Thekudan (件, literally "matter";[a] or "human-faced bovine").[b] is ayōkai of a "prophecy beast" type, whose news orurban legend has been disseminated inJapan since theEdo Period.
The human-faced, bovine-bodied kudan that allegedly appeared in "Mount Kurahashi",Tango Province (in today'sKyoto Prefecture) in the yearTenpō 7 (1836) was reported in a contemporarykawaraban [ja].[c] It predicted bountiful harvest in the ensuing years, and instructed people to paste up the picture image of itself for the home to ward off evil and prosper. Thekawaraban's claim that thestock phrase "kudan no gotoshi" ("as in the case/matter in question") which frequently appeared at the end of certificates/deeds, was actually a reference to this monster is considered spurious.
Thekanji forkudan consists of two characters, theninben/hito (亻/人,'person' radical), andushi (牛, 'cow' or 'bull'), aptly representing its human-bovine composite nature (i.e., human-headed and bovine-bodied).[5][6][7][8][d]
This breakdown of the kanjiideogram is even stated on the woodblock print leaflet example.[1] and also discussed by novelistHyakken Uchida in his story "Kudan".[10]
Throughout Japan, theidiom "like thekudan" (件の如し,kudan no gotoshi) began to appear on deeds and official documents. The phrase simply means 'As in the case [at hand]', though a meaning "on the truth of the Kudan", invoking the monster has also been alleged.[11] However while thekudan monster dates to the late Edo Period, the idiom is much older, dating to theHeian period,[e] so the relationship between the phrase and the monster has been refuted as an anachronism.[5][12]
Thekudan is generally depicted as having the head of a human and the body of a bovine.[13][8][6][7][d][14] The kudan is recorded as being "human-faced, cattle-bodied" (人面牛身) in an early attestation from a samurai scribe's diary (Bunsei 2, year 1819)[f][3]
The news of the "kudan" has been disseminated in illustrated newspapers called thekawaraban [ja] (single sheetedwood-block print, hence sometimes referred to as a type of "broadsides"), and several examples have survived.[g]
The well-publicizedTenpō Era (1836) notice of the kudan refers to the "beast named kudan" in its title, and explains that the beast had "a body [like unto] cattle, and a face like a human",[h] and[1] This piece is part of the collection at theTokugawa Institute for the History of Forestry [ja] (Tokugawa rinseishi kenkyūjo).[16] Thiskawaraban[2][3][4] (single-sheet woodblock-print newspaper, abroadside) is actually visibly printed on a piece of wood.[i][19][non-primary source needed]
This printed wood plate states that the kudan appeared "in the 12th month of Tenpō 7, theyear of the monkey [1836], on "Mount Kurahashi" (倉橋山),[16][20] or perhaps rather "in the mountains at the foot of Kurahashi [village]".[18] The Mt. Kurahashi (倉梯山), 91 metres (299 ft) altitude, inMiyazu, west of theAmanohashidate scenic monument[21] fits the location.[j]
There have also survived hand-copied documents which replicated kudan's picture and text from akawaraban. One such copy occurs in theShika zakki [?] (「止可雑記」) in theMōri family library collection, held by theYamaguchi Prefectural Archives.[24]. Another hand-copied example on paper manuscript has belonged to the family based inGorobeishinden [ja] village (now part ofSaku, Nagano).[26]
The news of the monster called by the variant names of kutabe, kudabe, etc. (cf.§ Kutabe below) were disseminated inBunsei 10–12 (1827–1829), and it was claimed that its human encounter occurred onMount Tate, in present-dayToyama Prefecture.[29][k] Many of the kutabe/kudabe illustrations bear long-haired woman-like faces according to scholars, but may also have a head like a bald old man[l][27] and may not manifest bovine features,[28] and have sharp claws.[31] While some pictures have eyes on their bodies, like the luck beastBai ze (Hakutaku).[31][32]
Thekudan is typical of the so-called prophesy beasts (予言獣,yongenjū) of Japanese folklore,[m] which not only portend plague or bounty, but prescribe the method on how to avoid being stricken. Typically the prophecy beast instructs people to view a picture image of itself, or to copy it to ward off evil luck, and the kutabe/kudabe group of variant follow that norm.[27]
Thekudan pictorial on thekawaraban flyers,[g] was not merely a pictorial and written information sheet being circulated, and it was understood that the flyer itself could be used as agofu (護符),[34] a type ofamulet typically printed or hand-copied on paper. The aforementioned artefact dated Tenpo7/1836 (referred to as akawaraban example), which is entitled "A beast called kudan which lets known great bountiful harvests", and goes onto say "If one paste up this picture image, the home inside shall flourish and not receive calamity&disease, all misfortune whatsoever shall be averted, and a great bumper-crop harvest shall ensue; it is a truly propitious beast".[1] At this time, theTenpō famine was at its peak, and so it is believed that this report was intended to "give people hope of a good harvest".[35]
This same artefact also claims that a past appearance of the kudan, in the 12th month ofHōei 2/1705, recorded in an ancient document.[n][1]
Thekutabe variants only portent evil (epidemic), and are not known to predict blessings of bountiful harvest, unlike most prophesy beasts.[28][o]
In a late example, thekudan was rumoured to have predicted Japan's defeat during World War II.[5] There were also rumours among Japanese immigrant population in Brazil about akudango (件子) predicting that Japan would emerge victorious.[36][37]
An early attestation of kudan occurs in the aforementionedMikkyoku nichijō (『密局日乗』) dated to Bunsei 2 (1819), where a human language-speaking and human-headed calf declared it should be given the name "kudan".[3]
The multicolor woodblock-print (nishiki-e) entitled Kudanjū no shashin (件獣之写真) dated to the very end of the Edo Period (Keiō 3/1867), also reports that akudan born from a cow, after speaking out its prophecy, dies as a 3-day old newborn.[40] although later write more approximately.[43]
In theTaisho era, novelistHyakken Uchida published a short novel entitledKudan (1921), where it is stated "the kudan dies 3 days after birth, and in the meanwhile, in the language of humans, it prognosticates the ill or good luck of the future[45][p]
Dating to theShōwa era, the kudan is listed in a dictionary of the folklore ofOkayama Prefecture, as well as in the writings ofKunio Yanagita who originates from the adjacentHyogo Prefecture. The kudan is described as a strange beast born from a cow, or allegedly born as across between cattle and human,[48][41] capable of human speech,[42] and dies within a few days of birth.[49] Meanwhiled, it prophesizes the advent of various grave occurrences, such as crop failure, epidemic, drought, or war.[42][41] which reputedly come to pass without fail.[41] Instances of kudan given birth by cattle in theKansai region have been reported in the postwar period.[50][51]
Calves born with certain illness deformities can give the impression of human-like face features,[q] which could explain reports of kudan birth in some cases, according to some writers.[52][4]
"Kutabe" written in kanji characters.The kutabe allegedly was spotted in Mount Tate, Toyama (Hirokata zuihitsu).
The kutabe or kudabe is considered an equivalent (subclass) of the kudan, though kutabe's legend is set specifically in Tateyama inEtchū Province (Mount Tate, in today'sToyama Prefecture).[53][54] The news of the kutabe or kudabe were circulated in the yearsBunsei 10–12 (1827–1829) when its appearances was supposedly witnessed.[r]
The kanji-titled pamphlet claims that件 (here presumably pronounced "ken" rather than "kudan") is actually its Chinese name, whilekutabe is the true Japanese name.[55]
The kutabe's name is written in non-standard "kanji" characters (shown right) in the printed example.[s] and also variously transcribed as kutabe (くたべ) in hiragana,[56][57] or kudabe (クダベ)[30] and kudahe (クタヘ) in katakana,[58] etc.[27] The name also appears as eithergudabe (ぐだべ)[59] orgutabe (具多遍) in an example now in France.[61][t]
The prophecy beast called thedodaku/dotaku (どだく/どたく) was supposedly encountered on Mt. Tate by a man named Miura according to the diary ofKōriki Tanenobu,[63] and thus this beast is also considered a variant in the kutabe group.[27]
The kutabe/kudabe group illustrations appear to scholars as having long-haired woman-like face, while others have the head of a bald old man,[u] or with resemblance to a "fatigued medical monk's body",[v][27][15] and lack obvious discernible bovine features,[64] but and are given front and hind paws with sharp claws[31][w] (rather than hooves).
The prophecies and the instructions to ward off evil are nearly identical in the various attestations of the kutabe group; the prophecy beast warns of an outbreak of some unknown disease in 4, 5 years time, and instructs that an individual must view the image of the creature once, in order to avoid the catastrophe.[27]
The "gudabe" example (in the French collection) prescribes that in addition to viewing the image of itself, if an individual gathers seven-colored herbs, pound them intomochi (rice cake) and eats them, the wonders it would do will be "like unto a god".[59]
Comparison to Hakutaku
A comparison study of some 7 examples of the "kutabe" subclass was conducted by Hitomi Hosokawa, who addresses some of the origin questions; the questions of have been pursued by others also (cf.§Origins). The origins of the "kutabe" subclass has been discussed by Hosoki Regarding whether the kutabe could have originated from the Bai Ze (Hakutaku), she found mixed results in comparing their physical depictions/[x][32] And as curator of the museum at Tateyama, she concluded that the kutabe sub-legend never developed locally, but was probably invented by outsiders residing in other provinces.[32]
The kudan may derive from the Chinese luck beastBai Ze (pronounced "Hakutaku" in Japanese),[65] as has been formally theorized by sociologistKenji Sato [ja] (1995,Kudan no tanjō [The Birth of Kudan]). The custom of distributing the image of Bai Ze existed in Edo Period Japan,[y] and itsiconography was likely borrowed to create the kudan creature.[66][67][68]
The traditional Chinese Bai Ze actually tended to be depicted as more beastlike, or "tiger-faced, scaly-bodied" to be more specific.[69] But in Japan, it later became more commonplace for the Bai Ze (Hakutaku) to be drawn or painted as human-faced and beast-bodied, hence not much different in appearance from the kudan which emerged.[31]
The essayDōchō tosetsu (道聴塗説) from the Edo Period claims that the "kudabe" (variant spelling) was an invention based on another prophecy beast called thejinjahime (神社姫)[z] which was circulating at the time.[30][70] It has been pointed out that the jinjahime that manifested itself in Bunsei 2 (1819) gave instructions on how to avoid the foretold doom, like the kudan in later documents, but whether the kudan of Bunsei 2 did so is inconclusive.[aa][3][31]
Another proponent who equated the kutabe with the luck beast Hakutaku (Bai Ze) was the famous yōkaimanga authorShigeru Mizuki, who viewed kutabe as a "human-faced bovine, with eyes on both flanks of its belly", just like Hakutaku.[71] This is somewhat disputed by Hosoki, since the kutabe does indeed have eyes on its body, but they are situated on its back (next to spine), if the woodblock-printed image is taken to be authoritative.[32][ab] But at any rate this is coincidence enough to conclude that the iconography of the kutabe was influenced by Hakutaku amulets.[32]
Mizuki also saw some connection between the medicine godYellow Emperor meeting Bai Ze/Hakutaku and the supposedToyama medicine peddler [ja][ac] meeting the kudan in Mount Tate of Toyama.[71] But Hosoki does not find this connection to the "patron god ofTraditional Chinese medicine" to be persuasive enough to demonstrate equivalence.[32]
Although the kutabe legend situates the encounter in Mount Tate, Toyama, Hosokawa found no evidence that the legend was being told locally, having consulted various temples connected with the mountain,[ad] and examining the writings left by pilgrims preserved at these establishments. The Medicinal mound-monument at Tateyama (立山の薬種塚) mentioned in the legend also appears to be spurious. Thus she concludes this legend to have been concocted by an outsider, who wanted to exploit the reputation all over Japan that Mount Tate was a mystic place where rare or potent medicinal ingredients could be found.[32]
Mimei Ogawa published a short novel called "Ushi-onna" ('cow-woman', 1919), probably having readHyakken's story "Kudan".[46]
Subsequently, during the period of post war reconstruction which followedWorld War II, rumours began to surface regarding the appearances of aushi-onna (牛女, lit. "cow woman"), who was somewhat akin tokudan but was bovine-headed and human-bodied rather than the other way around, and wore traditional kimono dress.[72]
Sakyo Komatsu also wrote a piece of fiction entitledKudan no haha (「くだんのはは」, lit. "kudan's mother") (1968), which was also probably based on the knowledge of Hyakken's story,[46] and on further collected folkloric material.[73] Komatsu's story is thought to have significantly influenced the furtherance of theushi-onnaurban legend in Japan.[74]
Theushi-onna lore was circulated particularly in the vicinity of city ofKobe, namely theNishinomiya andMount Kabuto areas inHyogo Prefecture,[ae] and it was rumored that theushi-onna was seen devouring animal carcasses in theairstruck ruins.[75] And after the entire corridor fromAshiya to Nishinomiya got devastated by air bombings, there floated a rumor that anushi-onna loitered the butcher's house that was burned down and in ruins, the daughter of the family who was kept sequestered in azashikirō [ja] room, away from the eyes of the public.[76]
The writerHirokatsu Kihara [ja][af] argues that the kudan and theushi-onna ought to be distinguished, due to a number of differences: the kudan is a calf born from cattle, theushi-onna is a daughter of human parents; the kudan is human-faced and bovine-bodied, theushi-onna the other way around; the kudan is actually the one capable of human speech, whereas the cow-woman's ability to speak is unattested.[75]
From theEdo period throughShōwa period, there have been several reported sightings throughout Japan, though they are most often reported in Western Japan.[citation needed]
The kudan allegedly appeared as early as the 12th month ofHōei 2 (1705) according to "old documents", but this is only purported by thekawaraban of 1836,[1] and not verified by contemporary evidence.
An early attestation that a calf proclaiming itself to be a kudan was born at a commoner's cow inKaminoseki,Suō Province is recorded in the diary calledMikkyoku nichijō (『密局日乗』), the entry dated to Bunsei 2, 5th month, 13th day (4 July 1819). The creature was capable of human speech, and instructed that it should be given the name "kudan", and it should not be slaughtered on account of its odd form. It predicted 7 consecutive years of bountiful harvest, but war trouble on the 8th year.[3]
The attestations to the "kutabe" or "kudabe" group date to Bunsei 10–12 (1827–1829), as already discussed.[28][27] The kutabe/kudabe were allegedly witnessed on Mount Tate, Toyama in the north, but the source material were discovered in places like Osaka or Nagoya.[77]
The news of a "kutabe", after a time gap, is attested from theKaei era (1848–1854), according to Nagano;[28] thesurimono (wood-block print) of the "kutabe" written in kanji is itself undated,[27] but is pasted into the scrapbook calledHogochō,[55] which began to be compiled in the year Kaei 4 (1851).[78]
The news of the "kudan" disseminated in thekawaraban [ja] (woodblock printedbroadside)[ag] dated Tenpō 7 (1836) is the earliest extant written folkloric material on the "kudan" proper.[79] This spread of the kudan lore coincided with the time of theTenpō famine, so there may have been an invested hope of bountiful harvest in creating such a charm artefact, according toHiromi Shimada [ja].[76]
On June 21, 1909, a Nagoya newspaper reported a sighting of thekudan. According to the article, a calf had been born with a human face a decade before in a farmhouse on theGotō Islands. It reported that "It died only 31 days after its birth and prophesieda war between Japan and Russia." The calf was later stuffed and put on display in the Yahiro Museum inNagasaki. The museum has since closed and the calf's whereabouts are unknown.[44][80][35]
From theMeiji period onward,stuffed carcasses of cattle and swine purported to bekudan" were being exhibited at "spectacle show shacks" (misemonogoya (見世物小屋)).[34]Lafcadio Hearn (Glimpses of Unfamiliar Japan, vol. 2, 1894) recorded the incident in 1892 about atravelling showmen who brought a stuffedkudan aboard a ship bound forMihonoseki. Their unholy conduct of transporting the kudan, a tiger and other dead animals was blamed by the priest for the suddensquall, which forced the ship to abandon disembarking at Mihonoseki and turn back.[11]
The theory about thekudan being a benevolent wish-granting creature subsided during the Shōwa period and was replaced by greater emphasis on thekudan's wartime prophecies. A kudan appeared in 1930 in a forest inKagawa Prefecture, prophesying: "Soon, there will be a great war. You shall win, but you will later be struck down by plague. However, those who eat red beans and tie yarn around their wrists within three days of hearing this prophecy shall not fall sick".[81] In 1933, this rumor reachedNagano Prefecture and quickly spread, with elementary school students spreading it further by takingred bean rice (azuki-meshi) into school for their lunches. However, the content of the rumor changed. Instead of akudan, the prophecy was attributed to a snake-headed beast, sent by the deity of theSuwa Grand Shrine in Nagano Prefecture.[82][ah]
DuringWorld War II, many rumors were spread about prophecies regarding the war and air raids. In 1943, akudan was said to have been born in ageta shop inIwakuni. Thiskudan predicted that "the war will end next year, around April or May."[85] It was then reported in the spring of 1945 inMatsuyama that "A Kudan has been born inKobe. He says that 'anyone who consumes red beans or bean cakes within three days of hearing this tale shall escape the air raids.'" The rumors quickly circulated throughout Matsuyama.[76][86]
Around early 1944 in the area ofMarília,Brazil, there spread a rumour among the Japanese immigrants that a human headed and beast-bodied kudango (件子) was born, which predicted that the "war will end within the year with theAxis powers winning great vicotory"; it supposedly died immediately after speaking the stock phrase "yotte kudan no gotoshi" (roughly, "therefore, it is just like the matter [I have talked about]").[36] This has been characterized as the burgeoning of the denialist logic of espoused by theKachigumi [ja] group who refused to believe Japan could lose a war.[37]
Kudan birth anecdotes have also been heard in the villages that produce theTajima cattle [ja] brand ofKobe beef (published 1953).[50] And inHiruzen sanson [ja] or "the three villages ofHiruzen",Okayama Prefecture, an elderly informant in theYatsuka village spoke of a kudan, but when inquired of its whereabouts he answered it was born inKawakami village, and so forth, so the investigator was run in circles (1971).[51]
WriterHirokatsu Kihara [ja] in 2004 came into possession of a stuffed kudan, also being touted to as the kudanmummy, from a man residing inGunma Prefecture, who was the son of akōgyōshi (興行師) or travelling showman, who called theushi-ningen (牛人間) or "cow/bull-human", and put it on exhibit, together with the performance of akamishibai sliding-picture show about this creature.[4]。
^The character件 can be readken" and means "matter, topic, subject". The phrase "kudan no~" is a qualifier meaning "XXX which is the topic/matter we are concerned with".
^The件 iscomposed of the "human" radical and "cattle" radical. See§ Etymology below.
^A single sheet woodblock-print newspaper, sometimes glossed as a "broadside".)
^abThe reverse, a bovine-headed and human-bodied example of akudan is known. One allegedly appeared in the late 19th century (25 or 6 years before Minakata's essay of 1921, hence 1894 or 1895). The anecdote was collected from an informant named Sugawa, Kantoku (須川寛得), who was resident ofMiwasakicho [ja] (former town, now part ofShingū, Wakayama).[9]
^It appears on page 128 of the early 11th century bookThe Pillow Book.
^The wood grain texture is detectable in the color photo of the "kawaraban" in the "yōkai mummy FILE" book by Naoki Yamaguchi (2020),[4] but more clearly visible in the larger photo of the "kawaraban" that spans across opposite pages in "yōkai FILE" book by Miyamoto (2013),[17] both published by educational publishing houseGakken.
^Hosoki's paper regards 4 out of 7 "kutabe" group primary documents as datable to Bunsei 10 or 11 (1827 or 1828),[27] and regards her number 7 (Dōchō tosetsu[30])as "no date" which Nagano assigns to Spring of Bunsei 12 (1829).[15]
^Hosoki's No. 1. Or have a "fatigued medical monk's body" (Hosoki's No. 4)
^It also mentions the idiom (cf.§ Phraseology below): "Because thekudan is an honest beast, it is customary to write "like theKudan" at the end of every act and deed".
^Whereas the standardkudan (Tenpo 7 example) does preict good harvest.[1]
^This work is thought to have been read byMimei Ogawa who wroteUshi-onna andSakyo Komatsu who wroteKudan no haha.[46] Seeinfra.
^Hosoki's paper regards 4 out of 7 "kutabe" group primary documents as datable to Bunsei 10 or 11 (1827 or 1828),[27] and regards her number 7 (Dōchō tosetsu[30])as "no date" which Nagano assigns to Spring of Bunsei 12 (1829).[15]
^The first character consists of the'person' radical亻 on the left and the right half composed of久 atop田. The second character consists of the'dog/beast' radical犭 on the left, with部 on the right.[55] Note that "久田部" together could be read as "kutabe" in Japanese.
^On the item (Ken'ei rōgasō jūi 8 shū 3) in the Kreitmann Collection, cf. Tani, Hoya, and Hakoishi (2004)[62] cited by Hosoki.
^No. 1 print[55] and No. 1 hand-paintedkutahe.[58]
^Several kutabes are depicted with women-like faces (unlike the male man faced Hakutaku), and some of the women-faced examples did have eyes on the body (like Hakutaku), though nearer the back/spine than its flanks,[27] as iterated below.
^For example, atMount Togakushi orMount Hakkai [ja], pilgrims were handed out disaster-warding amulets with Bai Ze depicted on them (bearing the title Hakutaku hikaizu (白沢避怪図, lit. "Hakutaku monster-evading image").[31]
^".. jinjahime and himeuo with female faces and bodies of fish".[68]
^This kudan of early record—- the same year (1819) as this jinjahime—- is attested in a diary entry (Mikkyoku nichijō (密局日乗), Bunsei 2, 13th day of 5th month, so it is not necessarily a complete record.
^However, the placement of eyes in a hand-painted kutabe (document with Matsudaira clan provenance)[58] is less certain. Hosoki herself says there are "two eyes on the spot which seems to be its back",[27] though Sasakata is less wavering and states these are "eyes on its back 背中の目".[31]
^Strictly speaking, just a "person/man digging up medicinal ingredients",[27] so somebody in the supply chain of the Toyama medicine peddling business.
^She visited the temples and shrines near the epicenter of theTateyama shugen [ja], i.e. theshugendō cult of Mount Tate, and others connected with the mountain, even outside the prefecture.
^Kobe beef is of course famous brand name forwagyū beef. Reports of kudan in theTajima cattle growing area north of Kobe is noted below.
^Known as current owner of a kudan mummy. Cf. infra.
^Cf.Mishaguji. The rumour in Nagano Prefecture is said to have developed from the rumours about a prophecying child given birth the previous year in 1932 by an 80-year old woman inHokkaido, after she received message from theAmida Buddha.
^Katsunori Sakurada (桜田勝徳), "Enoshima Hirashima ki" (江島平島記), in "Mikan saihōki" (未刊採訪記) or "Unpublished travelogues".
^abcdefghiPrint (on wooden board), datedTenpo7/1836, entitled "Daihōsaku wo shirasu kudan to iu kemono nari 大豊作をしらす件（くだん）と云獣（けもの）なり [A beast called kudan which lets known great bountiful harvests]". Imprint: Tango no kuni Yosa gun nanigashi ban (丹後国与謝郡何某板, , "Wooden board of anonymousYosa District, Kyoto") The texts are transcribed more precisely inHosoki 2020, p. 87 (withfurigana in small print, also "katakana" or "hentaigana" character where applicable); more simplified/modernized transcripts are found inKimura 2005, p. 27 andHoribe 1994, p. 220 citingTsunemitsu 1990, p. 128
^Miyamoto, Yukie (2013). "Chapter 3. Dōbutsu no Yōkai. §Kudan"第3章 動物の妖怪 §件.Nihon no yōkai FILE日本の妖怪FILE (in Japanese). Gakken Publishing. pp. 99–100.ISBN978-4-054056-63-3.
^The artefact is noted by several researchers on the subject who do not call it a "kawaraban", and it bears the imprint 丹後国与謝郡何某板 (Tango no kuni Yosa [no] koori nanigashi ban, , "Wooden board of anonymous [in] Yosa-no-kōri,Tango Province"),[16][18] Yosa-no-kōri later became Yosa-gun in the Meiji Era (Yosa District, Kyoto), but the greater part of thegun later becameMiyazu City.
^Hosoki used "kutabe" as standard, with variantskutahe,kudabe (クタヘ、クダベ);[27] whereas Nagano refers to these variants as the "kudabe group" (クダベ系)[28] Hosoki, p. 87 states: "thekudan andhakutaku (bai ze) regarded as equivalent to [kutabe] .. 同一視される「件」と「白澤」..".
^Exact title in period kanji and kana:件獸之寫真（くだんじうのしゃしん）, dated Keiō 3/1867 byKendō Ishii [ja][38] This primary source is listed asSato 1993, pp. 81–83, Fig. 1;Nagano 2005, Table, Item 13.[15] A color image of this old print is shown (with the words quite legible) in the online extra edition ofKWAI & yoo [ja]『怪と幽』; the piece is authored by Masanobu Kagawa (香川雅信), curator at theHyogo Prefectural Museum of History [ja].[39]
^abcdeOkayama Folklore Society [Okayama minzoku gakkai 岡山民俗学会], ed. (1975-05-01).Okayama minzoku jiten岡山民俗事典. Nihon bunkyo shuppan. p. 118., cited byHoribe 1994, p. 219.
^2,3 days according to a dictionary of Okayama folklore (1975),[41] 4, 5 days according toKunio Yanagita.[42]
^abSection: Hizen no kudan ▽肥前の「件」, "Kisha kurige 汽車栗毛",Nagoya shimbun [ja], 21 June Meiji 42/1909. Quoted inYumoto 1999, p. 117. Miyatake (1931) also quotes the newspaper, but assings the date Meiji 38.[47]
^Hosoki used "kutabe" as standard, with variantskutahe,kudabe (クタヘ、クダベ);[27] whereas Nagano refers to these variants as the "kudabe group" (クダベ系)[28] Hosoki, p. 87 states: "thekudan andhakutaku (bai ze) regarded as equivalent to [kutabe] .. 同一視される「件」と「白澤」..".
^abcdOsaka Prefectural Nakanoshima Library collection,Hogochō (『保古帖』) Book 4. The woodblock print is pasted onto the codex. The title iskutabe written out in two non-standard kanji characters: "[亻+久/田]" and "[犭+部]". Sans date.Hosoki 2020, p. 82, No. 1.
^Kōken zuihitsu (『弘賢随筆』)Hosoki 2020, p. 85, item ⑥
^Kyojitsu mujinzō 4 (『虚実無尽蔵』四). Dated Bunsei 10 （1827). Winter of "hinoto-i" or "teigai" year (i.e., Year of Fire-younger/ying intersecting with Year of the Boar; or Year of the fourthHeavenly Stem and twelfthEarthly Branch). Beast name: kutabe.Hosoki 2020, pp. 84–85, item ④
^abcPrivate collection. Handpainted "Kutabe" dated Bunsei 10 (1827), late in the 11th month of this Year of the Boar.Hosoki 2020, p. 84, item ③. It is stated on the print that "Matsudaira Tōtōmi-no-kami" also copied this himself, probably referring toMatsudaira Tadanori [ja] (d. 1829) the fifth lord ofAmagasaki Domain (Hosoki 2020, p. 84), but Sasakata comments that no other example bears such an inscription, and that this is a spurious provenance intended to enhance the prestige of the document.
^abFushimi, Yuki (curator at the Gōichi YumotoYumoto Koichi Memorial Japan Yokai Museum [ja] aka Miyoshi Mononoke Museum),apudHosoki 2020, p. 94 and note (42). The information on the creature as appears inKen'ei rōgasō jūi 8 shū 3, reprinted in Alain Briot (2013) was obtained secondhand by Hosoki, who has not seen this French book.
^Briot, Alain (2013). "XXIII From Hōki to Oki, v".Monstres et prodiges dans le Japon d'Edo: présentation, traduction et commentaire de l'Album Tayasu 84. Collège de France, Institut des hautes études japonaises.ISBN9782913217324.
^Ken'ei rōgasō jūi 8 shū 3 (「献英楼画叢拾遺 八集三」), also titledu 2 no 3, "saii" (「う二ノ三」「災異」,"cataclysm")(One of 4 volumes of scrapbooks calledHarikomichō (「貼込帳」), formerly in the collection ofTayasu Tokugawa clan [ja]), now in theKreitmann Collection [fr]. Reproduced in Alain Briot (2013).[60]。Hosoki 2020, note (42).
^Kōriki Enkōan [ja] (aka Tanenobu 種信),Enkōan Nikki 猿狼庵日記 (aksaKansei Bunsei kan nikki, hitsujisaru 『寛政文政間日記』坤). Entry of the 4th month of Bunsei 11. In this diary, the beast is referred to as "dodaku どだく" and "dotaku どたく".Nagano 2005, p. 23, Table 2, item 5;Hosoki 2020, p. 85, item ⑤.
^Nagano, in a paper on theamabie and other prophetic beast states that in the "kudabe group" of the period, "cattle-like features cannot necessarily be seen 必ずしも牛らしさが見られない" on them.[28]
^Miyatake Gaikotsu (1931) appears to make an early connection between the hakutaku to the kudan.[47]
Tsunemitsu, Toru[in Japanese] (2002).Gakkō no kaidan: kōshō bungei no tenkai to shosō学校の怪談—口承文芸の展開と諸相 [Schoolroom ghost stories: the orally-transmitted literary art, and its development, various aspects] (in Japanese). Kadokawa Shoten. pp. 159–161.ISBN9784043649013.
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