A distro may be described as a particular assortment of application and utility software (various GNU tools and libraries, for example), packaged with the Linux kernel in such a way that its capabilities meet users' needs.[2] The software is usually adapted to the distribution and then combined into software packages by the distribution's maintainers. The software packages are available online inrepositories, which are storage locations usually distributed around the world.[3][4] Beside "glue" components, such as the distribution installers (for example,Debian-Installer andAnaconda) and the package management systems, very few packages are actually written by a distribution's maintainers.
5.25-inchfloppy disks holding a very early version of LinuxTimeline of the development of main Linux distributions[10]
Linus Torvalds developed theLinux kernel and distributed its first version, 0.01, in 1991. Linux was initially distributed assource code only, and later as a pair of downloadablefloppy disk images: one bootable and containing the Linux kernel itself, and the other with a set ofGNU utilities and tools for setting up a file system. Since the installation procedure was complicated, especially in the face of growing amounts of available software, distributions sprang up to simplify it.[11]
Early distributions included:
Torvalds' "Boot-Root" images, later maintained by Jim Winstead Jr., the aforementioned disk image pair with the kernel and the absolute minimal tools to get started (4 November 1991)[12][13][14][15]
The two oldest, still active distribution projects started in 1993. The SLS distribution was not well maintained, so in July 1993 a new SLS-based distribution,Slackware, was released byPatrick Volkerding.[22] Also dissatisfied with SLS,Ian Murdock set to create a free distribution by foundingDebian in August 1993, with first public BETA released in January 1994 and first stable version in June 1996.[23][24]
Users were attracted to Linux distributions as alternatives to theDOS andMicrosoft Windows operating systems onIBM PC compatible computers,Mac OS on theApple Macintosh, andproprietary versions ofUnix. Most early adopters were familiar with Unix from work or school. They embraced Linux distributions for their low (or absent) cost, and the availability of thesource code for most or all of their software.
As of 2024, Linux has become more popular in server and embedded devices markets than in the desktop market. It is used in approximately 58.9% of web servers;[25] its current operating system market share is about 3.67%.[26]
A Linux distribution is usually built around apackage management system, which puts together theLinux kernel, free and open-source software, and occasionally some proprietary software.
Many Linux distributions provide an installation system akin to that provided with other modern operating systems. Other distributions, includingGentoo Linux, provide only the binaries of a basic kernel, compilation tools, and an installer; the installer compiles all the requested software for the specificarchitecture of the user's computer, using these tools and the software's source code.
Distributions are normally segmented intopackages. Each package contains a specific application or service. Examples of packages are a library for handling thePNG image format, a collection of fonts, and aweb browser.
The package is typically provided as compiled code, with installation and removal of packages handled by apackage management system (PMS) rather than a simplefile archiver. Each package intended for such a PMS contains meta-information such as its description, version number, and itsdependencies (other packages it requires to run). The package management system evaluates this meta-information to allow package searches, perform automatic upgrades to newer versions, and to check that all dependencies of a package are present (and either notify the user to install them, or install them automatically). The package can also be provided assource code to be compiled on the system.
Most distributions install packages, including the kernel and other core operating system components, in a predetermined configuration. A few now require or permit configuration adjustments at first install time. This makes installation less daunting, particularly for new users, but is not always acceptable. For specific requirements, much software must be carefully configured to be useful, to work correctly with other software, or to be secure, and local administrators are often obliged to spend time reviewing and reconfiguring it.
Some (but not all) distributions go to considerable lengths to adjust and customize the software they include, and some provide configuration tools to help users do so.
By obtaining and installingeverything normally provided in a distribution, an administrator may create a "distributionless" installation. It is possible to build such systems from scratch, avoiding distributions altogether. One needs a way to generate the first binaries until the system isself-hosting. This can be done via compilation on another system capable of building binaries for the intended target (possibly bycross-compilation). For example, seeLinux From Scratch.
The diversity of Linux distributions is due to technical, organizational, and philosophical variation among vendors and users. The permissive licensing of free software means that users with sufficient knowledge and interest can customize any existing distribution, or design one to suit their own needs.
Rolling Linux distributions are kept current using small and frequentupdates. The termspartially rolling andpartly rolling (along with synonymssemi-rolling andhalf-rolling),fully rolling,truly rolling andoptionally rolling are sometimes used by software developers and users.[27][28][29][30][31][32]
Repositories ofrolling distributions usually contain very recentsoftware releases—often the latest stable versions available.[29] They have pseudo-releases and installation media that are simplysnapshots of the distribution at the time of the installation image's release. Typically, a rolling-release OS installed from older installation medium can be fully updated after it is installed.[29][33]
In terms of thesoftware development process,standard releases require significant development effort to keep old versions up-to-date by propagatingbug fixes back to the newest branch, versus focusing on the newestdevelopment branch. Also, unlike rolling releases, standard releases require more than one code branch to be developed and maintained, which increases the workload of the software developers and maintainers.
On the other hand, software features and technology planning are easier in standard releases due to a better understanding of upcoming features in the next version(s).Software release cycles can also be synchronized with those of majorupstream software projects, such asdesktop environments.
As for theuser experience, standard releases are often viewed as more stable and bug-free since software conflicts can be more easily addressed and the software stack more thoroughly tested and evaluated, during the software development cycle.[34][35] For this reason, they tend to be the preferred choice in enterprise environments and mission-critical tasks.[34]
However, rolling releases offer more current software which can also provide increased stability and fewer software bugs along with the additional benefits of new features, greater functionality, faster running speeds, and improved system andapplication security. Regardingsoftware security, the rolling release model can have advantages in timely security updates, fixing system or applicationsecurity bugs andvulnerabilities, that standard releases may have to wait till the next release for or patch in various versions. In a rolling release distribution, where the user haschosen to run it as a highly dynamic system, the constant flux of software packages can introduce new unintended vulnerabilities.[34]
A "live" distribution is a Linux distribution that can be booted from removable storage media such asoptical discs orUSB flash drives, instead of being installed on and booted from ahard disk drive. The portability of installation-free distributions makes them advantageous for applications such as demonstrations, borrowing someone else's computer, rescue operations, or as installation media for a standard distribution.
When the operating system is booted from a read-only medium such as a CD or DVD, any user data that needs to be retained between sessions cannot be stored on the boot device but must be written to another storage device, such as a USB flash drive or a hard disk drive.[36]
Many Linux distributions provide a "live" form in addition to their conventional form, which is a network-based or removable-media image intended to be used only for installation; such distributions includeSUSE, Ubuntu,Linux Mint,MEPIS andFedora Linux. Some distributions, includingKnoppix,Puppy Linux, Devil-Linux,SuperGamer,SliTaz GNU/Linux anddyne:bolic, are designed primarily for live use. Additionally, some minimal distributions can be run directly from as little space as one floppy disk without the need to change the contents of the system's hard disk drive.[37]
The websiteDistroWatch lists many Linux distributions and displays some of the ones that have the mostweb traffic on the site. TheWikimedia Foundation released an analysis of the browserUser Agents of visitors to WMF websites until 2015, which includes details of the most popular Operating System identifiers, including some Linux distributions.[38] Many of the popular distributions are listed below.
Widely used GNU-based or GNU-compatible distributions
Debian, a non-commercial distribution and one of the earliest, maintained by a volunteer developer community with a strong commitment to free software principles and democratic project management.
Ubuntu, a desktop and server distribution derived from Debian, maintained by British companyCanonical Ltd.
Linux Mint, a distribution based on and compatible with Ubuntu. Supports multiple desktop environments, among others GNOME ShellforkCinnamon andGNOME 2 forkMATE.
Pop!_OS, is a Linux distribution based onUbuntu which developed byAmerican Linux computer manufacturerSystem76, and featuring a customisedGNOME desktop environment known as COSMIC.
Fedora Linux, a community distribution sponsored by American companyRed Hat and the successor to the company's previous offering,Red Hat Linux. It aims to be a technology testbed for Red Hat's commercial Linux offering, where newopen-source software is prototyped, developed, and tested in a communal setting before maturing into Red Hat Enterprise Linux.
Red Hat Enterprise Linux (RHEL), a derivative of Fedora Linux, maintained and commercially supported by Red Hat. It seeks to provide tested, secure, and stable Linux server and workstation support to businesses.
openSUSE, a community distribution mainly sponsored by German companySUSE.
SUSE Linux Enterprise, derived from openSUSE, maintained and commercially supported by SUSE
Arch Linux, arolling release distribution targeted at experienced Linux users and maintained by a volunteer community, offers official binary packages and a wide range of unofficial user-submitted source packages. Packages are usually defined by a singlePKGBUILD text file.
Manjaro Linux, a derivative of Arch Linux that includes a graphical installer and other ease-of-use features for less experienced Linux users.
Gentoo, a distribution targeted atpower users, known for itsFreeBSD Ports-like automated system for compiling applications from source code
Alpine Linux, which is popular on servers and usesmusl C standard library andBusyBox to provide its userland.
Chimera Linux, which is a community distribution that utilizes aFreeBSD userland, musl C standard library,Alpine Package Keeper (APK) package manager and Dinit init system.
Whether such operating systems count as a "Linux distribution" is a controversial topic. They use the Linux kernel, so theLinux Foundation[39] andChris DiBona,[40] Google's former open-source chief, agree that Android is a Linux distribution; others, such as Google engineer Patrick Brady, disagree by noting the lack of support for many GNU tools in Android, includingglibc.[41]
Lightweight Linux distributions are those that have been designed with support for older hardware in mind, allowing older hardware to still be used productively, or, for maximum possible speed in newer hardware by leaving more resources available for use by applications. Examples includeTiny Core Linux,Puppy Linux andSlitaz.
TheFree Standards Group was an organization formed by major software and hardware vendors that aims to improve interoperability between different distributions. Among their proposed standards are theLinux Standard Base, which defines a commonABI and packaging system for Linux, and theFilesystem Hierarchy Standard which recommends a standard filenaming chart, notably the basic directory names found on the root of the tree of any Linux filesystem. Those standards, however, see limited use, even among the distributions developed by members of the organization.[citation needed]
The diversity of Linux distributions means that not all software runs on all distributions, depending on what libraries and other system attributes are required.Packaged software and software repositories are usually specific to a particular distribution, though cross-installation is sometimes possible on closely related distributions.[citation needed]
There are several ways to install a Linux distribution. The most popular method of installing Linux is by booting from a liveUSB memory stick, which can be created by using a USB image writer application and the ISO image, which can be downloaded from various Linux distribution websites. DVD disks, CD disks, network installations and even other hard drives can also be used as "installation media".[43]
In the 1990s, Linux distributions were installed using sets offloppy disks but this has been abandoned by all major distributions. By the 2000s many distributions offered CD and DVD sets with the vital packages on the first disc and less important packages on later ones. Some distributions, such asDebian also enabled installation over a network after booting from either a set of floppy disks or a CD with only a small amount of data on it.[44]
New users tend to begin bypartitioning a hard drive in order to keep their previously installed operating system. The Linux distribution can then be installed on its own separate partition without affecting previously saved data.[45]
In a Live CD setup, the computer boots the entire operating system from CD without first installing it on the computer's hard disk. Many distributions have a Live CDinstaller, where the computer boots the operating system from the disk, and it can then be installed on the computer's hard disk, providing a seamless transition from the OS running from the CD to the OS running from the hard disk.
The process of constantly switching between distributions is often referred to as "distro hopping".[46][47]Virtual machine software such asVirtualBox andVMware Workstation virtualize hardware allowing users to test live media on a virtual machine without installing to the real system. Some websites likeDistroWatch offer lists of distributions, and link to screenshots of operating systems as a way to get a first impression of various distributions.
Some distributions let the user install Linux on top of their current system, such asWinLinux orcoLinux. Linux is installed to the Windows hard disk partition, and can be started from inside Windows itself.
Virtual machines (such asVirtualBox orVMware) also make it possible for Linux to be run inside another OS. The VM software simulates a separate computer onto which the Linux system is installed. After installation, the virtual machine can be booted as if it were an independent computer.
Various tools are also available to perform fulldual-boot installations from existing platforms without a CD, most notably:
The (now deprecated)Wubi installer, which allows Windows users to download and installUbuntu or its derivatives into a FAT32 or an NTFS partition without an installation CD, allowing users to easily dual boot between either operating system on the same hard drive without losing data. Replaced byUbiquity.
Win32-loader, which is in the process of being integrated in official Debian CDs/DVDs, and allows Windows users to installDebian without a CD, though it performs a network installation and thereby requires repartitioning[48]
UNetbootin, which allows Windows and Linux users to perform similar no-CD network installations for a wide variety of Linux distributions and additionally provideslive USB creation support
Some specific proprietary software products are not available in any form for Linux. As of September 2015, theSteam gaming service has over 1,500 games available on Linux, compared to 2,323 games for Mac and 6,500 Windows games.[49][50]Emulation and API-translation projects likeWine andCrossOver make it possible to run non-Linux-based software on Linux systems, either by emulating a proprietary operating system or by translating proprietary API calls (e.g., calls to Microsoft'sWin32 orDirectX APIs) into native Linux API calls. Avirtual machine can also be used to run a proprietary OS (like Microsoft Windows) on top of Linux.
Computer hardware is usually sold with an operating system other than Linux already installed by theoriginal equipment manufacturer (OEM). In the case ofIBM PC compatibles, the OS is usuallyMicrosoft Windows; in the case ofApple'sMac computers, it has always beenmacOS;Sun Microsystems soldSPARC hardware with theSolaris installed;video game consoles such as theXbox,PlayStation,Wii, and theNintendo Switch each have their own proprietary OS. This limits Linux's market share: consumers are unaware that an alternative exists, they must make a conscious effort to use a different operating system, and they must either perform the actual installation themselves, or depend on support from a friend, relative, or computer professional.
It is more common to find embedded devices sold with Linux as the default manufacturer-supported OS, including the LinksysNSLU2 NAS device,TiVo's line of personal video recorders, and Linux-based cellphones (including Android smartphones), PDAs, and portable music players.
The current Microsoft Windows license lets the manufacturer determine the refund policy.[53] With previous versions of Windows, it was possible to obtain a refund if the manufacturer failed to provide the refund by litigation in the small claims courts.[54] On February 15, 1999, a group of Linux users inOrange County, California held a "Windows Refund Day" protest in an attempt to pressure Microsoft into issuing them refunds.[55] In France, the Linuxfrench andAFUL (French speaking Libre Software Users' Association) organizations along with free software activistRoberto Di Cosmo started a "Windows Detax" movement,[56] which led to a 2006 petition against "racketiciels" (translation:Racketware) with 39,415 signatories and theDGCCRF branch of the French government filing several complaints against bundled software. On March 24, 2014, a new international petition was launched by AFUL on the Avaaz platform,[57] translated into several languages and supported by many organizations around the world.
There are no official figures on the popularity, adoption, downloads orinstalled base of Linux distributions.
There are also no official figures for the total number of Linux systems,[58][59] partly due to the difficulty of quantifying the number ofPCs running Linux (seeDesktop Linux adoption), since many usersdownload Linux distributions. Hence, the sales figures for Linux systems and commercial Linux distributions indicate a much lower number of Linux systems and level ofLinux adoption than is the case; this is mainly due to Linux beingfree and open-source software that can be downloadedfree of charge.[58][60] A Linux Counter Project had kept track of a runningguesstimate of the number of Linux systems, but did not distinguish between rolling release and standard release distributions. It ceased operation in August 2018, though a few related blog posts were created through October 2018.[61]
Desktop usage statistical reports for particular Linux distributions have been collected and published since July 2014[62] by the Linux Hardware Project.
^AM, Last modified: 04/29/2014 01:10."International petition | AFUL".no.more.racketware.info.Archived from the original on January 26, 2021. RetrievedNovember 26, 2020.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
^abPrashanth Venkataram (September 10, 2010)."Counter-Debunking the 1% myth". dasublogbyprashanth.blogspot.com.Archived from the original on September 15, 2010. RetrievedOctober 1, 2011.
Google's approach to a large-scale live upgrading between two widely different Linux distributions:presentation andtext version, LinuxCon 2013, by Marc Merlin
