In the past, Ladakh gained importance from its strategic location at the crossroads of important trade routes,[17] but as Chinese authorities closed the borders between Tibet Autonomous Region and Ladakh in the 1960s, international trade dwindled. Since 1974, theGovernment of India has successfully encouragedtourism in Ladakh. As Ladakh is strategically important, theIndian military maintains a strong presence in the region.
The largest town in Ladakh isLeh, followed byKargil, each of which headquarters a district.[18] TheLeh district contains theIndus,Shyok andNubra river valleys. TheKargil district contains theSuru,Dras andZanskar river valleys. The main populated regions are the river valleys, but the mountain slopes also support pastoralChangpa nomads. The main religious groups in the region areMuslims (mainlyShia) (46%),Buddhists (mainlyTibetan Buddhists) (40%), andHindus (12%) with the remaining 2% made of other religions.[19][20] Ladakh is one of the most sparsely populated regions in India. Its culture and history are closely related to those ofTibet.[21]
The classical name inTibetan:ལ་དྭགས,Wylie:La dwags,THL:la dak means the "land of high passes".Ladak is its pronunciation in several Tibetan dialects. The English spellingLadakh is derived fromPersian:ladāx.[23][24]
The region was previously known asMaryul (see page for etymology).
Medieval Islamic scholars called Ladakh the "Great Tibet" (derived from Turko-ArabicTi-bat, meaning "highland");Baltistan and other trans-Himalayan states in Kashmir's vicinity were referred to as "Little Tibets".[25][26][b]
It has also been called Ma-Lo-Pho (by Hiuen Tsang) or Lal Bhumi. Names in the local language include Kanchapa (Land of snow) and Ripul (Country of mountains).[28]
Rock carvings found in many parts of Ladakh indicate that the area has been inhabited fromNeolithic times.[29] Ladakh's earliest inhabitants consisted of nomads known as Kampa.[30] Later settlements were established by Mons fromKullu andBrokpas who originated fromGilgit.[30] Around the 1st century, Ladakh was a part of theKushan Empire.Buddhism spread into western Ladakh fromKashmir in the 2nd century. The 7th-century Buddhist travellerXuanzang describes the region in his accounts.[31] Xuanzang's term of Ladakh isMo-lo-so, which has been reconstructed by academics as*Malasa,*Marāsa, or*Mrāsa, which is believed to have been the original name of the region.[32][33]
For much of the first millennium, western Tibet comprisedZhangzhung kingdom(s), which practised theBon religion. Sandwiched between Kashmir and Zhangzhung, Ladakh is believed to have been alternatively under the control of one or other of these powers. Academics find strong influences of Zhangzhung language and culture in "upper Ladakh" (from the middle section of the Indus valley to the southeast).[34] The penultimate king of Zhangzhung is said to have been from Ladakh.[35]
From around 660 CE, theTang dynasty and theTibetan Empire started contesting the "four garrisons" of theTarim Basin (present dayXinjiang), a struggle that lasted three centuries. Zhangzhung fell victim to Tibet's ambitions inc. 634 and disappeared.Karkota Empire and theUmayyad Caliphate too joined the contest for Xinjiang soon afterwards. Baltistan and Ladakh were at the centre of these struggles.[36] Academics infer from the slant of Ladakhi chronicles that Ladakh may have owed its primary allegiance to Tibet during this time, but that it was more political than cultural. Ladakh remained Buddhist and its culture was not yet Tibetan.[37]
Nyimagon's eldest son,Lhachen Palgyigon, is believed to have conquered the regions to the north, including Ladakh andRutog. After the death of Nyimagon, his kingdom was divided among his three sons, Palgyigon receiving Ladakh, Rutog,Thok Jalung and an area referred to asDemchok Karpo (a holy mountain near the present-dayDemchok village). The second son receivedGuge–Purang (called "Ngari Korsum") and the third son receivedZanskar andSpiti (to the southwest of Ladakh). This three-way division of Nyimagon's empire was recognised as historic and remembered in the chronicles of all the three regions as a founding narrative.
He gave to each of his sons a separate kingdom, viz., to the eldestDpal-gyi-gon,Maryul ofMngah-ris, the inhabitants using black bows;ru-thogs [Rutog] of the east and the Gold-mine ofHgog [possibly Thok Jalung]; nearer this wayLde-mchog-dkar-po [Demchok Karpo]; ...
The first West Tibetan dynasty ofMaryul founded by Palgyigon lasted five centuries, being weakened towards its end by the conquests of the Mongol/Mughal nobleMirza Haidar Dughlat. Throughout this period the region was called "Maryul", possibly from the original proper name*Mrasa (Xuangzhang's,Mo-lo-so), but in the Tibetan language it was interpreted to mean "lowland" (the lowland of Ngari). Maryul remained staunchly Buddhist during this period, having participated in the second diffusion of Buddhism from India to Tibet via Kashmir and Zanskar.
Ladakh horsemen, depicted inAlchi Monastery, circa 13th century CE
Between the 1380s and early 1510s, many Islamic missionaries propagatedIslam and proselytised the Ladakhi people.Sayyid Ali Hamadani,Sayyid Muhammad Nur Baksh andMir Shamsuddin Iraqi were three important Sufi missionaries who propagated Islam to the locals. Mir Sayyid Ali was the first one to make Muslim converts in Ladakh and is often described as the founder of Islam in Ladakh. Several mosques were built in Ladakh during this period, including in Mulbhe,Padum andShey, the capital of Ladakh.[39][40] His principal disciple, Sayyid Muhammad Nur Baksh also propagated Islam to Ladakhis and theBalti people rapidly converted to Islam.Noorbakshia Islam is named after him and his followers are only found in Baltistan and Ladakh. During his youth, SultanZain-ul-Abidin expelled the mysticSheikh Zain Shahwalli for showing disrespect to him. The sheikh then went to Ladakh and proselytised many people to Islam. In 1505, Shamsuddin Iraqi, a noted Shia scholar, visited Kashmir and Baltistan. He helped in spreading Shia Islam in Kashmir and converted the overwhelming majority of Muslims in Baltistan to his school of thought.[40]
It is unclear what happened to Islam after this period and it seems to have received a setback.Mirza Muhammad Haidar Dughlat who invaded and briefly conquered Ladakh in 1532, 1545 and 1548, does not record any presence of Islam inLeh during his invasion although Shia Islam and Noorbakshia Islam continued to flourish in other regions of Ladakh.[39][40]
KingBhagan reunited and strengthened Ladakh and founded theNamgyal dynasty (Namgyal means "victorious" in several Tibetan languages). The Namgyals repelled most Central Asian raiders and temporarily extended the kingdom as far as Nepal.[29] During the Balti invasion led byRajaAli Sher Khan Anchan, many Buddhist temples and artefacts were damaged. Ali Sher Khan took the king and his soldiers as captives. Jamyang Namgyal was later restored to the throne by Ali Sher Khan and given the hand of a Muslim princess in marriage. Her name was Gyal Khatun or Argyal Khatoom. She was to be the first queen and her son was to become the next ruler. Historical accounts differ upon who her father was. Some identify Ali's ally and Raja ofKhaplu Yabgo Shey Gilazi as her father, while others identify Ali himself as the father.[41][42][43][44][45][46] In the early 17th century efforts were made to restore the destroyed artefacts andgonpas bySengge Namgyal, the son of Jamyang and Gyal. He expanded the kingdom intoZangskar andSpiti. Despite a defeat of Ladakh by theMughals, who had already annexed Kashmir and Baltistan, Ladakh retained its independence.
The empire of kings Tsewang Namgyal and Jamyang Namgyal, about 1560–1600 CECham dance duringDosmoche festival inLeh Palace
Islam begins to take root in the Leh area in the beginning of the 17th century after the Balti invasion and the marriage of Gyal to Jamyang. A large group of Muslim servants and musicians were sent along with Gyal to Ladakh and private mosques were built where they could pray. The Muslim musicians later settled in Leh. Several hundred Baltis migrated to the kingdom and according to oral tradition many Muslim traders were granted land to settle. Many other Muslims were invited over the following years for various purposes.[47]
In the late 17th century, Ladakh sided withBhutan in its dispute with Tibet which, among other reasons, resulted in its invasion by theTibetan Central Government. This event is known as theTibet–Ladakh–Mughal war of 1679–1684.[48] Kashmiri historians assert that the king converted to Islam in return for the assistance by Mughal Empire after this, however, Ladakhi chronicles do not mention such a thing. The king agreed to pay tribute to the Mughals in return for defending the kingdom.[49][50] The Mughals, however, withdrew after being paid off by the5th Dalai Lama.[51] With the help of reinforcements fromGaldan Boshugtu Khan,Khan of theZungar Empire, the Tibetans attacked again in 1684. The Tibetans were victorious and concluded a treaty with Ladakh then they retreated back toLhasa in December 1684. The Treaty of Tingmosgang in 1684 settled the dispute between Tibet and Ladakh but severely restricted Ladakh's independence.
The disputed territory of the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir: divided betweenPakistan (green),India (blue) andChina (yellow)
In 1834, theSikhZorawar Singh, a general ofRaja Gulab Singh of Jammu, invaded and annexed Ladakh to Jammu under the suzerainty of theSikh Empire. After the defeat of the Sikhs in theFirst Anglo-Sikh War, the state ofJammu and Kashmir was established as a separateprincely state under Britishsuzerainty. The Namgyal family was given thejagir ofStok, which it nominally retains to this day. European influence began in Ladakh in the 1850s and increased. Geologists, sportsmen, and tourists began exploring Ladakh. In 1885, Leh became the headquarters of a mission of theMoravian Church.
Ladakh was administered as awazarat underDogra rule, with a governor termedwazir-e-wazarat. It had three tehsils, based at Leh,Skardu andKargil. The headquarters of thewazarat was at Leh for six months of the year and atSkardu for six months. When the legislative assembly, calledPraja Sabha, was established in 1934, Ladakh was given two nominated seats in the assembly.
At the time of thepartition of India in 1947, the Dogra rulerMaharajaHari Singh chose to remain independent of India or Pakistan. Pakistani soldiers fromGilgit invaded in October and had reached Ladakh. To get defence assistance from India, Singh was told by Nehru to sign theInstrument of Accession to India, and military operations were initiated to counter the invasion. The wartime conversion of the pony trail fromSonamarg toZoji La by army engineers permitted tanks to move up and successfully capture the pass. The advance continued.Dras, Kargil and Leh were liberated and Ladakh cleared of the infiltrators.[53]
In 1949, China closed the border betweenNubra andXinjiang, blocking old trade routes. In 1955 China began to build roads connecting Xinjiang and Tibet through theAksai Chin area. The Indian effort to gain control of Aksai Chin led to theSino-Indian War of 1962, which India lost. China also built theKarakoram highway jointly with Pakistan. India built theSrinagar-Leh Highway during this period, cutting the journey time between Srinagar and Leh from 16 days to two. The route, however, remains closed during the winter months due to heavy snowfall. Construction of a 6.5 km (4.0 mi) tunnel across Zoji La pass is under consideration to make the route functional throughout the year.[29][54]
National Highway No 1
TheKargil War of 1999, codenamed "Operation Vijay" by theIndian Army, saw infiltration by Pakistani troops into parts of Western Ladakh, namely Kargil, Dras,Mushkoh, Batalik and Chorbatla, overlooking key locations on theSrinagar-Leh highway. Extensive operations were launched in high altitudes by the Indian Army with considerable artillery and air force support. Pakistani troops were evicted from the Indian side of theLine of Control which the Indian government ordered was to be respected and which was not crossed by Indian troops. The Indian government was criticised by the Indian public because India respected geographical co-ordinates more than India's opponents: Pakistan and China.[55][page needed]
The Ladakh region was divided into the Kargil and Leh districts in 1979. In 1989, there were violent riots between Buddhists and Muslims. Following demands for autonomy from theKashmiri-dominated state government, theLadakh Autonomous Hill Development Council was created in the 1990s.Leh andKargil districts now each have their own locally elected Hill Councils with some control over local policy and development funds. In 1991, aPeace Pagoda was erected in Leh byNipponzan Myohoji.
There was a heavy presence of Indian Army andIndo-Tibetan Border Police forces in Ladakh. These forces andPeople's Liberation Army forces from China have, since the 1962 Sino-Indian War, had frequent stand-offs along the Ladakh portion of theLine of Actual Control. Out of the 857-kilometre-long (533 mi) border in Ladakh, only 368 km (229 mi) is the International Border, and the remaining 489 km (304 mi) is the Line of Actual Control.[56][57] The stand-off involving the most troops was in September 2014 in the disputedChumar region when 800 to 1,000 Indian troops and 1,500 Chinese troops came into close proximity to each other.[58]
Leh was initially chosen to be the headquarters of the new division however, following protests, it was announced that Leh and Kargil will jointly serve as the divisional headquarters, each hosting an Additional Divisional Commissioner to assist the Divisional Commissioner and Inspector General of Police who will spend half their time in each town.[60]
The people of Ladakh had been demanding Ladakh to be constituted as a separate territory since 1930s, because of perceived unfair treatment by Kashmir and Ladakh's cultural differences with predominantly MuslimKashmir valley, while some people in Kargil opposed union territory status for Ladakh.[29][61] The first organised agitation was launched against Kashmir's "dominance" in the year 1964. In late 1980s, a much larger mass agitation was launched to press their demand forunion territory status.[62]
In August 2019, areorganisation act was passed by theParliament of India which contained provisions to reconstitute Ladakh as a union territory, separate from the rest of Jammu and Kashmir on 31 October 2019.[3][63][64][65] Under the terms of the act, the union territory is administered by aLieutenant Governor acting on behalf of the Central Government of India and does not have an elected legislative assembly or chief minister. Each district within the union territory continues to elect anautonomous district council as done previously.[66]
The demand for Ladakh as separate union territory was first raised by the parliamentarianKushok Bakula Rinpoche around 1955, which was later carried forward by another parliamentarianThupstan Chhewang.[67] The formerJammu and Kashmir state use to obtain large allocation of annual funds from the union government based on the fact that the large geographical area of the Ladakh (comprising 65% of total area), but Ladakh was allocated only 2% of the state budget based on its relative population.[67] Within the first year of the formation of Ladakh as separate union territory, its annual budget allocation has increased 4 times from₹57crore to₹232 crore.[67]
Ladakh is the highest plateau in India with most of it being over 3,000 m (9,800 ft).[20] It extends from theHimalayan to theKunlun[68] Ranges and includes the upperIndus River valley.
The confluence of the Indus (flowing left-to-right) and Zanskar (coming in from top) rivers.The Ladakh region has high altitudeView of Leh Town Along withStok Kangri
Historically, the region included theBaltistan (Baltiyul) valleys (now mostly in Pakistani-administeredKashmir), the entire upperIndus Valley, the remoteZanskar,Lahaul and Spiti districts to the south, much ofNgari (including theRudok region andGuge in the east),Aksai Chin in the northeast, and theNubra Valley to the north, overKhardong La in the Ladakh Range. Contemporary Ladakh bordersTibet to the east, the Lahaul and Spiti regions to the south, theVale of Kashmir,Jammu and Baltiyul regions to the west, and the southwest corner ofXinjiang, China across theKarakoram Pass in the far north. The historically vague divide between Ladakh and theTibetan Plateau commences to the north in an intricate maze of ridges to the east ofRudok, including Aling Kangri and Mavang Kangri, continuing southeastward toward northwesternNepal. Before partition, Baltistan, now part of Pakistan, had been a district of Ladakh;Skardu was the winter capital of Ladakh, with Leh being the summer capital.
The mountain ranges in this region were formed over 45 million years by the folding of theIndian Plate into the more stationaryEurasian Plate. The drift continues, causing frequent earthquakes in the Himalayan region.[c][69] The peaks in the Ladakh Range are at a medium altitude close to theZoji-la (5,000–5,500 m or 16,400–18,000 ft) and increase toward southeast, culminating in the twin summits ofNun-Kun (7,000 m or 23,000 ft).
TheSuru and Zanskar Valleys form a great trough, enclosed by the Himalayas and theZanskar Range.Rangdum is the highest inhabited region in the Suru valley, after which the valley rises to 4,400 m (14,400 ft) atPensi-la, the gateway to Zanskar.Kargil, the only town in the Suru Valley, is the second-most important town in Ladakh. It was an important staging post on the routes of tradecaravans prior to 1947, being more-or-less equidistant (at about 230 kilometres) fromSrinagar, Leh, Skardu andPadum. The Zanskar Valley lies in the troughs of the riversStod andLungnak. The region experiences heavy snowfall; the Pensi-la is open only between June and mid-October.Dras and theMushkoh Valley form the western extremity of Ladakh.
The Indus River is the backbone of Ladakh. Most major historical and current towns –Shey, Leh,Basgo andTingmosgang (but not Kargil), are close to the Indus River. After the Indo-Pakistani War of 1947, the stretch of the Indus flowing through Ladakh became the only part of this river, which is greatly venerated in the Hindu religion and culture, that still flows through India.
TheSiachen Glacier is in the eastern Karakoram Range in the Himalaya Mountains along the disputed India-Pakistan border. The Karakoram Range forms a great watershed that separates China from the Indian subcontinent and is sometimes called the "Third Pole". The glacier lies between the Saltoro Ridge immediately to the west and the main Karakoram Range to the east. At 76 km (47 mi) long, it is the longest glacier in the Karakoram and second-longest in the world's non-polar areas. It falls from an altitude of 5,753 m (18,875 ft) above sea level at its source atIndira Col on the China border down to 3,620 m (11,880 ft) at its snout.Saser Kangri is the highest peak in the Saser Muztagh, the easternmost subrange of the Karakoram Range in India, Saser Kangri I having an altitude of 7,672 m (25,171 ft).
TheLadakh Range has no major peaks; its average height is a little less than 6,000 m (20,000 ft), and few of its passes are less than 5,000 m (16,000 ft). ThePangong range runs parallel to the Ladakh Range for about 100 km (62 mi) northwest fromChushul along the southern shore of thePangong Lake. Its highest point is about 6,700 m (22,000 ft) and the northern slopes are heavily glaciated. The region comprising the valley of the Shayok and Nubra rivers is known as Nubra. The Karakoram Range in Ladakh is not as mighty as in Baltistan. The massifs to the north and east of the Nubra–Siachen line include theApsarasas Group (highest point at 7,245 m or 23,770 ft) theRimo Muztagh (highest point at 7,385 m or 24,229 ft) and theTeram Kangri Group (highest point at 7,464 m or 24,488 ft) together withMamostong Kangri (7,526 m or 24,692 ft) andSinghi Kangri (7,202 m or 23,629 ft). North of the Karakoram lies the Kunlun. Thus, between Leh and eastern Central Asia there is a triple barrier – the Ladakh Range, Karakoram Range, and Kunlun. Nevertheless, a major trade route was established between Leh andYarkand.
Monthly average temperature in Leh
Ladakh is a high-altitude desert; the Himalayas create arain shadow which generally denies passage of any monsoon clouds. The main source of water is the winter snowfall on the mountains. Recent flooding in the region (e.g., the2010 floods) has been attributed to abnormal rain patterns and retreating glaciers, both of which have been found to be linked to global climate change.[70] The Leh Nutrition Project, headed byChewang Norphel—also known as the "Glacier Man"—creates artificial glaciers as one solution for retreating glaciers.[71][72]
The regions on the north flank of the Himalayas – Dras, the Suru valley and Zangskar – experience heavy snowfall and remain cut-off from the rest of the region for several months during the year, just as the entire region remains isolated by road from the rest of the country. Summers are short, though they are long enough to grow crops; summer weather is dry and pleasant. Peak temperatures range from 3 to 35 °C (37 to 95 °F) in the summer and minimums range from −20 to −35 °C (−4 to −31 °F) in winter.[73]
The Zanskar (along with its tributaries) is the primary waterway of the region. The Zanskar freezes solid during the winter, and the famousChadar trek takes place on the magnificent frozen river.
Vegetation is extremely sparse in Ladakh except along streambeds and wetlands, on high slopes, and irrigated places. About 1250 plant species, including crops, were reported from Ladakh.[74] The plantLadakiella klimesii, growing up to 6,150 metres (20,180 ft) above sea level, was first described here and named after this region.[75] The first European to study the wildlife of this region wasWilliam Moorcroft in 1820, followed byFerdinand Stoliczka, anAustrian-Czechpalaeontologist, who carried out a massive expedition there in the 1870s. There are many lakes in Ladakh such asKyago Tso.
Thebharal (or blue sheep) is the most abundant mountainungulate in the Ladakh region, although it is not found in some parts of Zangskar and Sham areas. The bharal is one of the preferred choices of prey of the raresnow leopard.[76] TheAsiatic ibex is a mountain goat that is distributed in the western part of Ladakh. It is the second-most abundant mountain ungulate in the region, with a population of about 6,000 individuals. It is adapted to rugged areas where it easily climbs near-vertical rock faces when threatened.[77] The Ladakhiurial is another unique mountain sheep that inhabits the mountains of Ladakh. The population is declining, however, and there are not more than 3,000 individuals left in Ladakh.[78] The urial is endemic to Ladakh, where it is distributed only along two major river valleys, namely the Indus and Shayok. The animal is often persecuted by farmers, whose crops are allegedly damaged by flocks of urial. Its population declined dramatically in the late twentieth century, due to indiscriminate shooting by hunters along the Leh-Srinagar Highway.
TheTibetan argali (ornyan) is the largest wild sheep species in the world, standing 1.1 to 1.2 metres (3.5 to 4 ft) at the shoulder, possessing very large, curled horns measuring 900–1,000 mm (35–39 in). It is distributed on the Tibetan Plateau and its marginal ranges, encompassing a total home range of 2.5 million km2 (0.97 million sq mi); however, there is only a small population, of about 400 animals, in Ladakh. Unlike other mountain sheep and goat species, the argali prefers open, grassy fields and rolling hills as it prefers to run, rather than climb into steep terrain, to flee from danger.[79] The endangeredTibetan antelope, orchiru in Indian English (or Ladakhitsos), has traditionally been hunted for its wool (shahtoosh), a natural fibre of some of the finest quality. The wool of the Tibetan antelope is prized for its lightweight feel and as astatus symbol. The wool must be pulled out by hand, a process done after the animal is killed. The fibre is smuggled into Kashmir and woven into exquisite shawls by Kashmiri workers. Ladakh is also home to theTibetan gazelle, which inhabits the vast rangelands in eastern Ladakh bordering Tibet.[80]
Thekiang, or Tibetan wild ass, is common in the grasslands of Changthang, numbering about 2,500 individuals. These animals are in conflict with the nomadic people of Changthang who hold the Kiang responsible for pasture degradation.[81] There are about 200snow leopards in Ladakh of an estimated 7,000 worldwide. TheHemis High Altitude National Park in central Ladakh is an especially good habitat for this predator as it has abundant prey populations. TheEurasian lynx, is another rare cat that preys on smaller herbivores in Ladakh. It is mostly found in Nubra, Changthang and Zangskar.[82] ThePallas's cat, which looks somewhat like a house cat, is very rare in Ladakh and not much is known about the species. TheTibetan wolf, which sometimes preys on the livestock of the Ladakhis, is the most persecuted among the predators.[83] There are also a fewbrown bears in theSuru Valley and the area around Dras. TheTibetan sand fox has been discovered in this region.[84] Among smaller animals,marmots,hares, and several types ofpika andvole are common.[85]
Flora
Scant precipitation makes Ladakh a high-altitude desert with extremely scarce vegetation over most of its area. Natural vegetation mainly occurs along water courses and on high altitude areas that receive more snow and cooler summer temperatures. Human settlements, however, are richly vegetated due to irrigation.[86]Natural vegetation commonly seen along watercourses includesseabuckthorn (Hippophae spp.), wild roses of pink or yellow varieties, tamarisk (Myricaria spp.),caraway,stinging nettles, mint,Physochlaina praealta, and various grasses.[87]
The two autonomous district councils work with villagepanchayats to take decisions on economic development, healthcare, education, land use, taxation, and local governance which are further reviewed at the block headquarters in the presence of the chief executive councillor and executive councillors.[91] The government of Jammu and Kashmir looks after law and order, the judicial system, communications and the higher education in the region.
The two autonomous district councils continue to exist following the formation of the union territory of Ladakh on 31 October 2019.[66]
Government of India announced the formation of 5 new districts, namely Zanskar, Drass, Sham, Nubra, and Changthang in Ladakh to ease administration and increase representation by the year 2028. With this move, the total number of districts in Ladakh will increase from two to seven.[92]
The land is irrigated by a system of channels which funnel water from the ice and snow of the mountains. The principal crops arebarley and wheat. Rice was previously a luxury in the Ladakhi diet, but, subsidised by the government, has now become a cheap staple.[20]
Naked barley (Ladakhi:nas, Urdu:grim) was traditionally a staple crop all over Ladakh. Growing times vary considerably with altitude. The extreme limit of cultivation is atKorzok, on theTso-moriri lake, at 4,600 m (15,100 ft), which has what are widely considered to be the highest fields in the world.[20]
A minority of Ladakhi people were also employed as merchants and caravan traders, facilitating trade in textiles, carpets,dyestuffs andnarcotics between Punjab andXinjiang. However, since the Chinese Government closed the borders between Tibet Autonomous Region and Ladakh, this international trade has completely dried up.[29][97]
Indus river flowing in the Ladakh region is endowed with vast hydropower potential. Solar and wind power potentials are also substantial. Though the region is a remote hilly area without all-weather roads, the area is also rich in limestone deposits to manufacture cement from the locally available cheap electricity for various construction needs.[98]
Since 1974, the Indian Government has encouraged a shift in trekking and other tourist activities from the troubled Kashmir region to the relatively unaffected areas of Ladakh. Although tourism employs only 4% of Ladakh's working population, it now accounts for 50% of the region'sGNP.[29]
This era is recorded in Arthur NevesThe Tourist's Guide to Kashmir, Ladakh, and Skardo, first published in 1911.[97]
Transportation
A vehicle on the Himalaya Highway 3
There are about 1,800 km (1,100 mi) of roads in Ladakh of which 800 km (500 mi) are surfaced.[99] The majority of roads in Ladakh are looked after by theBorder Roads Organisation. There are two main roads that connect Ladakh with the rest of the country,NH1 connecting Srinagar to Kargil and Leh, andNH3 connectingManali to Leh. A third road to Ladakh is theNimmu–Padam–Darcha road, which is under construction.[100]
There is an airport in Leh,Kushok Bakula Rimpochee Airport, from which there are daily flights toDelhi and weekly flights to Srinagar and Jammu. There are two airstrips atDaulat Beg Oldie andFukche for military transport.[101] The airport at Kargil,Kargil Airport, was intended for civilian flights but is currently used by the Indian Army. The airport is a political issue for the locals who argue that the airport should serve its original purpose, i.e., should open up for civilian flights. Since past few years theIndian Air Force has been operating AN-32 air courier service to transport the locals during the winter seasons toJammu,Srinagar andChandigarh.[102][103] A private aeroplane companyAir Mantra landed a 17-seater aircraft at the airport, in presence of dignitaries like the Chief MinisterOmar Abdullah, marking the first ever landing by a civilian airline company at Kargil Airport.[104][105]
The sex ratio for Leh district declined from 1011 females per 1000 males in 1951 to 805 in 2001, while for Kargil district it declined from 970 to 901.[106] The urban sex ratio in both the districts is about 640. The adult sex ratio reflects large numbers of mostly male seasonal and migrant labourers and merchants. About 84% of Ladakh's population lives in villages.[107] The average annual population growth rate from 1981 to 2001 was 2.75% in Leh District and 2.83% in Kargil district.[106]
The predominant mother-tongue in Leh district isLadakhi (also called Bauti), aTibetic language.[114]Purgi, sometimes considered a dialect ofBalti, is the predominant mother-tongue of Kargil district.[114][115] Within Ladakh, there is a range of dialects, so that the language of theChang-pa people may differ markedly from that of thePurig-pa in Kargil, or the Zangskaris, but they are all mutually comprehensible. Most Ladakhi people (especially the younger generations) speak fluently in English and in Hindi too, due to the languages education at school.[116] Administrative work and education are carried out in English.[117]
Ladakhi food has much in common withTibetan food, the most prominent foods beingthukpa (noodle soup) andtsampa, known in Ladakhi asngampe (roasted barley flour). Edible without cooking,tsampa makes useful trekking food. Strictly Ladakhi dishes includeskyu andchutagi, both heavy and rich soup pasta dishes,skyu being made with root vegetables and meat, andchutagi with leafy greens and vegetables.[119] As Ladakh moves toward a cash-based economy, foods from the plains of India are becoming more common.[120] As in other parts of Central Asia, tea in Ladakh is traditionally made with strong green tea, butter, and salt. It is mixed in a large churn and known asgurgur cha, after the sound it makes when mixed. Sweet tea (cha ngarmo) is common now, made in the Indian style with milk and sugar. Most of the surplus barley that is produced is fermented intochang, an alcoholic beverage drunk especially on festive occasions.[121]
The music of Ladakhi Buddhist monastic festivals, likeTibetan music, often involves religiouschanting inTibetan as an integral part of the religion. These chants are complex, often recitations of sacred texts or in celebration of various festivals.Yang chanting, performed without metrical timing, is accompanied by resonant drums and low, sustained syllables. Religious mask dances are an important part of Ladakh's cultural life.Hemis monastery, a leading centre of theDrukpa tradition of Buddhism, holds an annual masked dance festival, as do all major Ladakhi monasteries. The dances typically narrate a story of the fight between good and evil, ending with the eventual victory of the former.[122] Weaving is an important part of traditional life in eastern Ladakh. Both women and men weave, on different looms.[123]
Sport
Sul-ma, woman's woollen dress (detail), Ladakh, late 19th-early 20th century
The most popular sport in Ladakh isice hockey, which is played only on natural ice generally mid-December through mid-February.[124] Cricket is also very popular.[citation needed]
Archery is a traditional sport in Ladakh, and many villages hold archery festivals, which are as much about traditional dancing, drinking and gambling, as they are about the sport. The sport is conducted with strict etiquette, to the accompaniment of the music ofsurna anddaman (shehnai and drum). Polo, the other traditional sport of Ladakh, is indigenous to Baltistan andGilgit, and was probably introduced into Ladakh in the mid-17th century by KingSingge Namgyal, whose mother was a Balti princess.[125]
Polo, popular among the Baltis, is an annual affair in the Dras region of Kargil district.[126][127][128][129]
TheLadakh Marathon is a high-altitudemarathon held in Leh every year since 2012. Held at a height of 11,500 to 17,618 feet (3,505 to 5,370 m), it is one of the world's highest marathons.[130]
A feature of Ladakhi society that distinguishes it from the rest of the state is the high status and relative emancipation enjoyed by women compared to other rural parts of India. Fraternalpolyandry and inheritance byprimogeniture were common in Ladakh until the early 1940s when these were made illegal by the government of Jammu and Kashmir. However, the practice remained in existence into the 1990s especially among the elderly and the more isolated rural populations.[131] Another custom is known askhang-bu, or 'little house', in which the elders of a family, as soon as the eldest son has sufficiently matured, retire from participation in affairs, yielding the headship of the family to him and taking only enough of the property for their own sustenance.[20]
Ladakhi Perak Headdress courtesy the Wovenosuls collection
Tibetan medicine has been the traditional health system of Ladakh for over a thousand years. This school of traditional healing contains elements ofAyurveda andChinese medicine, combined with the philosophy andcosmology of Tibetan Buddhism. For centuries, the only medical system accessible to the people have been theamchi, traditional doctors following the Tibetan medical tradition.Amchi medicine remains a component of public health, especially in remote areas.[132]
Programmes by the government, local and international organisations are working to develop and rejuvenate this traditional system of healing.[132][133] Efforts are underway to preserve the intellectual property rights ofamchi medicine for the people of Ladakh. The government has also been trying to promote thesea buckthorn in the form of juice and jam, as some claim it possess medicinal properties.
According to the 2001 census, the overall literacy rate in Leh District is 62% (72% for males and 50% for females), and in Kargil District 58% (74% for males and 41% for females).[135] Traditionally there was little or nothing by way of formal education except in the monasteries. Usually, one son from every family was obliged to master theTibetan script in order to read the holy books.[20]
TheMoravian Mission opened a school in Leh in October 1889, and theWazir-i Wazarat (ex officio Joint Commissioner with a British officer) of Baltistan and Ladakh ordered that every family with more than one child should send one of them to school. This order met with great resistance from the local people who feared that the children would be forced to convert to Christianity. The school taught Tibetan, Urdu, English, Geography, Sciences, Nature study, Arithmetic, Geometry and Bible study.[136] It is still in existence today. The first local school to provide western education was opened by a local Society called "Lamdon Social Welfare Society" in 1973. Later, with support fromDalai Lama and some international organisations, the school, now known as Lamdon Model Senior Secondary School, has grown to accommodate approximately two thousand pupils in several branches. It prides itself on preserving Ladakhi tradition and culture.[137]
Schools are well distributed throughout Ladakh but 75% of them provide only primary education. 65% of children attend school, but absenteeism of both students and teachers remains high. In both districts the failure rate at school-leaving level (class X) had for many years been around 85%–95%, while of those managing to scrape through, barely half succeeded in qualifying for college entrance (class XII). Before 1993, students were taught in Urdu until they were 14, after which the medium of instruction shifted to English.
As of January 2022, there were 904 Government run schools in Ladakh and 113 publicly run private schools in Ladakh.[138]
In December 2019, the union minister of state for home affairs MrG Kishan Reddy, in a written response has stated in Parliament that the Government of India has approved to establish a Medical College andNational Research Institute for Sowa-Rigpa in the district of Leh.[144]
The government radio broadcasterAll India Radio (AIR)[147] and government television stationDoordarshan[148] have stations in Leh that broadcast local content for a few hours a day. Beyond that, Ladakhis produce feature films that are screened in auditoriums and community halls. They are often made on fairly modest budgets.[149] On 14 December 2021, the first FM radio station in Ladakh was established inLeh.[150]
There are a handful of private news outlets.
Reach Ladakh Bulletin,[151] a biweekly newspaper in English, is the only print media published by and for Ladakhis.
Rangyul orKargil Number is a newspaper published from Kashmir covering Ladakh in English and Urdu.
Ladags Melong, an initiative of SECMOL, was published from 1992 to 2005 in English and Ladakhi.
Sintic Magazine, a lifestyle and tourist magazine of Ladakh, was started in 2018 in English.
Some publications that cover Jammu and Kashmir as a whole provide some coverage of Ladakh.
^Ladakh is adisputed territory between India, Pakistan and China. Ladakh has 59,146 km2 (22,836 sq mi) of area controlled by India and 72,971 km2 (28,174 sq mi) of area controlled by Pakistan underGilgit-Baltistan, which is claimed by India as part of Ladakh. Additionally, it has 5,180 km2 (2,000 sq mi) of area controlled by China underTrans-Karakoram Tract and 37,555 km2 (14,500 sq mi) of area controlled by China underAksai Chin, both of which are claimed by India as part of Ladakh.
^The extension of the term "Tibet" to the modern dayTibet is due to the Europeans in India in the 18th century.[27]
^All of Indian Ladakh is placed in high risk Zone VIII, while areas from Kargil and Zanskar southwestward are in lower risk zones on theearthquake hazard scale.
^Census was not carried out in Jammu and Kashmir in 1991 due to militancy
References
Citations
^ab"Ladakh",Encyclopaedia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, 1 March 2021,archived from the original on 7 April 2022, retrieved2 April 2022,Ladakh, large area of the northern and eastern Kashmir region, northwestern Indian subcontinent. Administratively, Ladakh is divided between Pakistan (northwest), as part of Gilgit-Baltistan, and India (southeast), as part of Ladakh union territory (until October 31, 2019, part of Jammu and Kashmir state); in addition, China administers portions of northeastern Ladakh.
^abThe application of the term "administered" to the various regions ofKashmir and a mention of the Kashmir dispute is supported by thetertiary sources (a) through (e), reflectingdue weight in the coverage. Although "controlled" and "held" are also applied neutrally to the names of the disputants or to the regions administered by them, as evidenced in sources (h) through (i) below, "held" is also considered politicised usage, as is the term "occupied", (see (j) below). (a)Kashmir, region Indian subcontinent, Encyclopaedia Britannica,archived from the original on 17 June 2015, retrieved15 August 2019 (subscription required) Quote: "Kashmir, region of the northwestern Indian subcontinent ... has been the subject of dispute between India and Pakistan since the partition of the Indian subcontinent in 1947. The northern and western portions are administered by Pakistan and comprise three areas: Azad Kashmir, Gilgit, and Baltistan, the last two being part of a territory called the Northern Areas. Administered by India are the southern and southeastern portions, which constitute the state of Jammu and Kashmir but are slated to be split into two union territories."; (b)Pletcher, Kenneth,Aksai Chin, Plateau Region, Asia, Encyclopaedia Britannica,archived from the original on 2 April 2019, retrieved16 August 2019 (subscription required) Quote: "Aksai Chin, Chinese (Pinyin) Aksayqin, portion of the Kashmir region, at the northernmost extent of the Indian subcontinent in south-central Asia. It constitutes nearly all the territory of the Chinese-administered sector of Kashmir that is claimed by India to be part of the Ladakh area of Jammu and Kashmir state."; (c)"Kashmir",Encyclopedia Americana, Scholastic Library Publishing, 2006, p. 328,ISBN978-0-7172-0139-6,archived from the original on 17 January 2023, retrieved12 June 2023 C. E Bosworth, University of Manchester Quote: "KASHMIR, kash'mer, the northernmost region of the Indian subcontinent, administered partlv by India, partly by Pakistan, and partly by China. The region has been the subject of a bitter dispute between India and Pakistan since they became independent in 1947"; (d)Osmańczyk, Edmund Jan (2003),Encyclopedia of the United Nations and International Agreements: G to M, Taylor & Francis, pp. 1191–,ISBN978-0-415-93922-5,archived from the original on 17 January 2023, retrieved12 August 2019 Quote: "Jammu and Kashmir: Territory in northwestern India, subject to a dispute between India and Pakistan. It has borders with Pakistan and China." (e)Talbot, Ian (2016),A History of Modern South Asia: Politics, States, Diasporas, Yale University Press, pp. 28–29,ISBN978-0-300-19694-8 Quote: "We move from a disputed international border to a dotted line on the map that represents a military border not recognized in international law. The line of control separates the Indian and Pakistani administered areas of the former Princely State of Jammu and Kashmir."; (f)Skutsch, Carl (2015) [2007], "China: Border War with India, 1962", in Ciment, James (ed.),Encyclopedia of Conflicts Since World War II (2nd ed.), London and New York: Routledge, p. 573,ISBN978-0-7656-8005-1,The situation between the two nations was complicated by the 1957–1959 uprising by Tibetans against Chinese rule. Refugees poured across the Indian border, and the Indian public was outraged. Any compromise with China on the border issue became impossible. Similarly, China was offended that India had given political asylum to the Dalai Lama when he fled across the border in March 1959. In late 1959, there were shots fired between border patrols operating along both the ill-defined McMahon Line and in the Aksai Chin. (g)Clary, Christopher (2022),The Difficult Politics of Peace: Rivalry in Modern South Asia, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, p. 109,ISBN9780197638408,Territorial Dispute: The situation along the Sino-Indian frontier continued to worsen. In late July (1959), an Indian reconnaissance patrol was blocked, "apprehended", and eventually expelled after three weeks in custody at the hands of a larger Chinese force near Khurnak Fort in Aksai Chin. ... Circumstances worsened further in October 1959, when a major class at Kongka Pass in eastern Ladakh led to nine dead and ten captured Indian border personnel, making it by far the most serious Sino-Indian class since India's independence. (h)Bose, Sumantra (2009),Kashmir: Roots of Conflict, Paths to Peace, Harvard University Press, pp. 294, 291, 293,ISBN978-0-674-02855-5 Quote: "J&K: Jammu and Kashmir. The former princely state that is the subject of the Kashmir dispute. Besides IJK (Indian-controlled Jammu and Kashmir. The larger and more populous part of the former princely state. It has a population of slightly over 10 million, and comprises three regions: Kashmir Valley, Jammu, and Ladakh.) and AJK ('Azad" (Free) Jammu and Kashmir. The more populous part of Pakistani-controlled J&K, with a population of approximately 2.5 million.), it includes the sparsely populated "Northern Areas" of Gilgit and Baltistan, remote mountainous regions which are directly administered, unlike AJK, by the Pakistani central authorities, and some high-altitude uninhabitable tracts under Chinese control." (i)Fisher, Michael H. (2018),An Environmental History of India: From Earliest Times to the Twenty-First Century, Cambridge University Press, p. 166,ISBN978-1-107-11162-2 Quote: "Kashmir's identity remains hotly disputed with a UN-supervised "Line of Control" still separating Pakistani-held Azad ("Free") Kashmir from Indian-held Kashmir."; (j)Snedden, Christopher (2015),Understanding Kashmir and Kashmiris, Oxford University Press, p. 10,ISBN978-1-84904-621-3 Quote:"Some politicised terms also are used to describe parts of J&K. These terms include the words 'occupied' and 'held'."
^"Part II—Section 3—Sub-section (ii)"(PDF),Gazette of India, Extraordinary, Controller of Publications, Delhi-110054, p. 2, 25 November 2019,archived(PDF) from the original on 30 November 2020, retrieved4 December 2019
^OED Online (December 2020),Ladakhi, n., Oxford University Press, retrieved6 March 2021,/ləˈdɑːki/ A native or inhabitant of Ladakh, a district of eastern Kashmir. Attested use: 1911Encycl. Brit. XVI. 59/1 It [sc. Ladakh] was, however, conquered and annexed in 1834–1841 by Gulab Singh of Jammu—the unwarlike Ladakhis, even with nature fighting on their side, and against indifferent generalship, being no match for the Dogra troops.
^"Ladakh".IBEF.Archived from the original on 8 September 2022. Retrieved8 September 2022.
^Francke, August Hermann (1926),Antiquities of Indian Tibet, Volume II, Calcutta: Superintendent Government Printing Press, pp. 93–,ISBN978-81-206-0769-9{{citation}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)Quote: Ladakh, the Persian transliteration of the Tibetan La-dvags, is warranted by the pronunciation of the word in several Tibetan districts. The terminalgs has the sound of the gutturalgh or evenkh in various Tibetan dialects. (Volume II, page 93)
^Pirumshoev, H. S.;Dani, Ahmad Hasan (2003),"The Pamirs, Badakhshan and the Trans-Pamir States"(PDF), in Chahryar Adle; Irfan Habib (eds.),History of Civilizations of Central Asia, Vol. V — Development in contrast: From the sixteenth to the mid-nineteenth century, UNESCO, pp. 238–239,ISBN978-92-3-103876-1,archived(PDF) from the original on 10 August 2013, retrieved9 November 2020: "Under Aurangzeb (1659–1707), Mughal suzerainty was also acknowledged by Ladakh ('Great Tibet') in 1665, though it was contested in 1681–3 by the Oirat or Kalmuk (Qalmaq) rulers of Tibet."
^Petech, The Kingdom of Ladakh (1977), p. 7:Xuanzang describes a journey fromCh'u-lu-to (Kuluta,Kullu) toLo-hu-lo (Lahul), then goes on saying that "from there to the north, for over 2000li, the road is very difficult, with cold wind and flying snow; thus one arrives in the kingdom ofMo-lo-so". Petech states, "geographically speaking, the region thus indicated is unmistakably Ladakh."
^Zeisler, Bettina (2011),"Kenhat, The Dialects of Upper Ladakh and Zanskari",Himalayan Languages and Linguistics: Studies in Phonology, Semantics, Morphology and Syntax, BRILL, p. 293,ISBN978-90-04-21653-2:"While the whole of Ladakh and adjacent regions were originally populated by speakers of Eastern Iranian (Scythian), Lower Ladakh (as well as Baltistan) was also subject to several immigration waves of Indoaryan (Dardic) speakers and other groups from Central Asia. Upper Ladakh and the neighbouring regions to the east, by contrast, seem to have been populated additionally by speakers of a non-Tibetan Tibeto-Burman language, namely West Himalayan (Old Zhangzhung;...)."
^Fisher, Rose & Huttenback, Himalayan Battleground (1963), pp. 12–15: "Ladakh's geographical position leaves no room for doubt that its ancient caravan routes must have often served as a path first for conquest and then for retreat of the opposing armies as they alternated between victory and defeat."
^See the following studies (1) Halkias, T. Georgios(2009) "Until the Feathers of the Winged Black Raven Turn White: Sources for the Tibet-Bashahr Treaty of 1679–1684," inMountains, Monasteries and Mosques, ed. John Bray. Supplement to Rivista Orientali, pp. 59–79; (2) Emmer, Gerhard(2007) "Dga' ldan tshe dbang dpal bzang po and the Tibet-Ladakh-Mughal War of 1679–84," inThe Mongolia-Tibet Interface. Opening new Research Terrains in Inner Asia, eds. Uradyn Bulag, Hildegard Diemberger, Leiden, Brill, pp. 81–107; (3) Ahmad, Zahiruddin (1968) "New Light on the Tibet-Ladakh-Mughal War of 1679–84."East and West, XVIII, 3, pp. 340–361; (4) Petech, Luciano(1947) "The Tibet-Ladakhi Moghul War of 1681–83."The Indian Historical Quarterly, XXIII, 3, pp. 169–199.
^TheGazetteer of Kashmir and Ladák published in 1890 Compiled under the direction of the Quarter Master General in India in the Intelligence Branch in fact unequivocally states inter alia in pages 520 and 364 that Khotán is "a province in the Chinese Empire lying to the north of the Eastern Kuenlun (Kun Lun) range, which here forms theboundary of Ladák" and "The eastern range forms the southern boundary of Khotán, and is crossed by two passes, the Yangi or Elchi Díwan, crossed in 1865 by Johnson and the Hindútak Díwan, crossed by Robert Schlagentweit in 1857".
^Strzepek, Kenneth M.; Joel B. Smith (1995).As Climate Changes: International Impacts and Implications. Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0-521-46796-4.
^Namgail, T.; Fox, J.L.; Bhatnagar, Y.V. (2004)."262"(PDF).Habitat segregation between sympatric Tibetan argali Ovis ammon hodgsoni and blue sheep Pseudois nayaur in the Indian Trans-Himalaya. London: reg.wur.nl. pp. 57–63.Archived(PDF) from the original on 4 March 2009. Retrieved16 January 2009.{{cite book}}:|work= ignored (help)
^Namgail, T. (2006). Trans-Himalayan large herbivores: status, conservation, and niche relationships. Report submitted to the Wildlife Conservation Society, Bronx Zoo, New York.
^Namgail, T.; Bagchi, S.; Bhatnagar, Y.V.; Wangchuk, R. (2005). "Occurrence of the Tibetan sand fox Vulpes ferrilata Hodgson in Ladakh: A new record for the Indian sub-Continent".Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society.102:217–219.
^IAF craft makes successful landing near China border (4 November 2008)."NDTV.com". NDTV.com. Archived fromthe original on 5 September 2012. Retrieved21 June 2012.
^Rather, Ali Mohammad (September 1999),"Kargil: The Post-War Scenario",Journal of Peace Studies,6 (5–6), International Center for Peace Studies, archived fromthe original on 1 December 2014
^Namgail, T.; Jensen, A.; Padmanabhan, S.; Desor, S.; Dolma, R. (2019).Dhontang: Food in Ladakh. Central Institute of Buddhist Studies, Local Futures. pp. 1–44.ISBN978-93-83802-15-9.
^Norberg-Hodge, Helena (2000).Ancient Futures: Learning from Ladakh. Oxford India Paperbacks.
^Gielen, Uwe (1998). "Gender roles in traditional Tibetan cultures".In L.L Adler (Ed.), International Handbook on Gender Roles. Westport, CT: Greenwood.:413–437.
Lo Bue, Erberto; Bray, John, eds. (2014),"Introduction",Art and Architecture in Ladakh: Cross-cultural Transmissions in the Himalayas and Karakoram, BRILL,ISBN978-90-04-27180-7
Allan, Nigel J. R. 1995Karakorum Himalaya: Sourcebook for a Protected Area.IUCN.ISBN969-8141-13-8
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Francke, A. H. (1914), 1920, 1926.Antiquities of Indian Tibet. Vol. 1: Personal Narrative; Vol. 2: The Chronicles of Ladak and Minor Chronicles, texts and translations, with Notes and Maps. Reprint: 1972. S. Chand & Co., New Delhi. (Google BooksArchived 5 April 2023 at theWayback Machine)
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