Light rail (orlight rail transit, abbreviated toLRT) is a form of passengerurban rail transit that usesrolling stock derived fromtram technology[1] while also having some features from heavyrapid transit.
The term was coined in 1972 in the United States as an English equivalent for the German wordStadtbahn, meaning "city railway".[2][3] Different definitions exist in some countries, but in the United States, light rail operates primarily along exclusiverights-of-way and uses either individual tramcars ormultiple units coupled together, with a lower capacity and speed than a longheavy rail passenger train or rapid transit system.[4][5][6][7][8]
Narrowly defined, light rail transit usesrolling stock that is similar to that of a traditional tram, while operating at a higher capacity and speed, often on an exclusive right-of-way. In broader usage, light rail transit can include tram-like operations mostly on streets.[9] Some light rail networks have characteristics closer to rapid transit. Only when these systems are fully grade-separated, they are referred to aslight metros or light rail rapid transit (LRRT).[10]
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The termlight rail was coined in 1972 by the U.S. Urban Mass Transportation Administration (UMTA; the precursor to theFederal Transit Administration) to describe new streetcar transformations that were taking place in Europe and the United States. In Germany, the termStadtbahn (to be distinguished fromS-Bahn, which stands forStadtschnellbahn) was used to describe the concept, and many in UMTA wanted to adopt the direct translation, which iscity rail (the Norwegian term,by bane, means the same). However, UMTA finally adopted the termlight rail instead.[11]Light in this context is used in the sense of "intended for light loads and fast movement", rather than referring to physical weight. The infrastructure investment is also usually lighter than would be found for a heavy rail system.
TheAmerican Public Transportation Association (APTA), in its Glossary of Transit Terminology, defines light rail as:
...a mode of transit service (also called streetcar, tramway, or trolley) operating passengerrail cars singly (or in short, usually two-car or three-car, trains) on fixed rails in the right-of-way that is often separated from other traffic for part or much of the way. Light rail vehicles are typically driven electrically with power being drawn from an overhead electric line via atrolley [pole] or apantograph; driven by an operator onboard the vehicle; and may have either high platform loading or low-level boarding using steps."[4]
However, some diesel-powered transit systems using light trains, are designateddiesel light rail transit (DLRT), such as theO-TrainTrillium Line inOttawa, Ontario, Canada, and in the United States theRiver Line inNew Jersey, and theSprinter inCalifornia. These systems usediesel multiple unit (DMU) trains originally designed for mainline railroads.
Light rail is different from theBritish English termlight railway, long-used to distinguish railway operations carried out under a less rigorous set of regulations using lighter equipment at lower speeds from mainline railways.[12]Light rail is a genericinternational English phrase for types of rail systems using modern streetcars/trams, which means more or less the same thing throughout theEnglish-speaking world.Light rail systems can range from trams running in streets along with other traffic, tosemi-metro systems having portions of grade separated track.[13]
People movers are even "lighter", in terms of capacity.Monorail is a separate technology that has been more successful in specialized services than in a commuter transit role.[14]
The use of the generic termlight rail avoids some serious incompatibilities betweenBritish and American English. The wordtram, for instance, is generally used in the UK and many former British colonies to refer to what is known in North America as astreetcar, but in North Americatram can instead refer to anaerial tramway,[15] or, in the case ofthe Disney amusement parks, even aland train.[16] (The usual British term for an aerial tramway iscable car, which in the US usually refers to aground-level car pulled along by subterranean cables.) The wordtrolley is often used as a synonym forstreetcar in the United States but is usually taken to mean a cart, particularly a shopping cart, in the UK and elsewhere.[17] Many North American transportation planners reservestreetcar for traditional vehicles that operate exclusively in mixed traffic on city streets, while they uselight rail to refer to more modern vehicles operating mostly in exclusive rights of way, since they may operate both side-by-side targeted at different passenger groups.[18]
The difference between British English and American English terminology arose in the late 19th century when Americans adopted the term "street railway", rather than "tramway", with the vehicles being called "streetcars" rather than "trams". Some have suggested that the Americans' preference for the term "street railway" at that time was influenced by German emigrants to the United States[19] (who were more numerous than British immigrants in the industrialized Northeast), as it is the same as the German term for the mode,Straßenbahn (meaning "street railway"). A further difference arose because, while Britain abandoned all of itstrams after World War II except inBlackpool, eight major North American cities (Toronto,Boston,Philadelphia,San Francisco,Pittsburgh,Newark,Cleveland, andNew Orleans) continued to operate largestreetcar systems.[20] When these cities upgraded to new technology, they called itlight rail to differentiate it from their existingstreetcars since some continued to operate both the old and new systems. Since the 1980s,Portland, Oregon, has built all three types of system: a high-capacitylight rail system in dedicated lanes and rights-of-way, a low-capacitystreetcar system integrated with street traffic, and anaerial tram system.
The opposite phraseheavy rail, used for higher-capacity, higher-speed systems, also avoids some incompatibilities in terminology between British and American English, for instance in comparing theLondon Underground and theNew York City Subway. Conventional rail technologies includinghigh-speed, freight,commuter, andrapid transit urban transit systems are considered "heavy rail". The main difference between light rail and heavy rail rapid transit is the ability for a light rail vehicle to operate in mixed traffic if the routing requires it.[21]
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The world's first electric tram operated inSestroretsk nearSaint Petersburg,Russia, invented and operated on an experimental basis byFyodor Pirotsky in 1880.[22][23] The first tramway was theGross-Lichterfelde tramway inLichterfelde near Berlin in Germany, which opened in 1881.[24] It was built byWerner von Siemens who contacted Pirotsky. It initially drew current from the rails, withoverhead wire being installed in 1883. The firstinterurban to emerge in the United States was the Newark and Granville Street Railway in Ohio, which opened in 1889.[25]
An early example of the light rail concept was the "Shaker Heights Rapid Transit" which started in the 1920s, was renovated in 1980-81 and is now part ofRTA Rapid Transit.[26] When the suburban railHighland branch in Boston was converted to operation with regular trams (PCC cars) in 1959, creating an early type oflight rail line, passenger numbers rose quickly.[27]: 8 In 1964the Skokie Swift service started operating, it helped to model later US light rail systems.[28]
Many original tram andstreetcar systems in theUnited Kingdom,United States, and elsewhere were decommissioned starting in the 1950s as subsidies for the car increased. During the 1940s both Leeds and Glasgow added new lines to their tram networks, both with a light rail like exclusive alignement.[29] And yet, Britain abandoned all its tram systems, except forBlackpool, with the closure ofGlasgow Corporation Tramways (one of the largest in Europe) in 1962.[30]
Although some traditional trolley or tram systems continued to exist in the US and elsewhere, the term "light rail" has come to mean a different type of rail system as modern light rail technology has primarily post-WWII West German origins. After World War II, Germany retained many of its streetcar networks and some ot these evolved into model light rail systems (Stadtbahnen). With the exception ofHamburg, all large and most medium-sized German cities maintain light rail networks.[31]
The concept of a "limited tramway" was proposed by American transport planner H. Dean Quinby in 1962. Quinby distinguished this new concept in rail transportation from historic streetcar or tram systems as:[32]
The termlight rail transit was introduced in North America in 1972 to describe this new concept of rail transportation.[2] Prior to that time the abbreviation "LRT" was used for "Light Rapid Transit" and "Light Rail Rapid Transit".[33] An attempt byBoeing Vertol to introduce anew American light rail vehicle in the 1970s was proven to have been a technical failure by the following decade.
Prior to the systems in North America, besides Germany a few regions in Europe developed light rail like tram transport as early as the 1960s. BesidesGothenburg, several cities in Central and Eastern Europe executed plans to modernise tram systems, notably inOstrava.[34]
The first of the new light rail systems in North America began operation in 1978 when the Canadian city ofEdmonton, Alberta, adopted the GermanSiemens-Duewag U2 system, followed three years later byCalgary, Alberta, andSan Diego, California. The concept proved popular, with there now being numerouslight rail systems in the United States andin North America.
In Britain, modern light rail systems began to appear in the 1980s, starting with theTyne and Wear Metro from 1980 and followed by the establishment of theManchester Metrolink in 1992 and theSheffield Supertram from 1994.[35]
It can be hard to distinguish what is called light rail, and other forms of urban and commuter rail. A system termed as a light rail in one city may be considered to be a streetcar or tram system in another. Conversely, some lines that are called "light rail" are very close torapid transit. In recent years, new terms such aslight metro have been used to describe medium-capacity rail systems. Some "diesel light rail" systems, such asSprinter, bear little similarity to urban rail, and could alternatively be classified as commuter rail with light trains.
Light rail corridors may constitute a fully segregated corridor, a dedicatedright-of-way on a street, an on-street corridor shared with other traffic, a corridor shared with other public transport, or a corridor shared with pedestrians,[36] resulting in a much higher flexibility thanheavy rail.[37]
The most difficult distinction to draw is that between low-floor light rail and streetcar or tram systems. There is a significant amount of overlap between the technologies; similar rolling stock may be used for either, and it is common to classify streetcars or trams as a subcategory of light rail rather than as a distinct type of transportation. However, some distinctions can be made, though systems may combine elements of both.[38]
Low-floor light rail lines tend to follow a reserved right-of-way and with trains receiving priority at intersections, and tend not to operate in mixed traffic, enabling higher operating speeds.[38][39] Light rail lines tend to have less frequent stops than tramways, and operate over a longer distance.[40] Light rail cars are often coupled into multiple units of two to four cars.[39]
Light rail systems may also exhibit attributes of heavy rail systems, including having downtown subways, as inSan Francisco andSeattle. Light rail is designed to address a gap in interurban transportation between heavy rail and bus services, carrying high passenger numbers more quickly than local buses and more cheaply than heavy rail. It serves corridors in which heavy rail is impractical.Light metro systems are essentially hybrids of light rail and rapid transit.[14][41]
Metro trains are larger and faster than light rail trains, with stops being further apart.[42]
Many systems have mixed characteristics. Indeed, with proper engineering, a rail line could run along a street, then go underground, and then run along an elevated viaduct. For example, theLos Angeles Metro Rail'sA Line "light rail" has sections that could alternatively be described as a tramway, a light metro, and, in a narrow sense, rapid transit. This is especially common in the United States, where there is not a popularly perceived distinction between these different types of urban rail systems. The development of technology for low-floor and catenary-free trams facilitates the construction of such mixed systems with only short and shallow underground sections below critical intersections as the required clearance height can be reduced significantly compared to conventional light rail vehicles.[43]
Reference speed from major light rail systems, including station stop time, is shown below.[44]
| System | Average speed (mph) | Average speed (km/h) |
|---|---|---|
| Baltimore | 24 | 39 |
| Dallas (Red Line) | 21 | 34 |
| Dallas (Blue Line) | 19 | 31 |
| Denver (Alameda-Littleton) | 38 | 61 |
| Denver (Downtown-Littleton) | 26 | 42 |
| Los Angeles (Blue Line) | 24 | 39 |
| Los Angeles (Green Line) | 38 | 61 |
| Salt Lake City | 24 | 39 |
However, low top speed is not always a differentiating characteristic between light rail and other systems. For example, theSiemens S70 LRVs used in theHoustonMETRORail and other North American LRT systems have a top speed of 55–71.5 miles per hour (88.51–115.1 km/h) depending on the system, while the trains on the all-undergroundMontreal Metro can only reach a top speed of 72 kilometres per hour (44.74 mph).LACMTA light rail vehicles have higher top and average speeds than Montreal Metro orNew York City Subway trains.[45]
Many light rail systems—even fairly old ones—have a combination of both on- and off-road sections. In some countries (especially in Europe), only the latter is described as light rail. In those places, trams running on mixed rights-of-way are not regarded as a light rail but considered distinctly as streetcars or trams. However, the requirement for saying that a rail line is "separated" can be quite low—sometimes just with concrete "buttons" to discourage automobile drivers from getting onto the tracks. Some systems such asSeattle's Link had on-road mixed sections but were closed to regular road traffic, with light rail vehicles and buses both operating along a common right-of-way (however, Link converted to full separation in 2019).
Some systems, such as theAirTrain JFK in New York City, theDLR in London, andKelana Jaya Line inKuala Lumpur, have dispensed with the need for an operator. TheVancouverSkyTrain was an early adopter of driverless vehicles, while theTorontoScarborough rapid transit operated the same trains as Vancouver, but used drivers. In most discussions and comparisons, these specialized systems are generally not considered light rail but aslight metro systems.
AroundKarlsruhe,Kassel, andSaarbrücken in Germany, dual-voltage light rail trains partly use mainline railroad tracks, sharing these tracks with heavy rail trains. In theNetherlands, this concept was first applied on theRijnGouweLijn. This allows commuters to ride directly into the city center, rather than taking a mainline train only as far as a central station and then having to change to a tram. In France, similartram-trains are planned for Paris,Mulhouse, andStrasbourg; further projects exist. In some cases, tram trains use previously abandoned or lightly used heavy rail lines in addition to or instead of still in use mainline tracks. In 2022, Spain opened theCádiz TramBahia, where trams share track withcommuter and long-distance trains from the main terminus in the city and curve off to serve cities without a railway connection.
Some of the issues involved in such schemes are:
There is a history of what would now be considered light rail vehicles operating on heavy railrapid transit tracks in the US, especially in the case ofinterurban streetcars. Notable examples areLehigh Valley Transit trains running on thePhiladelphia and Western Railroad high-speed third rail line (now theNorristown High-Speed Line). Such arrangements are almost impossible now, due to theFederal Railroad Administration refusing (for crash safety reasons) to allow non-FRA compliant railcars (i.e., subway and light rail vehicles) to run on the same tracks at the same times as compliant railcars, which includes locomotives and standard railroad passenger and freight equipment. Notable exceptions in the US are theNJ TransitRiver Line fromCamden toTrenton and Austin'sCapital MetroRail, which have received exemptions to the provision that light rail operations occur only during daytime hours andConrail freight service only at night, with several hours separating one operation from the other. TheO-TrainTrillium Line in Ottawa also has freight service at certain hours.
With its mix of right-of-way types and train control technologies, LRT offers the widest range of latitude of any rail system in the design, engineering, and operating practices. The challenge in designing light rail systems is to realize the potential of LRT to provide fast, comfortable service while avoiding the tendency to overdesign that results in excessive capital costs beyond what is necessary to meet the public's needs.[46]
| Alternative | Differences |
|---|---|
| Rapid transit | Light rail vehicles (LRVs) are distinguished fromrapid rail transit (RRT) vehicles by their capability for operation in mixed traffic, generally resulting in a narrower car body and articulation to operate in a street traffic environment. With their large size, large turning radius, and often an electrifiedthird rail, RRT vehicles cannot operate in the street. Since LRT systems can operate in existing streets, they can often avoid the cost of expensivegrade-separated subway and elevated segments that would be required with RRT. |
| Streetcars or trams | Conversely, LRVs generally outperform traditional streetcars in terms of capacity and top-end speed, and almost all modern LRVs are capable ofmultiple-unit operation. The latest generation of LRVs is considerably larger and faster, typically 29 metres (95 ft1+3⁄4 in) long with a maximum speed of around 105 kilometres per hour (65.2 mph).[47] |
| Heritage streetcars | A variation considered by many cities is to use historic or replica cars on their streetcar systems instead of modern LRVs. A heritage streetcar may not have the capacity and speed of an LRV, but it will add to the ambiance and historic character of its location. |
| Light metro | A derivative of LRT is light rail rapid transit (LRRT), also referred to aslight metro. Such railways are characterized by exclusive rights of way, advanced train control systems, short headway capability, and floor-level boarding. These systems approach the passenger capacity of full metro systems but can be cheaper to construct due to LRVs generally being smaller in size, turning tighter curves and climbing steeper grades than standard RRT vehicles, and having a smaller station size. |
| Interurbans | The terminterurban mainly refers to rail cars that run through streets like ordinary streetcars (trams), but also between cities or towns, often through rural environments. In the period 1900–1930, interurbans were very common in the US, especially in theMidwest. Some of them, like theRed Devils, the J. G. BrillBullets, and theElectroliners, were thehigh-speed railcars of their time, with an in-service speed of up to about 145 km/h (90 mph). In Europe, interurbans are making a comeback as "tram-trains" (locally known under different names) that operate on both the railway and light rail tracks, often with different voltages. TheKarlsruhe Stadtbahn is one well-known example. |
TheBART railcar in the following chart isnot generally considered to be a "light rail" vehicle (it is aheavy rail vehicle), and is only included for comparison purposes.
| Type | Rapid transit (heavy rail) | Light rail | Tram, or streetcar | Heritage streetcar |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Manufacturer | Rohr | Siemens | Skoda | Gomaco Trolley Co. |
| Model | BART A-Car | S70 | 10T | Replica Birney |
| Width | 3.2 metres (10 ft 6 in) | 2.7 metres (8 ft10+1⁄4 in) | 2.6 metres (8 ft6+3⁄8 in) | 2.62 metres (8 ft7+1⁄8 in) |
| Length | 22.9 metres (75 ft1+5⁄8 in) | 27.7 metres (90 ft10+1⁄2 in)articulated | 20.13 metres (66 ft1⁄2 in) articulated | 15.16 metres (49 ft8+7⁄8 in) |
| Weight (empty) | 63.1 t | 48.6 t[48] | 28.8 t | 23.5 t[49] |
| Capacity | 150 max. | 72 seats, 220 max.[48] | 30 seats, 157 max. | 40 seats, 50 max.[49] |
| Top speed | 125 km/h (77.7 mph) | 106 km/h (65.9 mph) | 70 km/h (43.5 mph) | 48 km/h (29.8 mph) |
| Typical consist | 4–10 vehicles | 2–5 vehicles | 1 vehicle | 1 vehicle |
Low-floor LRVs have the advantage of a low-floor design, allowing them to load passengers directly from low-rise platforms that can be little more than raised curbs. High-floor light rail systems also exist, featuring larger stations.[38]
Historically, thetrack gauge has had considerable variations, withnarrow gauge common in many early systems. However, most light rail systems are nowstandard gauge.[31] Older standard-gauge vehicles could not negotiate sharp turns as easily as narrow-gauge ones, but modern light rail systems achieve tighter turning radii by usingarticulated cars. An important advantage of the standard gauge is that standard railway maintenance equipment can be used on it, rather than custom-built machinery. Using standard gauges also allows light rail vehicles to be conveniently moved around using the same tracks as freight railways. Additionally, wider gauges (e.g. standard gauge) provide more floor clearance onlow-floor trams that have constricted pedestrian areas at the wheels, which is especially important for wheelchair access, as narrower gauges (e.g. metre gauge) can make it challenging or impossible to pass the tram's wheels. Furthermore, standard-gauge rolling stock can be switched between networks either temporarily or permanently, and both newly built and used standard-gauge rolling stock tends to be cheaper to buy, as more companies offer such vehicles.
Overhead lines supply electricity to the vast majority of light rail systems.[4] This avoids the danger potentially presented by an electrifiedthird rail.[42] TheDocklands Light Railway uses an inverted third rail for its electrical power, which allows the electrified rail to be covered and the power drawn from the underside. Trams inBordeaux, France, use aspecial third-rail configuration where the power is only switched on beneath the trams, making it safe on city streets. Several systems in Europe and a few recently opened systems in North America usediesel-powered trains.
When electric streetcars were introduced in the late 19th century,conduit current collection was one of the first ways of supplying power, but it proved to be much more expensive, complicated, and trouble-prone thanoverhead wires. When electric street railways became ubiquitous, conduit power was used in those cities that did not permit overhead wires. In Europe, it was used in London, Paris, Berlin, Marseille, Budapest, and Prague. In the United States, it was used in parts of New York City and Washington, D.C.[50]Third rail technology was investigated for use on theGold Coast of Australia for theG:link light rail,[51] though power fromoverhead lines was ultimately utilized for that system.
In the French city ofBordeaux, thetramway network is powered by athird rail in the city center, where the tracks are not always segregated from pedestrians and cars.[52] The third rail (actually two closely spaced rails) is placed in the middle of the track and divided into eight-metre sections, each of which is powered only while it is completely covered by a tram. This minimizes the risk of a person or animal coming into contact with a live rail. In outer areas, the trams switch to conventionaloverhead wires. The Bordeaux power system costs about three times as much as a conventional overhead wire system and took 24 months to achieve acceptable levels of reliability, requiring the replacement of all the main cables and power supplies.[53] Operating and maintenance costs of the innovative power system still remain high. However, despite numerous service outages, the system was a success with the public, gaining up to 190,000 passengers per day.
Automatic train operation is employed on light rail networks, tracking the position and speed of a train and hence adjusting its movement for safety and efficiency.[54]
One line of light rail (requires 7.6 m, 25' right of way) has a theoretical capacity of up to 8 times more than one 3.7 m (12 foot) lane on a freeway, excluding busses, during peak times. Roads have ultimate capacity limits that can be determined bytraffic engineering, and usually experience a chaotic breakdown inflow and a dramatic drop in speed (atraffic jam) if they exceed about 2,000 vehicles per hour per lane (each car roughlytwo seconds behind another).[55] Since most people who drive to work or on business trips do so alone, studies show that the average car occupancy on many roads carrying commuters is only about 1.5 people per car during the high-demandrush hour periods of the day.[56]This combination of factors limits roads carrying only automobile commuters to a maximum observed capacity of about 3,000 passengers per hour per lane. The problem can be mitigated by introducing high-occupancy vehicle (HOV) lanes andride-sharing programs, but in most cases, policymakers have chosen to add more lanes to the roads, despite a small risk that in unfavorable situations an extension of the road network might lead to increased travel times (Downs–Thomson paradox,Braess's paradox).[57][58][59]
By contrast, light rail vehicles can travel in multi-car trains carrying a theoretical ridership up to 20,000 passengers per hour in much narrowerrights-of-way, not much more than two car lanes wide for adouble track system.[60] They can often be run throughexisting city streets and parks, or placed in themedians of roads. Ifrun in streets, trains are usually limited by city block lengths to about four 180-passenger vehicles (720 passengers). Operating on two-minute headways using traffic signal progression, a well-designed two-track system can handle up to 30 trains per hour per track, achieving peak rates of over 20,000 passengers per hour in each direction. More advanced systems with separate rights-of-way usingmoving block signaling can exceed 25,000 passengers per hour per track.[61]
Most light rail systems in the United States are limited by demand rather than capacity (by and large, most American LRT systems carry fewer than 4,000 persons per hour per direction), but Boston's and San Francisco's light rail lines carry 9,600 and 13,100 passengers per hour per track during rush hour.[62] Elsewhere in North America, theCalgaryC-Train andMonterrey Metro have higher light rail ridership than Boston or San Francisco. Systems outside North America often have much higher passenger volumes. TheManila Light Rail Transit System is one of the highest capacity ones, having been upgraded in a series of expansions to handle 40,000 passengers per hour per direction, and having carried as many as 582,989 passengers in a single day on itsLine 1.[63] It achieves this volume by running four-car trains with a capacity of up to 1,350 passengers each at a frequency of up to 30 trains per hour. However, the Manila light rail system has full grade separation and as a result, has many of the operating characteristics of a metro system rather than a light rail system. A capacity of 1,350 passengers per train is more similar to the heavy rail than light rail.
Bus rapid transit (BRT) is an alternative to LRT and many planning studies undertake a comparison of each mode when considering appropriate investments in transit corridor development. BRT systems can exhibit a more diverse range of design characteristics than LRT, depending on the demand and constraints that exist, and BRT using dedicated lanes can have a theoretical capacity of over 30,000 passengers per hour per direction (for example, theGuangzhou Bus Rapid Transit system operates up to 350 buses per hour per direction). For the effective operation of a bus or BRT system, buses must have priority at traffic lights and have their dedicated lanes, especially as bus frequencies exceed 30 buses per hour per direction. The higher theoretical of BRT relates to the ability of buses to travel closer to each other than rail vehicles and their ability to overtake each other at designated locations allowing express services to bypass those that have stopped at stations. However, to achieve capacities this high, BRT station footprints need to be significantly larger than a typical LRT station. In terms of cost of operation, each bus vehicle requires a single driver, whereas a light rail train may have three to four cars of much larger capacity in one train under the control of one driver, or no driver at all in fully automated systems, increasing the labor costs of BRT systems compared to LRT systems. BRT systems are also usually less fuel-efficient as they use non-electrified vehicles.
An irregular ride experience, including sudden breaking and acceleration, results in a lower ride quality for passengers compared to LRT.[64]
The peak passenger capacity per lane per hour depends on which types of vehicles are allowed on the roads. Typically roadways have 1,900 passenger cars per lane per hour (pcplph).[65] If only cars are allowed, the capacity will be less and will not increase when the traffic volume increases.
When there is a bus driving on this route, the capacity of the lane will be higher and will increase when the traffic level increases. And because the capacity of a light rail system is higher than that of a bus, there will be even more capacity when there is a combination of cars and light rail. Table 3 shows an example of peak passenger capacity.
| Car | Car + bus | Car + light rail | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Low volume | 900 | 1,650 | 2,250 |
| Medium volume | 900 | 2,350 | 3,250 |
| High volume | 900 | 3,400 | 4,600 |
| Source: Edson & Tennyson, 2003[full citation needed] | |||
The cost of light rail construction varies widely, largely depending on the amount of tunneling and elevated structures required. A survey of North American light rail projects[66] shows that costs of most LRT systems range from $15 million to over $100 million per mile.Seattle's new light rail system is by far the most expensive in the US, at $179 million per mile, since it includes extensive tunneling in poor soil conditions, elevated sections, and stations as deep as 180 feet (55 m) below ground level.[67] This results in costs more typical of subways or rapid transit systems than light rail. At the other end of the scale, four systems (Baltimore, Maryland; Camden, New Jersey; Sacramento, California; and Salt Lake City, Utah) incurred construction costs of less than $20 million per mile. Over the US as a whole, excluding Seattle, new light rail construction costs average about $35 million per mile.[66]
By comparison, a freeway lane expansion typically costs $1.0 million to $8.5 million perlane mile for two directions, with an average of $2.3 million.[68] However, freeways are frequently built in suburbs or rural areas, whereas light rail tends to be concentrated in urban areas, where right of way and property acquisition is expensive. Similarly, the most expensive US highway expansion project was the "Big Dig" in Boston, Massachusetts, which cost $200 million per lane mile for a total cost of $14.6 billion. A light rail track can carry up to 20,000 people per hour as compared with 2,000–2,200 vehicles per hour for one freeway lane.[69] For example, in Boston and San Francisco, light rail lines carry 9,600 and 13,100 passengers per hour, respectively, in the peak direction during rush hour.[62]
Combining highway expansion with LRT construction can save costs by doing both highway improvements and rail construction at the same time. As an example, Denver'sTransportation Expansion Project rebuilt interstate highways 25 and 225 and added a light rail expansion for a total cost of $1.67 billion over five years.[70] The cost of 17 miles (27 km) of highway improvements and 19 miles (31 km) of double-track light rail worked out to $19.3 million per highway lane-mile and $27.6 million per LRT track-mile. The project came in under budget and 22 months ahead of schedule.[71]
LRT cost efficiency improves dramatically as ridership increases, as can be seen from the numbers above: the same rail line, with similar capital and operating costs, is far more efficient if it is carrying 20,000 people per hour than if it is carrying 2,400. TheCalgary, Alberta,C-Train used many common light rail techniques to keep costs low, including minimizing underground and elevated trackage, sharing transit malls with buses, leasing rights-of-way from freight railroads, and combining LRT construction with freeway expansion. As a result, Calgary ranks toward the less expensive end of the scale with capital costs of around $24 million per mile.[72]
However, Calgary's LRT ridership is much higher than any comparable US light rail system, at 300,000 passengers per weekday, and as a result, its capital efficiency is also much higher. Its capital costs were one-third those of theSan Diego Trolley, a comparably sized US system built at the same time, while by 2009 its ridership was approximately three times as high. Thus, Calgary's capital cost per passenger was much lower than that of San Diego. Its operating cost per passenger was also much lower because of its higher ridership. A typical C-Train vehicle costs onlyCA$163 (equivalent to $235 in 2023) per hour to operate, and since it averages 600 passengers per operating hour,[73] Calgary Transit estimates that its LRT operating costs are only 27 cents per ride, versus $1.50 per ride on its buses.[72]
Compared to buses, costs can be lower due to lower labor costs per passenger mile, higher ridership (observations show that light rail attracts more ridership than a comparable bus service)[74] and faster average speed (reducing the number of vehicles needed for the same service frequency). While light rail vehicles are more expensive to buy, they have a longer useful life than buses, sometimes making for lower life-cycle costs. Compared to heavy rail investment costs are lower, however operating costs are higher than heavy rail.[75]
Energy efficiency for light rail may be 120 passenger miles per gallon of fuel (or equivalent), but variation is great, depending on circumstances.[76]
An analysis of data from the 505-page National Transportation Statistics report[77] published by the US Department of Transportation shows that light rail fatalities are higher than all other forms of transportation except motorcycle travel (31.5 fatalities per 100 million miles).[78]
However, the National Transportation Statistics report published by the US Department of Transportation states that:[77]
Caution must be exercised in comparing fatalities across modes because significantly different definitions are used. In particular, Rail and Transit fatalities include incident-related (as distinct from accident-related) fatalities, such as fatalities from falls in transit stations or railroad employee fatalities from a fire in a workshed. Equivalent fatalities for the Air and Highway modes (fatalities at airports not caused by moving aircraft or fatalities from accidents in automobile repair shops) are not counted toward the totals for these modes. Thus, fatalities not necessarily directly related to in-service transportation are counted for the transit and rail modes, potentially overstating the risk for these modes.
Studies have attributed light rail with a number of health impacts. Research has associated light rail positively with increased walking and decreased obesity.[79][80] Additionally, one electric light rail train produces nearly 99 percent lesscarbon monoxide and hydrocarbon emissions per mile than one automobile does.[81]
Worldwide around 400 tram and light rail systems exist. Some date back to the 19th century, but many of the original tram and streetcar systems were closed down in the mid-20th century, except for many Central and Eastern European countries. Other cities that once closed down their streetcar networks are now restoring, or have already rebuilt, at least some of their former streetcar/tram systems.
{{cite book}}:|website= ignored (help)Data collected from the initial experiment was used to design other light rail systems across the country...
Serving as a fundamental component of metro and light rail networks, ATO utilises sensors and communication systems to monitor train positions and speeds, automatically adjusting train movements to ensure safe and efficient operations.
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