The following is alist of national founders ofsovereign states who were credited with establishing a state. National founders are typically those who played an influential role in setting up the systems of governance, (i.e.,political system form of government, and constitution), of the country. They can also be military leaders of awar of independence that led to the establishment of a sovereign state.
Maurice Yaméogo was the first Upper Voltese premier ofFrench Upper Volta, being appointed in 1958 and became thefirst president of theRepublic of Upper Volta from 1960 to 1966. Yaméogo was politically disenfranchised and all of his titles were denounced in 1970 under the orders ofSangoulé Lamizana before being rehabilitated in 1991 byBlaise Compaoré as the national founder. In 1984, president of Upper Volta,Thomas Sankara as a part of hissocialist andanti-french reforms renamed the country toBurkina Faso as well as adopting the national anthem,Ditanyè, which was written by Sankara himself. In 2023, Sankara was declared the hero of Burkina Faso and the “true” national founder by presidentIbrahim Traoré.[1]
Amílcar Cabral (var. Amílcar Lopes da Costa Cabral) (1924–1973) was an agricultural engineer, writer, and a nationalist thinker and political leader. He was also one of Africa's foremost anti-colonial leaders. Amílcar Cabral led the nationalist movement ofGuinea-Bissau andCape Verde Islands and the ensuingwar of independence in Guinea-Bissau. He was assassinated on 20 January 1973, several months before Guinea-Bissau's unilateral declaration of independence. He is considered a founder of Cape Verde.Aristides Pereira served as firstPresident of Cape Verde from 1975 to 1991.[citation needed]
Saad Zaghloul is seen as the founder of independent Egypt."Zaeem al Ummah (Leader of the Nation)"[citation needed]
The prevailing historical view is thatMuhammad Ali (1769–1849) is the Father of Modern Egypt, being the first ruler since theOttoman conquest in 1517 to permanently divest thePorte of its power in Egypt. While failing to achieve formal independence for Egypt during his lifetime, he was successful in laying the foundation for a modern Egyptian state.[3]
Ahmed Sékou Touré (var. Ahmed Seku Turay) (1922–1984) was aGuinean political leader andPresident of Guinea from 1958 to his death in 1984. Touré was one of the primary Guinean nationalists involved in the independence of the country fromFrance.
Joseph Jenkins Roberts (1809–1876) was born a free man ofAfrican American descent. He migrated toLiberia in 1829 with his family to join thousands of other African Americans resettled from 1820 based on efforts of theAmerican Colonization Society. In 1839, Roberts became Liberia's lieutenant governor and afterwards, itsgovernor (1841–1848). He is known as the father of Liberia and officially declaredLiberia's independence in 1847.[4] The descendants of Roberts and the African American settlers are theAmerico-Liberian people.
KingIdris Al-sanusi, also known as Idris I ofLibya, (1889–1983) was the first and only king of Libya, reigning from 1951 to 1969, and the Chief of theSenussi Muslim order. Idris as-Senussi proclaimed an independentEmirate of Cyrenaica in 1949. He was also invited to become Emir ofTripolitania, another of the three traditional regions that now constitute modern Libya (the third beingFezzan).[5] By accepting he began the process of uniting Libya under a single monarchy. A constitution was enacted in 1949 and adopted in October 1951. A National Congress elected Idris as King of Libya, and as Idris I he proclaimed the independence of theKingdom of Libya as a sovereign state on 24 December 1951.
James Mancham served as first President of Seychelles from 1976 to 1977. He was one of the last White African presidents in the history of Africa. He considered himself the self-proclaimed "Founding Father"; however this title is often attributed to his socialist successorFrance-Albert René, who led the country to become one of the most democratic and most economically stable states inAfrica.[citation needed]
John Garang was the main figure involved in spawning and leading the South Sudanese Independence Movement. Even though he did not live to see his country attain independence, he is often regarded as the "Father of the Nation."
Salva Kiir Mayardit serves as first President of South Sudan from 2011 to present.
Being the firstPresident of Tanzania,Julius Nyerere was the main figure involved in achieving Tanzania's independence. He is often regarded as the "Father of the Nation."[9]
Habib Bourguiba, considered the founder of modernTunisia, ledTunisia to independence from France in 1956 as prime minister, then abolishedits monarchy and served as the country's firstPresident from 1957 to 1987; during his leadership, he modernized Tunisia, built schools and hospitals, and gave Tunisian women better human rights than other countries, and these rights still continue to be exercised by Tunisian women to this day.[citation needed]
Milton Obote was a Ugandan political leader who led Uganda to independence from British colonial rule in 1962. Following the nation's independence, he served asprime minister of Uganda from 1962 to 1966 and the secondpresident of Uganda from 1966 to 1971, then again from 1980 to 1985.
Kenneth Kaunda (1924–2021) is the prominent icon in theindependence and unification ofZambia. He served as firstPresident from 1964 to 1991. However, there are important personalities likeSimon Kapwepwe andHarry Nkumbula (1916–18) that fairly deserve recognition. Together, in their different capacities, they led the nation to freedom.
The military commanderJosé de San Martín was one of the most important figures of theWar of Independence (1810–1818) in Argentina, where he is known as the "Father of the Homeland" (Spanish:Padre de la Patria) and the date of his death (or "Passage to Immortality"; "Pasaje a la Inmortalidad in Spanish) is commemorated as a national holiday.[11] One of the mainlibertadores of theSpanish American wars of independence, San Martín played a crucial role in the expulsion ofroyalist forces not only from Argentina but also from Chile and Peru, where he is thus also celebrated as a national hero.[12] One of his most celebrated feats is the 1817Crossing of the Andes, when he crossed themountain range from present-day Argentina to present-day Chile, in asurprise attack on royalist forces.[13]
Manuel Belgrano, another important leader of the War of Independence and creator of theflag of Argentina, is also widely regarded as a national hero.[14]
Errol Barrow (1920–1987) is often referred to as theFather of Independence ofBarbados.[17] Initially aWorld War II pilot and then a lawyer, he founded theDemocratic Labour Party in 1955 after defecting from theBarbados Labour Party. He served as the third and finalpremier of Barbados (serving from 1961 to 1966) and lead Barbados toindependence from theBritish Empire in 1966. He became the country's first prime minister and served two terms (1966–1976 and 1986–1987) and died in office from illness in 1987.
George Cadle Price (1919–2011) is considered to be theFather of the Nation of Belize.[18][19] He served as head of government of British Honduras, later Belize from 1961 to 1984. Independence from United Kingdom was achieved in 1981.[citation needed]
Pedro Álvares Cabral (1467/68–1520) commander of the first Portuguese fleet to arrive in South America.
José Bonifácio de Andrada (1763–1838), known as "Patriarch of Independence", is considered the maximum leader of the independence movement because of his intellectual mentorship and political prominence, andPedro I of Brazil (1798–1834), son of the KingJoão VI of Portugal, the symbol of the "center of force and union", according to the Bonifácio strategy.
Queen Victoria, who supported and encouraged this process, is known as the Mother of Confederation. She was the first Monarch under the 1867 Constitution and personally choseOttawa as Canada's capital city. The political leaders who brought the other provinces into Confederation after 1867 are also referred to as "Fathers of Confederation".[21]
Errol Barrow (Barbados: 1920–1987);Forbes Burnham (Guyana: 1923–1985);Michael Manley (Jamaica: 1924–1997); andEric Williams (Trinidad and Tobago: 1911–1981) were the leaders who brought forth regional integration among the Caribbean Community.[22]
Carlos Manuel de Céspedes (1819–1874) is considered the Cuban Founding Father. In 1868, he freed his slaves and declared the independence of Cuba, which began theTen Years' War (1868–1878).
Matías Ramón Mella (1816–1864),Juan Pablo Duarte (1813–1876) andFrancisco del Rosario Sánchez (1817–1861) are considered the Dominican Republic's Founding Fathers. Duarte is featured on the $1 coin and on the now discontinued $1 bill; Sanchez on the $5 coin and on the also discontinued $5 bill; Mella on the $10 coin and on the also discontinued $10 bill.[25]
In 1523,Pedro de Alvarado, a member of Hernán Cortés' group that conquered Mexico, was sent to conquer the area of land below Mexico that is known today as Guatemala.
Norman Manley is particularly noted for his role in securing universal suffrage for the country's population in 1944 along with founding thePeople's National Party. Manley also served as Chief Minister ofJamaica from 1955 to 1962.Alexander Bustamante was an influential union leader and as founder of theJamaican Labour Party. Bustamante served as the then colony's first Chief Minister from 1953 to 1955 and later went on to leadJamaica to independence from theUnited Kingdom in 1962, becoming the country's first Prime Minister.
José Núñez (1800–1880) andJoaquín del Cossío (1789–unknown) were the most important figures in Nicaragua's Independence, as they started the first and second transitional governments that declared to the State's Independence from the FRCA in 1838.
Fruto Chamorro (1804–1855) is considered as "Founder of the Republic", as he initiated the 1854 Constitution which formally declared Nicaragua a Republic.
The first Spanish settlement in Panama was made in 1510. Then on 25 September 1513,Vasco Nunez de Balboa became the first European to see the Pacific Ocean (which he called the South Sea and which he claimed for Spain). Then in 1519Pedro Arias de Avila founded Panama City.
The single person most identified as "Father" of the United States isGeorge Washington, a general in theAmerican Revolution and the 1st President of the United States.[35][36][37] Washington was part of a larger group of revolutionaries known as the "Founding Fathers". Within the Founding Fathers, there are two key subsets, theSigners (who signed theDeclaration of Independence in 1776) and theFramers (who were delegates to theFederal Convention and took part in framing or drafting the proposedConstitution of the United States). Some historians have suggested a revised definition of the "Founding Fathers", including a significantly broader group of not only the Signers and the Framers but also all those who, whether as politicians, jurists, statesmen, soldiers, diplomats, and ordinary citizens took part in winning U.S. independence and creating the United States of America.[38]
However, the founding father of modern Afghanistan isMohammad Zahir Shah, the lastKing of Afghanistan. Due to this, the Afghan parliament gave him the title of "Father of the Nation."
Mammad Amin Rasulzade (Azerbaijani: Məhəmməd Əmin Axund Hacı Molla Ələkbər oğlu Rəsulzadə, Turkish: Mehmed Emin Resulzâde; (1884–1955) was anAzerbaijani statesman, scholar, public figure and one of the founding political leaders of Azerbaijan Republic (1918–1920). His expression "Bir kərə yüksələn bayraq, bir daha enməz!" ("Theflag once raised will never fall!") became the motto of the independence movement in Azerbaijan in the 20th century.
Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, known with the honorary titleBangabandhu, is considered by many as the founding leader ofBangladesh.[46] He led Bengali nation to the decade long struggle for independence against then autocratic rule ofPakistan, finally resulting in theBangladesh Liberation War and the independence of Bangladesh in 1971.[47]
Ngawang Namgyal (1594–1651) fledTibet and unified the fiefdoms ofBhutan. He established the dual system of shared power between secular andBuddhist leadership that continues as a tradition to the present.
Yu the Great is conventionally regarded as having inaugurated dynastic rule in China by establishing theXia dynasty, the first orthodoxdynasty of China, in circa 2070 BC.[49]
Mao Zedong is regarded as the founder of thePeople's Republic of China,[53] even though the state has yet to officially confer the title "Father of the Nation" upon anyone.[54]
The 4 general founders of Indonesia are generally considered to beSukarno,Mohammad Hatta,Sutan Sjahrir, andTan Malaka.[60]Sukarno is considered to be a founding father by some Indonesians, although he had an authoritarian rule during the time of his presidency.Mohammad Hatta is generally considered as one of the more democratic founder ofIndonesia. They both signed theProclamation of Independence, proclaiming the independence of Indonesia from theNetherlands on 17 August 1945. A day later, they were elected respectively as the firstPresident andVice President of Indonesia.
As the Netherlands did not recognize the proclamation of independence immediately, both of them were prominent figures and were seen as symbol of unity amongIndonesian people to fight against Dutch during theNational Revolution from 1945 to 1949. In August 1949, Hatta headed a delegation toThe Hague for aRound Table Conference which then led to the recognition of Indonesian independence by the Netherlands on 27 December 1949.[61]
Theodor Herzl is considered the founder of politicalZionism, the modern ideology that institutionalized the longstanding Jewish desire to return to the homeland, which eventually lead to the founding ofIsrael decades later.
David Ben-Gurion wasthe first Prime Minister of Israel, and is often considered an important founding figure as well as a leader ofLabor Zionism, Israel's founding ideology. Ben-Gurion lead Israel for a total of thirteen years and is today admired by both the left and the right.
There is no law in the country which officially recognizes a single individual as the "Father of the Nation". Either title may be associated with any of the following prominent historical persons, owing to their impact on the country during their respective times.
Alikhan Bukeikhanov (1866–1937) was aKazakh statesman, politician, publicist, teacher, writer and environmental scientist. He was leader and founder of theAlash Orda national liberation movement. He sided with thewesternizers in the Kazakh political scene who were promoting the idea of theWestern culture into theKazakh steppe. In 1920, after the establishment ofSoviet hegemony, Bukeikhanov joined theBolshevik party and returned to scientific life. His earlier political activities caused the authorities to view him with suspicion, leading to arrests in 1926 and 1928. In 1926, Bukeikhanov was arrested on the charge of counter-revolutionary activity and put intoButyrka prison inMoscow. But due to the lack of evidence in the criminal case against him, he was released from prison. In 1930, the authorities banished him to Moscow, where he was arrested a final time in 1937 and executed.
Dinmukhamed Kunayev (1912–1993) was a Kazakh Soviet communist politician. He became first secretary of the Central Committee of theCommunist Party of Kazakhstan again in 1964 whenKhrushchev was ousted and replaced byBrezhnev. He kept his position for twenty-two more years. He was an alternate member of thePolitburo from 1967, and a full member from 1971 to 1987. During Kunayev's long rule, Kazakhs occupied prominent positions in the bureaucracy, economy and educational institutions. A Brezhnev loyalist, he was removed from office under pressure fromMikhail Gorbachev, who accused him of corruption. On 16 December 1986 the Politburo replaced him withGennady Kolbin, who had never lived in theKazakh SSR before. This provoked street riots inAlmaty, which were the first signs of ethnic strife during Gorbachev's tenure. In modern Kazakhstan, this revolt is calledJeltoqsan, meaning December inKazakh.
Nursultan Nazarbayev was elected the nation's firstpresident following its independence from the Soviet Union in December 1991. In 2010Parliament of Kazakhstan named him Елбасы (Elbasy) which means "Leader of the Nation".
Kim Il-sung was the founder of North Korea. He ruled from 1948 to 1994. After his death, he was declared as theEternal President of North Korea in 1998.
Dangun, the legendary first king ofGojoseon, is venerated in Korea as the founder of the Korean nation and peoples. His legendary birthday and the day he founded Gojoseon is celebrated as National Foundation Day (개천절), which falls on 3 October. There have been many founders throughout history such asLee Seonggye,Taejo Wang Geon, andDongmyeong the great.
There is no official founding father of South Korea who is generally accepted nor acknowledged by the government, though some figures likeSyngman Rhee orKim Ku are proposed as the father of his country.
The first recorded ruler of Kuwait wasSheikh Abu Salman Sabah. However,Sheikh Mubarak Al-Kabir is known as the founder of the modern state of Kuwait. He was instrumental in moving the country away from the Ottoman Empire and toward British influence.
GeneralAung San is the founder of modernBurma (also known as Myanmar). Although he did not live to see the country'sindependence, he is credited in forming the basic structure of the independence movement and government. Aung San started his political career in 1930 as the editor ofRangoon University's newspaper – where he accused one of the colonial administrators in Burma of misconduct. In late 1940 he went toJapanese controlled Taiwan andXiamen to receive military training, and he led theBurma Independence Army, spearheading theJapanese invasion of Burma. Later, he switched sides to the Allies, and helped in theBurma campaign. After the war, he was appointed to the government of a returning British administration, and was able to negotiate Burma's independence. He helped organized thePanglong Agreement in February 1947, achieving independence for all Burmese territories. However, on Saturday, 19 July 1947, Aung San, along with his cabinet ministers, wasassassinated at thesecretariat building inRangoon.
GeneralNe Win was one of the founders ofTatmadaw. On 1962, 15 years after the independence, he led amilitary coup that brought him to power. Ne Win established theBurmese Way to Socialism which ruled Burma for 26 years.
Prithvi Narayan Shah was largely responsible for theunification of Nepal, and is considered to be the founder ofNepal. His vision of ruling over a unified Nepal is said to have started when atop a hill near Nepa Valley (Present dayKathmandu), he decided he would like to rule over it. His strategic plan was very successful and his successors continued to build on his progress.[72] Prithvi Narayan Shah's descendants continued to rule overNepal for a total of240 years before the2006 democracy movement in Nepal toppled the constitutional power exercised byKing Gyanendra, before abolishing the monarchy in 2008.
Some historians credit the Muslim reformistSir Syed Ahmad Khan as a founder of Pakistan because he provided the Two-Nation Theory which played a central role in the perception of Pakistan and its Muslim nationalist ideology largely based on Iqbal's philosophy and views.
There is no law in thePhilippines which officially recognizes any single individual as the "Father of the Nation". Either title may be associated with any of the following prominent historical persons, owing to their impact on the country during their respective times:José Rizal (1861–1896) was a Filipino nationalist during the tail end of the Spanish colonial period of the Philippines. An ophthalmologist by profession, Rizal became a writer and a key member of the Filipino Propaganda Movement which advocated political reforms for the colony under Spain. He was executed by the Spanish colonial government for the crime of rebellion after an anti-colonial revolution, inspired in part by his writings, broke out. Though he was not actively involved in its planning or conduct, he ultimately approved of its goals which eventually led to Philippine independence. He is widely considered one of the greatest heroes of the Philippines, and is implied by Philippine law to be one of the national heroes. He was the author of the novelsNoli Me Tángere, andEl Filibusterismo, and a number of poems and essays.Andrés Bonifacio (1863–1897) rebel leader during thePhilippine Revolution in 1896, which saw armed resistance against the Spanish Empire.Emilio Aguinaldo (1869–1964) Military Leader with the highest rank ofGeneralissimo of the Philippine Revolution and firstpresident of thePhilippines through the 1899Malolos Congress, which oversaw the promulgation of theMalolos Constitution.Manuel Roxas (1892–1948) served as first President of independent Philippines from 1946 to 1948.
Sheikh Jassim Bin Mohammed Bin Thani is the founder of theState of Qatar. He was a military leader, judge and scholar, knight and poet possessing both gallantry and magnanimity.
Prince Vijaya is considered to be the first King of Sri Lanka withDutugemunu honored as the first king to unify Sri Lanka.D. S. Senanayake (1883–1952) is widely known as the modern (post independence)father of the nation.William Gopallawa (1896–1981) was the first Constitutional President whileJ. R. Jayewardene (1906–1996) was the first Executive President.
Atatürk, the founding father of the Republic of Turkey
Alp Arslan (1029–1072) was the second Sultan of theSeljuk Empire. He greatly expanded the Seljuk territory and consolidated his power, defeating rivals to the south and northwest, and his victory over theByzantines at theBattle of Manzikert, in 1071, ushered in the Turkoman settlement ofAnatolia.
Mehmed the Conqueror (1432–1481), was an Ottoman sultan who ruled from August 1444 to September 1446, and then later from February 1451 to May 1481. When he ascended the throne again in 1451 he strengthened the Ottoman navy and made preparations to attack Constantinople. At the age of 21, he conqueredConstantinople (modern-dayIstanbul) and brought an end to theByzantine Empire.
Mahmud II (1785–1839) was the 30th Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1808 until his death in 1839. His reign is recognized for the extensive administrative, military, and fiscal reforms he instituted, which culminated in the Decree ofTanzimat ("reorganization"). Mahmud's reforms included the 1826 abolition of the conservative Janissary corps, which removed a major obstacle to his and his successors' reforms in the Empire. The reforms he instituted were characterized by political and social changes, which would eventually lead to the birth of the modern Turkish Republic.
Mustafa Kemal Atatürk (1881–1938) was the founder and first president of theRepublic of Turkey. Following the First World War, the huge conglomeration of territories and peoples that formerly comprised the Ottoman Empire was divided into several new states. TheTurkish War of Independence (1919–1923), initiated by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk and his colleagues in Anatolia, resulted in the establishment of the modern Republic of Turkey (Türkiye Cumhuriyeti) in 1923.[79] He subsequently introduced many radical reforms with the aim of transforming the old multinational Ottoman state into a new secular republic.[80]
InUzbekistan, no single individual is officially recognized as the "Founder of the Nation." However, different figures have been viewed as founders of Uzbekistan during various eras throughout history.
Amir Timur is widely regarded as the main historical hero for modernUzbekistan, as he founded theTimurid Empire and made significant contributions to the development of Uzbek Statehood.
Another significant historical figure,Muhammad Shaybani, is considered to be a significant founder of the nation due to his proximity in time to the establishment of the Uzbek state. He was anUzbek leader who consolidated various Uzbek tribes and laid the foundations for their ascendance inTransoxiana and the establishment of theKhanate of Bukhara.
Khodzhayev's political career was marked by several challenges, including periods of exile and imprisonment. In 1920, he briefly served as the first prime minister of theBukharan People's Soviet Republic. As Prime Minister, Khodjaev implemented a series of reforms aimed at promoting industrialization and collectivization inUzbekistan. He also supported efforts to promoteUzbek culture andlanguage, including the establishment of a national theater and the publication of a national encyclopedia. Khodjaev's political career came to an abrupt end in 1937, when he was arrested as part ofJoseph Stalin'sGreat Purge. He was accused of espionage and treason and was executed in 1938. Today, Khodjaev is remembered as an important figure in the history of Uzbekistan and as a symbol of the complex relationship between theCentral Asian republics and theSoviet Union. His legacy continues to be debated, with some seeing him as a progressive reformer and others as a Soviet stooge who contributed to the suppression of Uzbek national identity.
Avitohol (?–453? AD), who researchers claim to be the mythicalAttila, is the first name in theNominalia of the Bulgarian khans. He was from theDulo clan and was succeeded by his sonErnak or Irnik (the second name mentioned in the Nominalia).[81]
Asparuh (around 640–701) is the most venerated national founder ofBulgaria. He was a son of Kubrat and started attacking and moving southwest of Old Great Bulgaria, towards theLower Danube inSoutheast Europe. Victorious over theEastern Roman Empire, he established theFirst Bulgarian Empire in 680–681. Modern day Bulgaria is a direct successor of this state. Asparukh's brotherBatbayan stayed ruling the core territories to the north, whileKotrag migrated further north and foundedVolga Bulgaria.
Krum the Fearsome (8th century – 814) – prominent ruler of the First Bulgarian Empire. During his reign the Bulgarian territory doubled in size, spreading from the middleDanube to theDnieper and fromOdrin to theTatra Mountains. His able and energetic rule brought law and order to Bulgaria and developed the rudiments of state organization, thus he is regarded as an important national founder.[82][83]
Boris I (9th century-2 May 907) officiallyChristianizedBulgaria in 864, a significant event that shaped theHistory of Bulgaria andEurope. The historianSteven Runciman called him one of the greatest persons in history.[84] His son and grandson,tsarSimeon I the Great and tsarPetar I, are also considered as having an important role in the formation and strengthening of the Bulgarian state and nationality.
Samuil (997–1014) – energetic emperor (tsar) that restored Bulgarian might inSoutheast Europe, and although the Empire was disestablished after his death, he is regarded as a heroic ruler in Bulgaria,[85][86] as well as inNorth Macedonia.[87]
Ante Starčević, has been referred to as Father of the Nation due to his campaign for the rights of Croats within Austria-Hungary and his propagation of a Croatian state in a time where many politicians sought unification with other South Slavs.
Dan (king) (or Halfdan) is the name of the legendary earliest king of theDanes andDenmark, mentioned in medieval Scandinavian texts. He is said to be the progenitor of the nation and the Danish Royal House according toSaxo Grammaticus'sGesta Danorum.
Gorm the Old, the first recorded ruler of Denmark, reigning from c. 936 to his death c. 958. The current KingFrederik X of Denmark can trace his heritage back to Gorm the Old. He is called the founder of the kingdom of Denmark, though at the time he did not control the whole country, onlyJutland.
Harald Bluetooth was the son of Gorm the old and the first to unite Denmark into a single country by uniting the tribes. Harald ruled as king of Denmark from c. 958 – c. 986. He was baptized and the first Christian king of Denmark and helped Christianize the Danes, which is proclaimed on theJelling stone.
Niels Ebbesen was a Danish squire and national hero who liberated Denmark, which had been patented away to German barons and landlords. He is known for his killing ofGerhard III, Count of Holstein-Rendsburg in 1340, and in doing so returning control of Jutland andFunen back to the Danish king.
Frederick Barbarossa has, from time to time, been cited as the father and hero of the German people. According to a Germanic medieval legend, Barbarossa was not dead butasleep, and would awaken in the hour of Germany's greatest need and restore the nation to its former glory.[90] This idea gained prominence among German Nationalist movements in the 19th and 20th century. During theGerman Empire,Kaiser Wilhelm I was declared the reincarnation of Frederick.[91][92] In 1937,Adolf Hitler praised Barbarossa as the emperor who first expressed Germanic cultural ideas and carried them to the outside world through his imperial mission; he would later name his invasion of the Soviet Union.[93]
Ioannis Kapodistrias, first head of state of independent Greece (1827–1831) and founder of the modern Greek state
Eleftherios Venizelos, eight-time Prime Minister of Greece, has been labelled as "The Maker of Modern Greece"[96] and is still widely known as the "Ethnarch".[97]
Scipio Africanus – he was a Roman general and statesman, most notable as one of the main architects of Rome's victory againstCarthage in theSecond Punic War. Often regarded as one of the best military commanders and strategists of all time, his greatest military achievement was the defeat ofHannibal at theBattle of Zama in 202 BC. This victory in Africa earned him the epithetAfricanus, literally meaning "the African," but meant to be understood as a conqueror ofAfrica. Scipio Africanus is mentioned inIl Canto degli Italiani, thenational anthem ofItaly since 1946.
Cola di Rienzo led a revolt in Rome, became the Tribune and later attempted to unify Italy
Alberto da Giussano is alegendary character of the 12th century who would have participated, as a protagonist, in thebattle of Legnano on 29 May 1176.[101] In reality, according to historians, the actual military leader of theLombard League in the famous military battle withFrederick Barbarossa wasGuido da Landriano.[102] Historical analyses made over time have indeed shown that the figure of Alberto da Giussano never existed.[103] In the past, historians, attempting to find a real confirmation, hypothesized the identification of his figure withAlbertus de Carathe (Alberto daCarate) andAlbertus Longus (Alberto Longo), both among the Milanese who signed the pact inCremona in March 1167 which established the Lombard League, or in an Alberto da Giussano mentioned in an appeal of 1196 presented toPope Celestine III on the administration of thechurch-hospital of San Sempliciano. These, however, are all weak identifications, given that they lack clear and convincing historical confirmation.[101][104] The battle of Legnano ended the fifth and last descent into Italy of Emperor Frederick Barbarossa,[105] who after the defeat tried to resolve the Italian question by adopting a diplomatic approach. This resulted a few years later in thePeace of Constance (25 June 1183), with which the Emperor recognized the Lombard League and made administrative, political, and judicial concessions to the municipalities, officially ending his attempt to dominate northern Italy.[106] The battle is alluded to in theCanto degli Italiani byGoffredo Mameli andMichele Novaro, thenational anthem ofItaly since 1946, which reads: «From theAlps toSicily, Legnano is everywhere» in memory of the victory of Italian populations over foreign ones.[107]
Cola di Rienzo, led a revolt in Rome, became the Tribune and later attempted to unify Italy.[108] In July 1347, in a decree, he proclaimed the sovereignty of the Roman people over the empire. But before this he had set to work on restoring the authority of Rome over the cities and provinces of Italy, of making the city againcaput mundi. He wrote letters to the cities of Italy, asking them to send representatives to an assembly which would meet on 1 August, when the formation of a great federation under the headship of Rome would be considered. On the appointed day, a number of representatives appeared, and Cola issued an edict citingLouis IV, Holy Roman Emperor and his rivalCharles IV, Holy Roman Emperor, and also the imperial electors and all others concerned in the dispute, to appear before him in order that he might pronounce judgment.[109] The following day, the festival of the unity of Italy was celebrated, but neither this nor the previous meeting had any practical result. Cola's power, however, was recognized in theKingdom of Naples, and bothJoan I of Naples andLouis I of Hungary appealed to him for protection and aid, and on 15 August with great pomp he was crowned Tribune.Ferdinand Gregorovius says this ceremony "was the fantastic caricature in which ended theimperium ofCharles the Great. A world where political action was represented in such guise was ripe for overthrow, or could only be saved by a great mental reformation."[109]
Giuseppe Mazzini (left), highly influential leader of the Italian revolutionary movement; andGiuseppe Garibaldi (right), celebrated as one of the greatest generals of modern times[110] and as the "Hero of the Two Worlds" because of his military enterprises in South America and Europe,[111] who fought in many military campaigns that led toItalian unification
Giuseppe Garibaldi was a general, patriot,revolutionary and republican. He contributed toItalian unification (Risorgimento) and thecreation of the Kingdom of Italy. Garibaldi is also known as the "Hero of the Two Worlds" because of his military enterprises in South America and Europe.[113] It is celebrated as one of the greatest generals of modern times[110] and fought in many military campaigns that led to Italian unification.
It is likely that the Kosovo Albanians regardIbrahim Rugova as a key figure, since he was the one that brought an independence movement of Kosovo from the fall ofYugoslavia. Additionally, Rugova ruled Kosovo from the 1992 till 2006 as president of the nation, and ever since has been regarded as theNational Hero of Kosovo, and led to further independence in 2008 fromSerbia to which now 97 nations have recognised Kosovo as of September 2021.
Dom Mintoff, often given the epithet ofIl-Perit (the Architect), prime minister of Malta twice from 1955 to 1958 and 1971 to 1984, leader of theMalta Labour Party from 1949 to 1984[129][130][131]
Eddie Fenech Adami, prime minister of Malta twice from 1987 to 1996 and from 1998 to 2004; the "founder of European Malta", as he helped Malta join the European Union[132]
PrinceWilliam I of Orange (1533–1584) orWilliam the Silent, is known as the father of the Netherlands. He led the Dutch in theirRevolt against Spain for their independence. Today he is often calledVader des Vaderlands ("Father of the Fatherland").[136]
Mieszko I (c. 920/45–992), the first historical ruler of Poland, Mieszko I is considered the de facto creator of the Polish state. He was a Duke of thePolans from about 960 until his death. Mieszko I's marriage in 965 to thePřemyslid princessDobrawa and hisbaptism in 966 put him and his country in the cultural sphere of Western Christianity. According to existing sources, Mieszko I was a wise politician, a talented military leader and charismatic ruler. He successfully used diplomacy, concluding an alliance with Bohemia first, and then with Sweden and theHoly Roman Empire. In foreign policy, he placed the interests of his country foremost, even entering into agreements with former enemies. On his death, he left to his sons a country of greatly expanded territory, with a well-established position in Europe. Mieszko I also appeared as "Dagome" in a papal document from about 1085, called "Dagome iudex", which mentions a gift or dedication of Mieszko's land to thePope (the act took place almost a hundred years earlier).
Bolesław I Chrobry (967–1025), wasDuke of Poland from 992 to 1025, and the firstKing of Poland in 1025. He was the son ofMieszko I of Poland by his wife,Dobrawa of Bohemia. He supported the missionary views ofAdalbert, Bishop of Prague, andBruno of Querfurt. The martyrdom of Adalbert in 997 and his imminent canonization were used to consolidate Poland's autonomy from theHoly Roman Empire. This perhaps happened most clearly during theCongress of Gniezno (11 March 1000), which resulted in the establishment of a Polish church structure with aMetropolitan See atGniezno. This See was independent of theGermanArchbishopric of Magdeburg, which had tried to claim jurisdiction over the Polish church. Following theCongress of Gniezno,bishoprics were also established inKraków,Wrocław andKołobrzeg, and Bolesław formally repudiated paying tribute to theHoly Roman Empire. In the summer of 1018, in one of his expeditions, Bolesław I capturedKiev, where he installed his son-in-lawSviatopolk I as ruler. According to legend, Bolesław chipped his sword when striking Kiev'sGolden Gate. Later, in honor of this legend, a sword calledSzczerbiec ("Jagged Sword") would become thecoronation sword of Poland's kings. Bolesław I was a remarkable politician,strategist, and statesman. He not only turned Poland into a country comparable to older western monarchies, but he raised it to the front rank of European states. Bolesław conducted successful military campaigns in the west, south and east. He consolidated Polish lands and conquered territories outside the borders of modern-day Poland, includingSlovakia,Moravia,Red Ruthenia,Meissen,Lusatia, andBohemia. He was a powerful mediator inCentral European affairs. Finally, as the culmination of his reign, in 1025 he had himself crownedKing of Poland. He was the first Polish ruler to receive the title ofrex (Latin: "king").
Władysław II Jagiełło (c. 1352/1362 – 1434) was theGrand Duke of Lithuania (1377–1434) and then theKing of Poland (1386–1434), first alongside his wifeJadwiga until 1399, and then sole King of Poland. He ruled in Lithuania from 1377. Born apagan, in 1386 he converted to Catholicism and was baptized as Władysław inKraków, married the young Queen Jadwiga, and was crowned King of Poland as Władysław II Jagiełło. In 1387 heconverted Lithuania to Christianity. His own reign in Poland started in 1399, upon the death of Queen Jadwiga, and lasted a further thirty-five years and laid the foundation for the centuries-longPolish–Lithuanian union. The dynasty ruled both states until 1572, and became one of the most influential dynasties in latemedieval andearly modern Central and Eastern Europe. During his reign, the Polish-Lithuanian state was the largest state in theChristian world. The reign of Władysław II Jagiełło extended Polish frontiers and is often considered the beginning of Poland'sGolden Age.
Viriathus was the most important leader of theLusitanian people that resistedRoman expansion into westernHispania orIberia (as the Greeks called it). Today Viriathus is regarded as a national hero and an enduring symbol of Portuguese nationality and independence, portrayed by artists and celebrated by its people throughout the centuries.
Burebista is considered the great king who unified all the Dacian tribes. He is also known for creating a powerful empire that stretched from west to theAdriatic Sea andSouthern Germany, from east to theBlack Sea, from north to SouthernPoland and from south toGreek Macedonia andEastern Thrace. He is considered by many Romanians as a national hero. The Dacian Kingdom under Burebista was the greatest territorial extent in Romania's history.
Basarab I the Founder (c. 1270-1351/1352) was thegreat voivode of Wallachia. Basarab either came into power between 1304 and 1324 by dethroning or peacefully succeeding the legendary founder of Wallachia, Radu Negru, or in 1310 by succeeding his father, Thocomerius. In 1330 he defeatedCharles I of Hungary at thebattle of Posada, and the first independent Romanian state was consequently founded. He founded theBasarab dynasty and his descendants ruled Wallachia for more than three centuries. From the middle of the 14th century, some foreign chronicles used derivations of his name: "Basarab", when referring to Wallachia.
Michael the Brave (1558–1601) was the Prince ofWallachia (1593–1601), Prince ofMoldavia (1600) andde facto ruler ofTransylvania (1599–1600). He is considered one of Romania's greatest national heroes. Since the 19th century, Michael the Brave has been regarded as a symbol of the unity of all Romanians, as his reign marked the first time all states mainly inhabited by Romanians were under the same ruler.
Alexandru Ioan Cuza was elected as the first leader of the modern Romanian state. He presided over Wallachia and Moldavia in a personal union, which later became permanent even though he was forced to abdicate.
Boris Yeltsin was the first president of theRussian Federation as an independent state. He was first elected to the presidency in June 1991, while the Russian Federation was still a part of theUSSR, and re-elected in 1996.
Saint Marinus was the founder of the world's oldest surviving republic,San Marino, in 301. Tradition holds that he was a stonemason by trade who came from theisland of Rab on the other side of theAdriatic Sea (modern Croatia), fleeing persecution for his Christian beliefs in theDiocletianic Persecution.
Miloš Obrenović, a revolutionary who led the struggle for Serbia's liberation and independence from the Ottoman Empire during theSecond Serbian Uprising. He is the founder of theObrenović dynasty and bears the honorific title Father of the Nation.[140]
France Bučar is a Slovenian politician, legal expert and author. Between 1990 and 1992, he served as the first chairman of the freely electedSlovenian Parliament. He was the one to formally declare the independence of Slovenia on 25 June 1991. He is considered one of the founders of Slovenian democracy and independence. He is also considered, together withPeter Jambrek, as the main author of the current Slovenian constitution.Jože Pučnik was president ofDEMOS and one of the main persons in the Slovenian fight for independence. The largest Slovenian airport is namedLetališče Jožeta Pučnika (Jože Pučnik airport).Lojze Peterle was firstprime minister of Slovenia andMilan Kučan was the first president.Janez Janša was the first minister of defense, and played a big role in the development ofSlovenian Territorial Defence, together with Janez Slapar who was the first chief of staff. The firstMinister of Interior wasIgor Bavčar, who helped theSlovenian Territorial Defense defeat theYugoslav Army with the police.
WhileSweden had existed as a monarchy of sorts long before his time,Birger Jarl, father of and regent forValdemar, King of Sweden, can be said to have established Sweden as a nation. Birger was Jarl in the years 1248–66.
Gustav I of Sweden, who secured Sweden's independence fromDenmark in 1523, is often considered a father of the nation.
Alfred the Great is generally considered the first King of England, while the modern English polity is often considered founded byWilliam the Conqueror, William I of England following the Norman Conquest, and from which the presentRoyal Family continue to assert descent. The first Monarch to unite all of Scotland wasKenneth MacAlpin in 843.Ireland was brought under Norman English dominion in 1189 underHenry II of England,Wales was subdued between 1093 and 1293; before thisBrian Boru in Ireland andOwain the Great in Wales had been figures of national importance in the context of fragmented polities. Scotland and England had a centuries long history of invasion and counter invasion, and the Scottish national heroesWilliam Wallace andRobert the Bruce, as well as theDeclaration of Arbroath, asserting Scottish nationhood and sovereignty, date from that period.
Scotland and England were finally united dynastically rather than militarily, andJames VI and I was regarded by some as the first king ofGreat Britain (both England and Scotland). The sovereign United Kingdom of Great Britain, however, dates from theActs of Union 1707, underQueen Anne, while theUnited Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, later Northern Ireland, was created in 1801 by a furtherAct of Union - up to that point Great Britain and Ireland werede jure two separate kingdoms in personal Union.Robert Walpole is generally considered the first Prime Minister of the United Kingdom.
Following Irish independence, theNorthern Ireland Parliament operated largely autonomously from London, with the leadersEdward Carson andSir James Craig, Lord Craigavon, considered by unionists to be its founding fathers. The reinstallment of theScottish Parliament as a devolved institution in 1999 under the influence ofDonald Dewar led to his recognition as the "Father of Scottish devolution" and "Father of the Nation".
GovernorLachlan Macquarie is considered by historians to have had a crucial influence on the transition of New South Wales from apenal colony to a free settlement and therefore to have played a major role in the shaping ofAustralian society in the early nineteenth century.
William Wentworth advocated for the rights ofemancipists and for representative self-government; he led the drafting of New South Wales' first self-governing constitution establishing theParliament of New South Wales, Australia's first parliament. He was among the first colonists to promote a nascent form ofAustralian nationalism.
SirHenry Parkes, colonial Australian politician, premier of New South Wales and "Father of Federation"
SirHenry Parkes is often regarded as the "Father of Federation" in Australia. During the late 19th century, he was the strongest proponent for afederation of Australian territories. However, he died before Australia federated, and was never able to see his plan come to fruition.[142]
Andrew Inglis Clark is another founding father of Australia. He largely wrote the Australian Constitution in addition to developing theHare-Clark system of voting and pushing for universal adult suffrage and other progressive ideals that would become law early in Australia's history.
Alfred Deakin also stands out as a significant founding father as he attended all the Federation Conferences, he gave up 10 years of senior political appointments to travel the country promoting federation and was Australia's first Attorney General. He was instrumental in securing Edmond Barton as the first Prime Minister while Deakin went on to be Australia's 2nd, 5th and 7th Prime Minister. Deakin was responsible for establishing the High Court, Australian Navy, and many other important acts of parliament. Sir Robert Menzies is on record for saying he was Australia's greatest Prime Ministers.[143]
John Dunmore Lang. Although passing away over two decades beforefederation, John Dunmore Lang was a strong advocate of a federation of the Australian colonies as a democratic republic, independent from theBritish Empire.[144][145]
Hammer DeRoburt dominated the political scene for the first two decades of the republic; he served aspresident for most of the post-independence period until being voted out of office in 1989. Thereafter, national politics was marked by a series of weak, short-lived governments; the presidency tended to be traded among a small number of politicians.
KingGeorge Tupou I, who united his country and established the contemporary Kingdom of Tonga, has been described as Tonga's "founding father".[160][161]
After theHijrah (622), theIslamicProphet Muhammad (570–632) assumed political leadership over Yathrib, present dayMedina. This feat in and of itself was unheard of, as the city consisted of bothJews andArab pagans. Alongside consolidating his power in Medina, theBattle of Badr (624) saw the de facto leadership ofMecca destabilised. Eventually, at theConquest of Mecca (629–630) Muhammad took leadership over his tribesmen. Furthermore, Muhammad oversaw delegations andarmies sent acrossArabia, includingYemen. The last Persian governorBadhan converted toIslam (628), thus includingSouthern Arabia under Islamic rule.Pre-Islamic Arabia was strife with tribalism and territoriality, therefore it was implausible for tribes to elect leaders let alone Arabia itself. Yet come Muhammad's death (632), Arabia was unified under one polity and religion.
Despite this state not possessing a specific name, it proved to be the platform for theRashidun Caliphs (632–661) to eventually look beyond the Arabian Peninsula to theByzantine andSassanid Empires.
Although the first known ruler of Bohemia wasBořivoj I, Duke of Bohemia, the real unifier of various Slavic tribes in Bohemia and creator of nation was DukeBoleslaus I, Duke of Bohemia.Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor is regarded as the "Father of the Homeland" in the Czech Republic, because during his time theKingdom of Bohemia experienced the greatest prosperity.Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk (1850–1937) is widely revered as the Liberator President who played the chief role in the 1918 melding of Bohemia, Moravia, Slovakia and Ruthenia into the Czechoslovak Republic, and who served as President of the Republic from 1918 to 1935.
It was KingAthelstan (893/95–939) who united the severalAnglo-Saxon kingdoms ofEngland around the year 927, when he becameKing of the English as opposed to his previous title, King of theWest Saxons. However, his fame is often overshadowed by his predecessor and grandfatherAlfred the Great (871–899), who set in motion the unification of the English kingdoms and could also claim to be the nation's founder.
Oleg, Rurik's kinsman and successor; extended his realm fromNovgorod south to theDnieper River valley and later moved his capital to the more strategicKiev, where he establishedKievan Rus' (the modern peoples ofBelarus,Ukraine, andRussia all have Kievan Rus' as their cultural heritage).[165]
Ivan the Terrible,Grand Prince of Moscow (also Prince of Novgorod) from 1533 to 1547 andTsar of All the Russias from 1547 until his death in 1584. Ivan also claimed the historical title "Grand Prince of Kiev" for himself, but this was more of a flourish, since Kiev had never formed part of his realm and Moscow would not control the Kievan region until theTruce of Andrusovo (1667), but Kiev remained an important city in early Slavic history and culture.
Peter the Great, Tsar from 1682, officially proclaimed the establishment of theRussian Empire in 1721, following theTreaty of Nystad, and himself its first emperor. He institutedsweeping reforms and oversaw the transformation of Russia into a major European power, re-organising the state in the Western style. Founder ofSaint-Petersburg
It was KingKenneth MacAlpin (841–858) who united Pictland and Scotland, around the year 843, when he becameKing of Scots, as opposed to his previous title, King ofDál Riada. However, his fame is partly eclipsed byMalcolm III (1058–1093), who was the first king to rule over nearly all Scotland, after annexingStrathclyde.[166]
Vladimir Lenin – Officially one among many equal founders of the country, Lenin was,de facto, the paramount leader, founder of theSoviet Union and theCPSU. The party governed the Soviet Union initially through a coalition with theLeft Socialist-Revolutionaries along withelected soviets but later as aone-party state over the course of theRussian Civil War andpolitical uprisings. Lenin is also considered the founding father of the modern Russian state. He died soon after the country's founding and retained a special status of secularapotheosis for the rest of the country's history.
Hywel Dda (c. 880–950) was responsible for the codification of traditionalWelsh Law, which, according to historianJohn Davies, "was a powerful symbol of [Welsh] unity and identity, as powerful, indeed, as their language".[174]
Gruffydd ap Llywelyn (r. 1039–63) was the first Welsh king to rule over the entire territory of Wales, from about 1057 until his death in 1063.[175]
Louis Botha was the first Prime Minister of the Union of South Africa, andJan Smuts, its second prime minister, was a prominent advocate of unification and seen in more recentpolls as the Union of South Africa's greatest historical leader.
Jan van Riebeeck was treated as a South African founding father by the South African government during the apartheid era, being featured on statues andthe country's currency (although the likeness was erroneous and was actually that of another man).[176][177]
^The 'Father of Modern Egypt' school includes: Henry Dodwell,The Founder of Modern Egypt: A Study of Muhammad Ali (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1965); Arthur Goldschmidt, Jr., Modern Egypt: The Formation of a Nation-State (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1988); Albert Haurani,A History of the Arab Peoples (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2002); Jean Lacouture and Simonne Lacouture,Egypt in Transition, trans. Francis Scarfe (New York: Criterion Books, 1958); P.J. Vatikiotis,The History of Modern Egypt: From Muhammad Ali to Mubarak (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991). The following internet sources, while not necessarily scholarly, show how widespread this interpretation is. "History," The Egyptian Presidency, 2008,"History". Archived fromthe original on 17 May 2008. Retrieved12 April 2009. (accessed 29 October 2008);Metz, Helen, Chapin. "Muhammad Ali of Egypt 1805–48," Egypt: a Country Study, 1990,http://countrystudies.us/egypt/ (accessed 29 October 2008); "Muhammad Ali of Egypt 1805–48: The Father of Modern Egypt," Travel to Egypt – Egypt Travel Guide, 2007,http://www.travel-to-egypt.net/muhammad-ali.html (accessed 29 October 2008); "Muhammad Ali of Egypt," Answer.com, 2008,http://www.answers.com/topic/muhammad-ali (accessed 29 October 2008).
^Granger, David (16 February 2017)."The Spirit of Chaguaramas".CARICOM. Georgetown, Guyana: Government of CARICOM. Archived fromthe original on 9 June 2017. Retrieved26 May 2018.
^"Father of His Country".George Washington's Mount Vernon. Mount Vernon Ladies' Association.Archived from the original on 13 July 2023. Retrieved13 June 2024.
^R.B. Bernstein,The Founding Fathers Reconsidered (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009).
^Libaridian, Gerard J. (1991).Armenia at the crossroads: democracy and nationhood in the post-Soviet era: essays, interviews, and speeches by the leaders of the national democratic movement in Armenia. Watertown, Massachusetts: Blue Crane Nooks. p. 19.ISBN9780962871511.Aram Manukian (1879–1919), a leading member of the Dashnaktustiune, organized the defense of Van in 1915 and Yerevan in 1918. He is considered the founder of the Republic of Armenia in 1918.
^Amuzegar,The Dynamics of the Iranian Revolution, (1991), pp. 4, 9–12
^Narrative of Awakening : A Look at Imam Khomeini's Ideal, Scientific and Political Biography from Birth to Ascension by Hamid Ansari, Institute for Compilation and Publication of the Works of Imam Khomeini, International Affairs Division, [no date], p. 163
^Hashemite Monarchs of Jordan, "The Emirate of Transjordan was founded on 11 April 1921, and became the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan upon formal independence from Britain in 1946"
^The Oslo Accords: international law and the Israeli-Palestinian peace agreements, By Geoffrey R. Watson, Oxford University Press, 2000,ISBN978-0-19-829891-5, page 33
^There has been no Macedonian state since the days of the Ancient Macedon that was finally abolished in 148 BC and 1945, when Communist Yugoslavia established its constituent republic with such name. It is unlikely that the contemporary Republic of Macedonia founded in 1991, may establish credible historical link to the medieval Samuel's state. According to Encyclopædia Britannica, Columbia Encyclopedia, Collier's Encyclopedia, the Great Russian Encyclopedia, Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium and the Cambridge Medieval History, Samuel was Tsar of Bulgaria.
^Mayer, Arno J. (1989).Der Krieg als Kreuzzug: Das Deutsche Reich, Hitlers Wehrmacht und die Endlösung (in German). Reinbeck bei Hamburg: Rowolt. p. 340.ISBN978-3-49804-333-9.
^Carl A.P. Ruck and Danny Staples,The World of Classical Myth (Carolina Academic Press, 1994), ch. ix "Theseus:Making the New Athens" pp. 203–222
^Brewer, DavidThe Greek War of Independence, London: Overlook Duckworth, 2011 p. 130.
^McGaw Smyth, Howard (September 1948). "Italy: From Fascism to the Republic (1943-1946)".The Western Political Quarterly.1 (3):205–222.doi:10.2307/442274.JSTOR442274.
^Lyttelton, Adrian, ed. (2002).Liberal and fascist Italy, 1900–1945. Oxford University Press. p. 13.
^"Italia".Dizionario enciclopedico italiano (in Italian). Vol. VI.Treccani. 1970. p. 456.
^Plokhy, Serhii (2006).The Origins of the Slavic Nations: Premodern Identities in Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus(PDF). New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 10–15.ISBN978-0-521-86403-9. Retrieved27 April 2010.For all the salient differences between these three post-Soviet nations, they have much in common when it comes to their culture and history, which goes back to Kievan Rus', the medieval East Slavic state based in the capital of present-day Ukraine.
^Lynch, Michael, ed. (2007)."Culture".The Oxford Companion to Scottish History. Oxford Reference. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 130.ISBN9780199234820.The Wallace (c. 1477) by Blind Harry (fl. 1470–92) mythologized a national founder-hero in decasyllabic couplets mixed with stanzaical, lyrical verse.
^Brotherstone, Terence (1992).Trotsky's future. Brotherstone, Terence; Dukes, Paul,(eds). Edinburgh University Press. p. 238.ISBN978-0-7486-0317-6.
^Southern African Currency Page (2018)."Suid-Afrikaanse Rand South African Rand Old Rand Notes (1970–1994)".Southern African Currency Page. Archived fromthe original on 4 July 2018. Retrieved4 July 2018.Van Riebeeck was the Dutch colonial administrator who established Cape Town in 1652, and is a significant figure in South African, and especially Afrikaner, history. Many Afrikaners view van Riebeeck as the father of the Afrikaner nation. Van Riebeeck also featured on the reverse of the R20 note, albeit indirectly, with an image of van Riebeeck's landing party (three ships) and the (old) South African Coat of Arms, with the Latin motto "Ex Unitate Vires" – "From Unity, Strength" (also translated as "Unity Creates Strength").
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One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in thepublic domain: Holland, Arthur William (1911). "Rienzi, Cola di". InChisholm, Hugh (ed.).Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 23 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 323.