | Personal name | Reign[ar] | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
 | Shunzhi 順治 Other names
| Aisin-Gioro Fulin 愛新覺羅福臨 | 8 November 1644 – 5 February 1661 (16 years, 2 months and 28 days) Era(s)
| Son ofHong Taiji; chosen by acouncil of Manchu princes | 15 March 1638 – 5 February 1661 (aged 22) Finished theManchu conquest of the Ming, pushing the remaining Ming sympathizersto the South. Died suddenly ofsmallpox[379] |
 | Kangxi 康熙 Other names
| Aisin-Gioro Xuanye 愛新覺羅玄燁 | 5 February 1661 – 20 December 1722 (61 years, 10 months and 15 days) Era(s)
| Son ofShunzhi | 4 May 1654 – 20 December 1722 (aged 68) Longest ruling Chinese emperor. Expanded the empire's territory, and commissioned both theKangxi Dictionary andComplete Tang Poems. Died of natural causes[380] |
 | Yongzheng 雍正 Other names
| Aisin-Gioro Yinzhen 愛新覺羅胤禛 | 27 December 1722 – 8 October 1735 (12 years, 9 months and 11 days) Era(s)
| Son ofKangxi | 13 December 1678 – 8 October 1735 (aged 56) Ruled for a relatively short period, establishing theGrand Council. Probably died ofalchemical elixir poisoning; death officially recorded as natural causes.[381][as] |
 | Qianlong 乾隆 Other names
| Aisin-Gioro Hongli 愛新覺羅弘曆 | 18 October 1735 – 9 February 1796 (60 years, 3 months and 22 days) Era(s)
| Son ofYongzheng | 25 September 1711 – 7 February 1799 (aged 87) Brought the empireto its height. Died of natural causes[383] |
 | Jiaqing 嘉慶 Other names
| Aisin-Gioro Yongyan 愛新覺羅顒琰 | 9 February 1796 – 2 September 1820 (24 years, 6 months and 24 days) Era(s)
| Son ofQianlong | 13 November 1760 – 2 September 1820 (aged 59) Died suddenly fromapoplexy[384] |
 | Daoguang 道光 Other names
| Aisin-Gioro Minning 愛新覺羅旻寧 | 3 October 1820 – 26 February 1850 (29 years, 4 months and 23 days) Era(s)
| Son ofJiaqing | 16 September 1782 – 25 February 1850 (aged 67) An ineffective ruler who led a highly unstable reign, marked by theFirst Opium War and the earlyTaiping Rebellion. Probably died from astroke[385] |
 | Xianfeng 咸豐 Other names
| Aisin-Gioro Yizhu 愛新覺羅奕詝 | 9 March 1850 – 22 August 1861 (11 years, 5 months and 13 days) Era(s)
| Son ofDaoguang | 17 July 1831 – 22 August 1861 (aged 30) The last Chinese emperor to have personal power for the entirety of his reign, which was unstable after theTaiping Rebellion,Nian Rebellion andSecond Opium War. Died of natural causes[386] |
 | Tongzhi 同治 Other names
| Aisin-Gioro Zaichun 愛新覺羅載淳 | 11 November 1861 – 12 January 1875 (13 years, 2 months and 1 day) Era(s)
| Son ofXianfeng | 27 April 1856 – 12 January 1875 (aged 18) Reign was completely dominated byEmpress Dowager Cixi, who initiated theTongzhi Restoration. Died suddenly, under suspicious circumstances[388] |
 | Guangxu 光緒 Other names
| Aisin-Gioro Zaitian 愛新覺羅載湉 | 25 February 1875 – 14 November 1908 (33 years, 8 months and 20 days) Era(s)
| Cousin ofTongzhi | 14 August 1871 – 14 November 1908 (aged 37) Initiated the failedHundred Days' Reform, and from 1898 on, his reign was completely dominated byEmpress Dowager Cixi. Died of poisoning, possibly from Cixi.[389] |
 | Xuantong 宣統 | Aisin-Gioro Puyi 愛新覺羅溥儀 | 2 December 1908 – 12 February 1912 (3 years, 2 months and 10 days) Era(s)
| Nephew ofGuangxu | 7 February 1906 – 17 October 1967 (aged 61) Reigned as a young child, but was forced to abdicate in 1912 amid the1911 Revolution, ending the 2,000-year monarchial system of Imperial China. Died of natural causes.[390] |
| For the subsequent heads of state of China, seeList of presidents of the Republic of China andList of state representatives of the People's Republic of China | |||||
Six Dynasties & Mid Imperial Era
