Thelate Middle Ages orlate medieval period was theperiod ofEuropean history lasting from 1300 to 1500 AD. The late Middle Ages followed theHigh Middle Ages and preceded the onset of theearly modern period (and in much of Europe, theRenaissance).[1]
Around 1350, centuries of prosperity and growth in Europe came to a halt. A series offamines andplagues, including theGreat Famine of 1315–1317 and theBlack Death, reduced the population to around half of what it had been before the calamities.[2] Along with depopulation came social unrest andendemic warfare.France andEngland experienced serious peasant uprisings, such as theJacquerie and thePeasants' Revolt, as well as over a century of intermittent conflict, theHundred Years' War. To add to the many problems of the period, the unity of theCatholic Church was temporarily shattered by theWestern Schism. Collectively, those events are sometimes called thecrisis of the late Middle Ages.[3]
Despite the crises, the 14th century was also a time of great progress in the arts and sciences. Following a renewed interest in ancientGreek andRoman texts that took root in the High Middle Ages, theItalian Renaissance began. The absorption of Latin texts had started before theRenaissance of the 12th century through contact with Arabs during theCrusades, but the availability of important Greek texts accelerated with thefall of Constantinople to theOttoman Turks, when manyByzantine scholars had to seek refuge in the West, particularly Italy.[4]
Combined with this influx of classical ideas was the invention of printing, which facilitated the dissemination of the printed word and democratized learning. Those two things would later lead to theReformation. Toward the end of the period, theAge of Discovery began. The expansion of the Ottoman Empire cut off trading possibilities with the East. Europeans were forced to seek new trading routes, leading to the Spanish expedition underChristopher Columbus to theAmericas in 1492 andVasco da Gama's voyage to Africa and India in 1498. Their discoveries strengthened the economy and power of European nations.
The changes brought about by these developments have led many scholars to view this period as the end of theMiddle Ages and the beginning ofmodern history and ofearly modern Europe. However, the division is somewhat artificial, since ancient learning was never entirely absent from European society.[citation needed] As a result, there wasdevelopmental continuity between theancient age (viaclassical antiquity) and themodern age.[citation needed] Some historians, particularly in Italy, prefer not to speak of the late Middle Ages at all; rather, they see the high period of the Middle Ages transitioning to the Renaissance and the modern era.[citation needed]
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The term "late Middle Ages" refers to one of the three periods of theMiddle Ages, along with the early Middle Ages and the High Middle Ages.Leonardo Bruni was the first historian to use tripartite periodization in hisHistory of the Florentine People (1442).[5]Flavio Biondo used a similar framework inDecades of History from the Deterioration of the Roman Empire (1439–1453). Tripartite periodization became standard after the German historianChristoph Cellarius publishedUniversal History Divided into an Ancient, Medieval, and New Period (1683).
For 18th-century historians studying the 14th and 15th centuries, the central theme was theRenaissance, with its rediscovery of ancient learning and the emergence of an individual spirit.[6] The heart of this rediscovery lies in Italy, where, in the words ofJacob Burckhardt, "Man became a spiritual individual and recognized himself as such."[7] This proposition was later challenged, and it was argued that the 12th century was a period of greater cultural achievement.[8]
As economic and demographic methods were applied to the study of history, the trend was increasingly to see the late Middle Ages as a period of recession and crisis.Belgian historianHenri Pirenne continued the subdivision ofEarly,High, and late Middle Ages in the years aroundWorld War I.[9] Yet it was hisDutch colleague,Johan Huizinga, who was primarily responsible for popularising the pessimistic view of the late Middle Ages, with his bookThe Autumn of the Middle Ages (1919).[10] To Huizinga, whose research focused on France and theLow Countries rather than Italy, despair and decline were the main themes, not rebirth.[11][12]
Modern historiography on the period has reached a consensus between the two extremes of innovation and crisis. It is now generally acknowledged that conditions were vastly different north and south of the Alps, and the term "late Middle Ages" is often avoided entirely within Italian historiography.[13] The term "Renaissance" is still considered useful for describing certain intellectual, cultural, or artistic developments but not as the defining feature of an entire European historical epoch.[14] The period from the early 14th century up until – and sometimes including – the 16th century is rather seen as characterized by other trends: demographic and economic decline followed by recovery, the end of Western religious unity and the subsequent emergence of thenation-state, and the expansion of European influence onto the rest of the world.[14]
The limits ofChristian Europe were still being defined in the 14th and 15th centuries. While theGrand Duchy of Moscow was beginning to repel theMongols, and theIberian kingdoms completed theReconquista of the peninsula and turned their attention outwards, theBalkans fell under the dominance of theOttoman Empire.[a] Meanwhile, the remaining nations of the continent were locked in almost constant international or internal conflict.[15]
The situation gradually led to the consolidation of central authority and the emergence of thenation state.[16] The financial demands of war necessitated higher levels of taxation, resulting in the emergence of representative bodies – most notably theEnglish Parliament.[17] The growth of secular authority was further aided by the decline of the papacy with theWestern Schism and the coming of theProtestant Reformation.[18]
After the failed union ofSweden andNorway of 1319–1365, the pan-ScandinavianKalmar Union was instituted in 1397.[19] The Swedes were reluctant members of theDanish-dominated union from the start. In an attempt to subdue the Swedes, KingChristian II of Denmark had large numbers of the Swedish aristocracy killed in theStockholm Bloodbath of 1520. Yet this measure only led to further hostilities, and Sweden broke away for good in 1523.[20] Norway, on the other hand, became an inferior party of the union and remained united with Denmark until 1814.
Iceland benefited from its relative isolation and was the lastScandinavian country to be struck by theBlack Death.[21] Meanwhile, theNorse colony in Greenland died out, probably under extreme weather conditions in the 15th century.[22] These conditions might have been the effect of theLittle Ice Age.[23]
The death ofAlexander III of Scotland in 1286 threw the country into asuccession crisis, and the English king,Edward I, was brought in to arbitrate. Edward claimed overlordship over Scotland, leading to theWars of Scottish Independence.[24] The English were eventually defeated, and the Scots were able to develop a stronger state under theStewarts.[25]
From 1337, England's attention was largely directed towards France in theHundred Years' War.[26]Henry V's victory at theBattle of Agincourt in 1415 briefly paved the way for a unification of the two kingdoms, but his sonHenry VI soon squandered all previous gains.[27] The loss of France led to discontent at home. Soon after the end of the war in 1453, the dynastic struggles of theWars of the Roses (c. 1455–1485) began, involving the rival dynasties of theHouse of Lancaster andHouse of York.[28]
The war ended in the accession ofHenry VII of theHouse of Tudor, who continued the work started by the Yorkist kings of building a strong, centralized monarchy.[29] While England's attention was thus directed elsewhere, theHiberno-Norman lords inIreland were becoming gradually more assimilated into Irish society, and the island was allowed to develop virtual independence under English overlordship.[30]
TheFrenchHouse of Valois, which followed theHouse of Capet in 1328, was at its outset marginalized in its own country, first by the English invading forces of theHundred Years' War and later by the powerfulDuchy of Burgundy.[31] The emergence ofJoan of Arc as a military leader changed the course of war in favour of the French, and the initiative was carried further by KingLouis XI.[32]
Meanwhile,Charles the Bold,Duke of Burgundy, met resistance in his attempts to consolidate his possessions, particularly from theSwiss Confederation formed in 1291.[33] When Charles was killed in theBurgundian Wars at theBattle of Nancy in 1477, theDuchy of Burgundy was reclaimed by France.[34] At the same time, theCounty of Burgundy and the wealthyBurgundian Netherlands came into theHoly Roman Empire underHabsburg control, setting up conflict for centuries to come.[35]
Bohemia prospered in the 14th century, and theGolden Bull of 1356 made the king of Bohemia first among theimperial electors, but theHussite revolution threw the country into crisis.[36] TheHoly Roman Empire passed to theHouse of Habsburg in 1438, where it remained until itsdissolution in 1806.[37] Yet in spite of theextensive territories held by the Habsburgs, the Empire itself remained fragmented, and much real power and influence lay with the individual principalities.[38] In addition, financial institutions, such as theHanseatic League and theFugger family, held great power, on both economic and political levels.[39]
TheKingdom of Hungary experienced a golden age during the 14th century.[40] In particular the reigns of theAngevin kingsCharles Robert (1308–42) and his sonLouis the Great (1342–82) were marked by success.[41] The country grew wealthy as the main European supplier of gold and silver.[42] Louis the Great led successful campaigns from Lithuania to Southern Italy, and from Poland to Northern Greece.
He had the greatest military potential of the 14th century with his enormous armies (often over 100,000 men). Meanwhile,Poland's attention was turned eastwards, as theCommonwealth withLithuania created an enormous entity in the region.[43] The union, and the conversion of Lithuania, also marked the end ofpaganism in Europe.[44]
Louis did not leave a son as heir after his death in 1382. Instead, he named as his heir the young princeSigismund of Luxemburg. The Hungarian nobility did not accept his claim, and the result was an internal war. Sigismund eventually achieved total control of Hungary and established his court in Buda and Visegrád. Both palaces were rebuilt and improved, and were considered the richest of the time in Europe. Inheriting the throne of Bohemia and the Holy Roman Empire, Sigismund continued conducting his politics from Hungary, but he was kept busy fighting theHussites and theOttoman Empire, which was becoming a menace to Europe in the beginning of the 15th century.
KingMatthias Corvinus of Hungary led the largest army of mercenaries of the time, theBlack Army of Hungary, which he used to conquerMoravia andAustria and to fight theOttoman Empire. After Italy, Hungary was the first European country where theRenaissance appeared.[45] However, the glory of the Kingdom ended in the early 16th century, when the KingLouis II of Hungary was killed in theBattle of Mohács in 1526 against theOttoman Empire. Hungary then fell into a serious crisis and was invaded, ending its significance in central Europe during the medieval era.
The state ofKievan Rus' fell during the 13th century in theMongol invasion.[46] TheGrand Duchy of Moscow rose in power thereafter, winning a great victory against theGolden Horde at theBattle of Kulikovo in 1380.[47] The victory did not end Tartar rule in the region, however, and its immediate beneficiary was theGrand Duchy of Lithuania, which extended its influence eastwards.[48]
Under the reign ofIvan the Great (1462–1505), Moscow became a major regional power, and the annexation of the vastRepublic of Novgorod in 1478 laid the foundations for a Russian national state.[49] After theFall of Constantinople in 1453, the Russian princes started to see themselves as the heirs of theByzantine Empire. They eventually took on the imperial title ofTzar, and Moscow was described as theThird Rome.[50]
The Byzantine Empire had for a long time dominated theeastern Mediterranean in politics and culture.[51] By the 14th century, however, it had almost entirely collapsed into atributary state of the Ottoman Empire, centered on the city of Constantinople and a few enclaves inGreece.[52] With theFall of Constantinople in 1453, the Byzantine Empire was permanently extinguished.[53]
TheBulgarian Empire was in decline by the 14th century, and the ascendancy ofSerbia was marked by the Serbian victory over the Bulgarians in theBattle of Velbazhd in 1330.[54] By 1346, the Serbian kingStefan Dušan had been proclaimed emperor.[55] Yet Serbian dominance was short-lived; the Serbian army led by theLazar Hrebeljanovic was defeated by theOttoman Army at theBattle of Kosovo in 1389, where most of theSerbian nobility was killed and the south of the country came underOttoman occupation, as much ofsouthern Bulgaria had become Ottoman territory in theBattle of Maritsa 1371.[56] Northern remnants of Bulgaria were finally conquered by 1396, Serbia fell in 1459, Bosnia in 1463, and Albania was finally subordinated in 1479 only a few years after the death ofSkanderbeg.Belgrade, a Hungarian domain at the time, was the last large Balkan city to fall under Ottoman rule, in thesiege of Belgrade of 1521. By the end of the medieval period, the entireBalkan peninsula was annexed by, or becamevassal to, the Ottomans.[56]
Avignon was the seat of thepapacy from 1309 to 1376.[57] With the return of the Pope toRome in 1378, thePapal State developed into a major secular power, culminating in the morally corrupt papacy ofAlexander VI.[58]Florence grew to prominence amongst the Italian city-states through financial business, and the dominantMedici family became important promoters of theRenaissance through their patronage of the arts.[59] Other city-states innorthern Italy also expanded their territories and consolidated their power, primarilyMilan,Venice, andGenoa.[60] TheWar of the Sicilian Vespers had by the early 14th century dividedsouthern Italy into anAragonKingdom of Sicily and anAnjouKingdom of Naples.[61] In 1442, the two kingdoms were effectively united under Aragonese control.[62]
The 1469 marriage ofIsabella I of Castile andFerdinand II of Aragon and the 1479 death ofJohn II of Aragon led to the creation of modern-daySpain.[63] In 1492,Granada was captured from theMoors, thereby completing theReconquista.[64]Portugal had during the 15th century – particularly underHenry the Navigator – gradually explored the coast ofAfrica, and in 1498,Vasco da Gama found the sea route toIndia.[65] The Spanish monarchs met the Portuguese challenge by financing the expedition ofChristopher Columbus to find a western sea route to India, leading to the discovery of theAmericas in 1492.[66]
Around 1300–1350, theMedieval Warm Period gave way to theLittle Ice Age.[67] The colder climate resulted in agricultural crises, the first of which is known as theGreat Famine of 1315–1317.[68] The demographic consequences of thisfamine, however, were not as severe as theplagues that occurred later in the century, particularly theBlack Death.[69] Estimates of the death rate caused by this epidemic range from one third to as much as sixty percent.[70] By around 1420, the accumulated effect of recurring plagues and famines had reduced thepopulation of Europe to perhaps no more than a third of what it was a century earlier.[71] The effects of natural disasters were exacerbated by armed conflicts; this was particularly the case in France during theHundred Years' War.[72] It took 150 years for the European population to regain similar levels of 1300.[73]
As the European population was severely reduced, land became more plentiful for the survivors, and labour was consequently more expensive.[74] Attempts by landowners to forcibly reduce wages, such as the English 1351Statute of Laborers, were doomed to fail.[75] These efforts resulted in nothing more than fostering resentment among the peasantry, leading to rebellions such as the FrenchJacquerie in 1358 and the EnglishPeasants' Revolt in 1381.[76] The long-term effect was the virtual end ofserfdom in Western Europe.[77] In Eastern Europe, on the other hand, landowners were able to exploit the situation to force the peasantry into even more repressive bondage.[78]
The upheavals caused by the Black Death left certain minority groups particularly vulnerable, especially theJews,[79] who were often blamed for the calamities.Anti-Jewishpogroms were carried out all over Europe; in February 1349, 2,000 Jews were murdered inStrasbourg.[80] States were also guilty of discrimination against the Jews. Monarchs gave in to the demands of the people, and the Jews were expelled from England in 1290, from France in 1306, from Spain in 1492, and from Portugal in 1497.[81]
While the Jews were suffering persecution, one group that probably experienced increased empowerment in the late Middle Ages was women. The great social changes of the period opened up new possibilities for women in the fields of commerce, learning, and religion.[82] Yet at the same time, women were also vulnerable to incrimination and persecution, as belief inwitchcraft increased.[82]
The accumulation of social, environmental, and health-related problems also led to an increase in interpersonal violence in most parts of Europe. Population increase, religious intolerance, famine, and disease led to an increase in violent acts in vast parts of medieval society. One exception to this was North-Eastern Europe, whose population managed to maintain low levels of violence due to a more organized society resulting from extensive and successful trade.[83]
Up until the mid-14th century, Europe had experienced steadily increasingurbanization.[84] Cities were also decimated by the Black Death, but the role of urban areas as centres of learning, commerce, and government ensured continued growth.[85] By 1500, Venice, Milan, Naples, Paris, andConstantinople each probably had more than 100,000 inhabitants.[86] Twenty-two other cities were larger than 40,000; most of these were in Italy and the Iberian peninsula, but there were also some in France, the Empire, and the Low Countries, as well as London in England.[86]
| Medieval warfare |
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 Manuscript ofJean Froissart'sChronicles. TheHundred Years' War saw many military innovations. |
Through battles such asCourtrai (1302),Bannockburn (1314), andMorgarten (1315), it became clear to the great territorial princes of Europe that the military advantage of the feudalcavalry was lost and that a well equippedinfantry was preferable.[87] Through theWelsh Wars, the English became acquainted with, and adopted, the highly efficientlongbow.[88] Once properly managed, this weapon gave them a great advantage over the French in the Hundred Years' War.[89]
The introduction ofgunpowder affected the conduct of war significantly.[90] Though employed by the English as early as theBattle of Crécy in 1346,firearms initially had little effect in the field of battle.[91] It was through the use ofcannons assiege weapons that major change was brought about; the new methods would eventually change the architectural structure offortifications.[92]
Changes also took place within the recruitment and composition of armies. The use of thenational orfeudal levy was gradually replaced by paid troops of domesticretinues or foreignmercenaries.[93] The practice was associated withEdward III of England and thecondottieri of the Italian city-states.[94] All over Europe,Swiss mercenaries were in particularly high demand.[95] At the same time, the period also saw the emergence of the first permanent armies. It was inValois France, under the heavy demands of the Hundred Years' War, that the armed forces gradually assumed a permanent nature.[96]
Parallel to the military developments emerged also a constantly more elaboratechivalric code of conduct for the warrior class.[97] This newfound ethos can be seen as a response to the diminishing military role of the aristocracy, and it gradually became almost entirely detached from its military origin.[98] The spirit of chivalry was given expression through the new (secular)[99] type ofchivalric orders; the first of these was theOrder of St. George, founded byCharles I of Hungary in 1325, while the best known was probably the EnglishOrder of the Garter, founded by Edward III in 1348.[100]
The French crown's increasing dominance over thePapacy culminated in the transference of theHoly See toAvignon in 1309.[101] When the Pope returned toRome in 1377, this led to the election of different popes in Avignon and Rome, resulting in theWestern Schism (1378–1417).[102] The Schism divided Europe along political lines; while France, her ally Scotland, and the Spanish kingdoms supported the Avignon Papacy, France's enemy England stood behind the pope in Rome, together with Portugal, Scandinavia, and most of the German princes.[103]
At theCouncil of Constance (1414–1418), the Papacy was once more united in Rome.[104] Even though the unity of the Western Church was to last for another hundred years, and though the Papacy was to experience greater material prosperity than ever before, the Great Schism had done irreparable damage.[105] The internal struggles within the Church had impaired her claim to universal rule and promotedanti-clericalism among the people and their rulers, paving the way for reform movements.[106]
Though many of the events were outside the traditional time period of the Middle Ages, the end of the unity of the Western Church (theProtestant Reformation) was one of the distinguishing characteristics of the medieval period.[14] TheCatholic Church had long fought against heretic movements, but during the late Middle Ages, it started to experience demands for reform from within.[107] The first of these came fromOxford professorJohn Wycliffe in England.[108] Wycliffe held that theBible should be the only authority in religious questions, and he spoke out againsttransubstantiation,celibacy, andindulgences.[109] In spite of influential supporters among theEnglish aristocracy, such asJohn of Gaunt, the movement was not allowed to survive. Though Wycliffe himself was left unmolested, his supporters, theLollards, were eventually suppressed in England.[110]
The marriage ofRichard II of England toAnne of Bohemia established contacts between the two nations and brought Lollard ideas to her homeland.[111] The teachings of theCzech priestJan Hus were based on those of John Wycliffe, yet his followers, theHussites, were to have a much greater political impact than the Lollards.[112] Hus gained a great following inBohemia, and in 1414, he was requested to appear at the Council of Constance to defend his cause.[113] When he was burned as a heretic in 1415, it caused a popular uprising in the Czech lands.[114] The subsequentHussite Wars fell apart due to internal quarrels and did not result in religious or national independence for theCzechs, but both the Catholic Church and the German element within the country were weakened.[115]
Martin Luther, a German monk, started theGerman Reformation by posting95 theses on the castle church ofWittenberg on October 31, 1517.[116] The immediate provocation spurring this act wasPope Leo X's renewal of the indulgence for the building of the newSt. Peter's Basilica in 1514.[117] Luther was challenged to recant his heresy at theDiet of Worms in 1521.[118] When he refused, he was placed under the ban of the Empire byCharles V.[119] Receiving the protection ofFrederick the Wise, he was then able to translate the Bible intoGerman.[120]
To many secular rulers, the Protestant Reformation was a welcome opportunity to expand their wealth and influence.[121] The Catholic Church met the challenges of the reforming movements with what has been called the Catholic Reformation, orCounter-Reformation.[122] Europe became split into northernProtestant and southern Catholic parts, resulting in the Religious Wars of the 16th and 17th centuries.[123]
| Medieval merchant routes |
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 Hansa Venetian Genoese Venetian and Genoese (stippled) Overland and river routes |
The increasingly dominant position of theOttoman Empire in the easternMediterranean presented an impediment to trade for the Christian nations of the west, who in turn started looking for alternatives.[124] Portuguese and Spanish explorers found new trade routes – south ofAfrica toIndia, as well as across theAtlantic Ocean toAmerica.[125] AsGenoese andVenetian merchants opened up direct sea routes withFlanders, theChampagne fairs lost much of their importance.[126]
At the same time, English wool export shifted from raw wool to processed cloth, resulting in losses for the cloth manufacturers of the Low Countries.[127] In theBaltic andNorth Sea, theHanseatic League reached the peak of their power in the 14th century but started going into decline in the fifteenth.[128]
In the late 13th and early 14th centuries, a process took place – primarily in Italy but partly also in the Empire – that historians have termed a "commercial revolution".[129] Among the innovations of the period were new forms ofpartnership and the issuing ofinsurance, both of which contributed to reducing the risk of commercial ventures; thebill of exchange and other forms of credit that circumvented thecanonical laws forgentiles againstusury and eliminated the dangers of carryingbullion; and new forms ofaccounting, in particulardouble-entry bookkeeping, which allowed for better oversight and accuracy.[130]
With the financial expansion, trading rights became more jealously guarded by the commercial elite. Towns saw the growing power ofguilds, while on a national level, special companies would be granted monopolies on particular trades, like the English woolStaple.[131] The beneficiaries of these developments would accumulate immense wealth. Families like theFuggers in Germany, theMedicis in Italy, and thede la Poles in England and individuals likeJacques Cœur in France would help finance the wars of kings, achieving great political influence in the process.[132]
Though there is no doubt that the demographic crisis of the 14th century caused a dramatic fall in production and commerce inabsolute terms, there has been a vigorous historical debate over whether the decline was greater than the fall in population.[133] While the older orthodoxy held that the artistic output of the Renaissance was a result of greater opulence, more recent studies have suggested that there might have been a so-called "depression of the Renaissance".[134] In spite of convincing arguments for the case, the statistical evidence is simply too incomplete for a definite conclusion to be made.[135]
In the 14th century, the predominant academic trend ofscholasticism was challenged by thehumanist movement. Though primarily an attempt to revitalise theclassical languages, the movement also led to innovations within the fields of science, art, and literature, helped by impulses fromByzantine scholars who had to seek refuge in the west after theFall of Constantinople in 1453.[136]
In science, classical authorities likeAristotle were challenged for the first time since antiquity. Within the arts, humanism took the form of theRenaissance. Though the 15th-century Renaissance was a highly localised phenomenon – limited mostly to the city-states of northern Italy – artistic developments were taking place also further north, particularly in the Netherlands.[a]
The predominant school of thought in the 13th century was theThomistic reconciliation of the teachings ofAristotle withChristian theology.[138] TheCondemnation of 1277, enacted at theUniversity of Paris, placed restrictions on ideas that could be interpreted as heretical, restrictions that had implication forAristotelian thought.[139] An alternative was presented byWilliam of Ockham, following the manner of the earlier FranciscanJohn Duns Scotus, who insisted that the world of reason and the world of faith had to be kept apart. Ockham introduced the principle of parsimony – orOccam's razor – whereby a simple theory is preferred to a more complex one and speculation on unobservable phenomena is avoided.[140] This maxim is, however, often misquoted. Occam was referring to his nominalism in this quotation. Essentially saying the theory of absolutes, or metaphysical realism, was unnecessary to make sense of the world.
This new approach liberated scientific speculation from the dogmatic restraints of Aristotelian science and paved the way for new approaches. Particularly within the field of theories ofmotion, great advances were made, when such scholars asJean Buridan,Nicole Oresme, and theOxford Calculators challenged the work of Aristotle.[141] Buridan developed the theory ofimpetus as the cause of the motion of projectiles, which was an important step towards the modern concept ofinertia.[142] The works of these scholars anticipated theheliocentric worldview ofNicolaus Copernicus.[143]
Certain technological inventions of the period – whether ofArab orChinese origin or unique European innovations – were to have great influence on political and social developments, in particulargunpowder, theprinting press, and thecompass. The introduction of gunpowder to the field of battle not only affected military organisation but also helped advance the nation-state.Gutenberg'smovable typeprinting press made possible not only theReformation but also a dissemination of knowledge that would lead to a gradually more egalitarian society. Thecompass, along with other innovations such as thecross-staff, themariner's astrolabe, and advances in shipbuilding, enabled the navigation of theWorld Oceans and the early phases ofcolonialism.[144] Other inventions had a greater impact on everyday life, such aseyeglasses and the weight-drivenclock.[145]
A precursor toRenaissance art can be seen already in the early 14th-century works ofGiotto. Giotto was the first painter since antiquity to attempt the representation of three-dimensional reality and endow his characters with true human emotions.[146] The most important developments, however, came in 15th-century Florence. The affluence of the merchant class allowed extensive patronage of the arts, and foremost among the patrons were the Medici.[147]
The period saw several important technical innovations, like the principle oflinear perspective found in the work ofMasaccio and later described byBrunelleschi.[148] Greater realism was also achieved through the scientific study of anatomy, championed by artists likeDonatello.[149] This can be seen particularly well in his sculptures, inspired by the study of classical models.[150] As the centre of the movement shifted to Rome, the period culminated in theHigh Renaissance mastersda Vinci,Michelangelo, andRaphael.[151]
The ideas of theItalian Renaissance were slow to cross the Alps into northern Europe, but important artistic innovations were made also in the Low Countries.[152] Though not – as previously believed – the inventor of oil painting,Jan van Eyck was a champion of the new medium and used it to create works of great realism and minute detail.[153] The two cultures influenced each other and learned from each other, but painting in the Netherlands remained more focused on textures and surfaces than the idealized compositions of Italy.[154]
In northern European countries,Gothic architecture remained the norm, and the Gothic cathedral was further elaborated.[155] In Italy, on the other hand, architecture took a different direction, also here inspired by classical ideals. The crowning work of the period was theSanta Maria del Fiore inFlorence, with Giotto's clock tower,Ghiberti's baptistery gates, andBrunelleschi's cathedraldome of unprecedented proportions.[156]
The most important development of late medieval literature was the ascendancy of thevernacular languages.[157] The vernacular had been in use in England since the 8th century and France since the 11th century, where the most popular genres had been thechanson de geste,troubadour lyrics, and romantic epics, or theromance.[158] Though Italy was later in evolving a native literature in the vernacular language, it was here that the most important developments of the period were to come.[159]
Dante Alighieri'sDivine Comedy, written in the early 14th century, merged a medieval worldview with classical ideals.[160] Another promoter of theItalian language wasBoccaccio with hisDecameron.[161] The application of the vernacular did not entail a rejection ofLatin, and both Dante and Boccaccio wrote prolifically in Latin as well as Italian, as wouldPetrarch later (whoseCanzoniere also promoted the vernacular and whose contents are considered the first modernlyric poems).[162] Together, the three poets established theTuscan dialect as the norm for the modernItalian language.[163]
The new literary style spread rapidly and in France, influenced such writers asEustache Deschamps andGuillaume de Machaut.[164] In England,Geoffrey Chaucer helped establishMiddle English as a literary language with hisCanterbury Tales, which contained a wide variety of narrators and stories (including some translated from Boccaccio).[165] The spread of vernacular literature eventually reached as far as Bohemia and the Baltic, Slavic, and Byzantine worlds.[166]
Music was an important part of both secular and spiritual culture, and in the universities, it made up part of thequadrivium of the liberal arts.[167] From the early 13th century, the dominant sacred musical form had been themotet, a composition with text in several parts.[168] From the 1330s and onwards emerged thepolyphonic style, which was a more complex fusion of independent voices.[169] Polyphony had been common in the secular music of theProvençaltroubadours. Many of these had fallen victim to the 13th-centuryAlbigensian Crusade, but their influence reached the papal court at Avignon.[170]
The main representatives of the new style, often referred to asars nova as opposed toars antiqua, were the composersPhilippe de Vitry andGuillaume de Machaut.[171] In Italy, where the Provençal troubadours had also found refuge, the corresponding period goes under the name oftrecento, and the leading composers wereGiovanni da Cascia,Jacopo da Bologna, andFrancesco Landini.[172] A prominent reformer ofOrthodox Church music from the first half of the 14th century wasJohn Kukuzelis; he also introduced a system of notation widely used in theBalkans in the following centuries.
In theBritish Isles, plays were produced in some 127 different towns during the Middle Ages. These vernacularMystery plays were written in cycles of a large number of plays:York (48 plays),Chester (24),Wakefield (32), andUnknown (42). A larger number of plays survive fromFrance andGermany in this period, and some type of religious drama was performed in nearly every European country in the late Middle Ages. Many of these plays containedcomedy,devils,villains, andclowns.[173]
Morality plays emerged as a distinct dramatic form around 1400 and flourished until 1550, an example beingThe Castle of Perseverance, which depictsmankind's progress from birth to death. Another famous morality play isEveryman. Everyman receivesDeath's summons, struggles to escape, and finally resigns himself to necessity. Along the way, he is deserted byKindred,Goods, and Fellowship – onlyGood Deeds goes with him to the grave.
At the end of the late Middle Ages, professional actors began to appear inEngland andEurope.Richard III andHenry VII both maintained small companies of professional actors. Their plays were performed in theGreat Hall of a nobleman's residence, often with a raised platform at one end for the audience and a "screen" at the other for the actors. Also important wereMummers' plays, performed during theChristmas season, and courtmasques. These masques were especially popular during the reign ofHenry VIII who had a House of Revels built and anOffice of Revels established in 1545.[174]
The end of medieval drama came about due to a number of factors, including the weakening power of theCatholic Church, theProtestant Reformation, and the banning of religious plays in many countries.Elizabeth I forbid all religious plays in 1558, and the great cycle plays had been silenced by the 1580s. Similarly, religious plays were banned in theNetherlands in 1539, thePapal States in 1547, andParis in 1548. The abandonment of these plays destroyed the international theatre that had thereto existed and forced each country to develop its own form of drama. It also allowed dramatists to turn to secular subjects and the reviving interest inGreek andRoman theatre provided them with the perfect opportunity.[174]
After the end of the late Middle Ages period, theRenaissance spread unevenly over continental Europe from the southern European region. The intellectual transformation of the Renaissance is viewed as a bridge between the Middle Ages and the Modern era. Europeans would later begin anera of world discovery. Combined with the influx of classical ideas was the invention ofprinting which facilitated dissemination of the printed word and democratized learning. These two things would lead to theProtestant Reformation. Europeans also discovered new trading routes, as was the case withColumbus' travel to theAmericas in 1492, andVasco da Gama's circumnavigation ofAfrica andIndia in 1498. Their discoveries strengthened the economy and power of European nations.
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By the end of the 15th century, theOttoman Empire had advanced all overSoutheast Europe, eventually conquering theByzantine Empire and extending control over the Balkan states. Hungary was the last bastion of the Latin Christian world in the East, and fought to keep its rule over a period of two centuries. After the death of the young kingVladislaus I of Hungary during theBattle of Varna in 1444 against the Ottomans, the Kingdom was placed in the hands of CountJohn Hunyadi, who became Hungary's regent-governor (1446–1453). Hunyadi was considered one of the most relevant military figures of the 15th century: PopePius II awarded him the title ofAthleta Christi, or Champion of Christ, for being the only hope of resisting the Ottomans from advancing to Central and Western Europe.
Hunyadi succeeded during thesiege of Belgrade in 1456 against the Ottomans, the biggest victory against that empire in decades. This battle became a real crusade against the Muslims, as the peasants were motivated by theFranciscan friar SaintJohn of Capistrano, who came from Italy predicating him holy war. The effect that it created in that time was one of the main factors that helped in achieving the victory. However the premature death of the Hungarian lord leftPannonia defenseless and in chaos. In an extremely unusual event for the Middle Ages, Hunyadi's son, Matthias, was elected asking of Hungary by theHungarian nobility. For the first time, a member of an aristocratic family (and not from a royal family) was crowned.
KingMatthias Corvinus ofHungary (1458–1490) was one of the most prominent figures of the period, directing campaigns to the West, conquering Bohemia in answer to the pope's call for help against the Hussite Protestants. Also, in resolving political hostilities with the German emperorFrederick III of Habsburg, he invaded his western domains. Matthew organized theBlack Army of mercenary soldiers; it was considered as the biggest army of its time. Using this powerful tool, the Hungarian king led wars against the Turkish armies and stopped the Ottomans during his reign. After the death of Matthew, and with end of the Black Army, the Ottoman Empire grew in strength and Central Europe was defenseless. At theBattle of Mohács, the forces of the Ottoman Empire annihilated the Hungarian army andLouis II of Hungary drowned in the Csele Creek while trying to escape. The leader of the Hungarian army, Pál Tomori, also died in the battle. This is considered to be one of the final battles of medieval times.
Dates are approximate, consult particular articles for details Middle Ages themes Other themes
14th century
Lithuania defeats Golden Horde. Principality of Kiev becomes part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania
15th century
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