Kievan Rus',[a][b] also known asKyivan Rus',[6][7] was the firstEast Slavic state and later an amalgam of principalities[8] inEastern Europe from the late 9th to the mid-13th century.[9][10] Encompassing a variety of polities and peoples, includingEast Slavic,Norse,[11][12] andFinnic, it was ruled by theRurik dynasty, founded by theVarangian princeRurik.[13] The name was coined by Russian historians in the 19th century to describe the period whenKiev was at the center. At its greatest extent in the mid-11th century, Kievan Rus' stretched from theWhite Sea in the north to theBlack Sea in the south and from theheadwaters of theVistula in the west to theTaman Peninsula in the east,[14][15] uniting the East Slavic tribes.[10]
According to thePrimary Chronicle, the first ruler to unite East Slavic lands into what would become Kievan Rus' was Varangian princeOleg the Wise (r. 879–912). He extended his control fromNovgorod south along theDnieper river valley to protect trade fromKhazar incursions from the east,[10] and took control of the city of Kiev, laying the foundation of the state and becomingprince of Kiev.Sviatoslav I (r. 943–972) achieved the first major territorial expansion of the state, fighting a war of conquest against theKhazars.Vladimir the Great (r. 980–1015)spread Christianity with his own baptism and, by decree, extended it to all inhabitants of Kiev and beyond. Kievan Rus' reached its greatest extent underYaroslav the Wise (r. 1019–1054); his sons assembled and issued its first written legal code, theRusskaya Pravda, shortly after his death.[2]
The state began to decline in the late 11th century, gradually disintegrating into various rival regional powers throughout the 12th century.[16] It was further weakened by external factors, such as thedecline of the Byzantine Empire, its major economic partner, and the accompanying diminution oftrade routes through its territory.[17] It finally fell to theMongol invasion in the mid-13th century, though theRurik dynasty would continue to rule until the death ofFeodor I of Russia in 1598.[18] The modern nations ofBelarus,Russia, andUkraine all claim Kievan Rus' as their cultural ancestor,[c] with Belarus and Russia deriving their names from it, and the name Kievan Rus deriving itself from the city that is now the capital of Ukraine.[12][6]
During its existence, Kievan Rus' was known as the "Rus' land" (Old East Slavic:ро́усьскаѧ землѧ́,romanized: rusĭskaę zemlę, from the ethnonymРоусь,Rusĭ;Medieval Greek:Ῥῶς,romanized: Rhos;Arabic:الروس,romanized: ar-Rūs), in Greek asῬωσία,Rhosia, in Old French asRussie, Rossie, in Latin asRusia orRussia (with local German spelling variantsRuscia andRuzzia), and from the 12th century also asRuthenia orRutenia.[20][21] Variousetymologies have been proposed, includingRuotsi, theFinnish designation for Sweden orRos, a tribe from the middle Dnieper valley region.[22]
According to the prevalent theory, the nameRus', like theProto-Finnic name forSweden (*rootsi), is derived from anOld Norse term for 'men who row' (rods-) because rowing was the main method of navigating the rivers of Eastern Europe, and could be linked to the Swedish coastal area ofRoslagen (Rus-law) orRoden.[23][24] The nameRus' would then have the same origin as the Finnish andEstonian names for Sweden:Ruotsi andRootsi.[24][25]
When the Varangian princes arrived, the name Rus' was associated with them and came to be associated with the territories they controlled. Initially the cities of Kiev,Chernigov, andPereyaslavl and their surroundings came under Varangian control.[27][28]: 697 From the late tenth century,Vladimir the Great andYaroslav the Wise tried to associate the name with all of the extended princely domains. Both meanings persisted in sources until the Mongol conquest: the narrower one, referring to the triangular territory east of the middle Dnieper, and the broader one, encompassing all the lands under the hegemony of Kiev's grand princes.[27][29]
The Russian termKiyevskaya Rus' (Russian:Ки́евская Русь) was coined in the 19th century inRussian historiography to refer to the period when the centre was in Kiev.[30] In the 19th century it also appeared in Ukrainian asKyivska Rus' (Ukrainian:Ки́ївська Русь).[31] Later, the Russian term was rendered into Belarusian asKiyewskaya Rus' orKijeŭskaja Ruś (Belarusian:Кіеўская Русь) and into Rusyn asKyïvska Rus' (Rusyn:Київска Русь).[citation needed]
In English, the term was introduced in the early 20th century, when it was found in the 1913 English translation ofVasily Klyuchevsky'sA History of Russia,[32] to distinguish the early polity from successor states, which were also namedRus'.TheVarangian Rus' from Scandinavia used theOld Norse nameGarðaríki, which, according toa common interpretation, means "land of towns".
History
Origin
Prior to the emergence of Kievan Rus' in the 9th century, most of the area north of theBlack Sea was primarily populated byeastern Slavic tribes.[33] In the northern region aroundNovgorod were theIlmen Slavs[34] and neighboringKrivichi, who occupied territories surrounding the headwaters of theWest Dvina,Dnieper andVolga rivers. To their north, in theLadoga andKarelia regions, were the FinnicChud tribe. In the south, in the area around Kiev, were thePoliane,[35] theDrevliane to the west of the Dnieper, and theSeveriane to the east. To their north and east were theVyatichi, and to their south was forested land settled by Slav farmers, giving way tosteppelands populated by nomadic herdsmen.[36] Some of the those East Slavic tribes belonged to theLuka-Raikovetska culture, while others to theVolyntsevo culture.[37][38][39]
There was once controversy over whether theRus' wereVarangians or Slavs (seeanti-Normanism), however, more recently scholarly attention has focused more on debating how quickly an ancestrallyNorse people assimilated into Slavic culture.[d] This uncertainty is due largely to a paucity of contemporary sources. Attempts to address this question instead rely on archaeological evidence, the accounts of foreign observers, and legends and literature from centuries later.[41] To some extent the controversy is related to thefoundation myths of modern states in the region.[4] This often unfruitful debate over origins has periodically devolved into competing nationalist narratives of dubious scholarly value being promoted directly by various government bodies in a number of states. This was seen in theStalinist period, whenSoviet historiography sought to distance the Rus' from any connection to Germanic tribes, in an effort to dispel Nazi propaganda claiming the Russian state owed its existence and origins to the supposedly racially superior Norse tribes.[42] More recently, in the context of resurgent nationalism in post-Soviet states, Anglophone scholarship has analyzed renewed efforts to use this debate to create ethno-nationalist foundation stories, with governments sometimes directly involved in the project.[43] Conferences and publications questioning the Norse origins of the Rus' have been supported directly by state policy in some cases, and the resultant foundation myths have been included in some school textbooks in Russia.[44]
While Varangians were Norse traders andVikings,[45] many Russian and Ukrainian nationalist historians argue that the Rus' were themselves Slavs.[46][47][48][49] Normanist theories focus on the earliest written source for theEast Slavs, thePrimary Chronicle, which was produced in the 12th century.[50] Nationalist accounts on the other hand have suggested that the Rus' were present before the arrival of the Varangians,[51] noting that only a handful of Scandinavian words can be found in Russian and that Scandinavian names in the early chronicles were soon replaced by Slavic names.[52]
Nevertheless, the close connection between the Rus' and the Norse is confirmed both by extensive Scandinavian settlement in Belarus, Russia, and Ukraine and by Slavic influences in the Swedish language.[53][54] Though the debate over the origin of the Rus' remains politically charged, there is broad agreement that if the proto-Rus' were indeed originally Norse, they were quicklynativized, adopting Slavic languages and other cultural practices. This position, roughly representing a scholarly consensus (at least outside nationalist historiography), was summarized by the historian, F. Donald Logan, "in 839, the Rus wereSwedes; in 1043 the Rus wereSlavs".[40]
Ahmad ibn Fadlan, an Arab traveler during the 10th century, provided one of the earliest written descriptions of the Rus': "They are as tall as adate palm, blond and ruddy, so that they do not need to wear a tunic nor a cloak; rather the men among them wear garments that only cover half of his body and leaves one of his hands free."[55]Liutprand of Cremona, who was twice an envoy to theByzantine court (949 and 968), identifies the "Russi" with theNorse ("the Russi, whom we call Norsemen by another name")[56] but explains the name as a Greek term referring to their physical traits ("A certain people made up of a part of the Norse, whom the Greeks call [...] the Russi on account of their physical features, we designate as Norsemen because of the location of their origin.").[57]Leo the Deacon, a 10th-century Byzantine historian and chronicler, refers to the Rus' as "Scythians" and notes that they tended to adopt Greek rituals and customs.[58]
According to thePrimary Chronicle, the territories of the East Slavs in the 9th century were divided between the Varangians and the Khazars.[59] The Varangians are first mentioned imposing tribute from Slavic and Finnic tribes in 859.[60][non-primary source needed] In 862, various tribes rebelled against the Varangians, driving them "back beyond the sea and, refusing them further tribute, set out to govern themselves".[60]
They said to themselves, "Let us seek a prince who may rule over us, and judge us according to the Law." They accordingly went overseas to the Varangian Rus'. ... The Chuds, the Slavs, the Krivichs and the Ves then said to the Rus', "Our land is great and rich, but there is no order in it. Come to rule and reign over us". They thus selected three brothers with their kinfolk, who took with them all the Rus' and migrated.[61]
Modern scholars find this an unlikely series of events, probably made up by the 12th-century Orthodox priests who authored theChronicle as an explanation how the Vikings managed to conquer the lands along the Varangian route so easily, as well as to support the legitimacy of the Rurikid dynasty.[62] The three brothers—Rurik,Sineus and Truvor—supposedly established themselves in Novgorod,Beloozero andIzborsk, respectively.[63] Two of the brothers died, and Rurik became the sole ruler of the territory and progenitor of theRurik dynasty.[64] A short time later, two of Rurik's men,Askold and Dir, asked him for permission to go to Tsargrad (Constantinople). On their way south, they came upon "a small city on a hill", Kiev, which was a tributary of the Khazars at the time, stayed there and "established their dominion over the country of thePolyanians."[65][61][62]
ThePrimary Chronicle reports that Askold and Dir continued to Constantinople with a navy toattack the city in 863–66, catching the Byzantines by surprise and ravaging the surrounding area,[66][non-primary source needed] though other accounts date the attack in 860.[67][68]Patriarch Photius vividly describes the "universal" devastation of the suburbs and nearby islands,[69] and another account further details the destruction and slaughter of the invasion.[70] The Rus' turned back before attacking the city itself, due either to a storm dispersing their boats, the return of the Emperor, or in a later account, due to a miracle after a ceremonial appeal by the Patriarch and the Emperor to the Virgin.[67][68] The attack was the first encounter between the Rus' and Byzantines and led the Patriarch to send missionaries north to engage and attempt to convert the Rus' and the Slavs.[71][72]
Foundation of the Kievan state
East-Slavic tribes and peoples, 8th–9th centuries
Rurik led the Rus' until his death in about 879 or 882, bequeathing his kingdom to his kinsman,Prince Oleg, as regent for his young son,Igor.[73] According to thePrimary Chronicle, in 880–82, Oleg led a military force south along theDnieper river, capturingSmolensk andLyubech before reaching Kiev, where he deposed and killed Askold and Dir: "Oleg set himself up as prince in Kiev, and declared that it should be the "mother of Rus' cities".[74][e] Oleg set about consolidating his power over the surrounding region and the riverways north to Novgorod, imposing tribute on the East Slav tribes.[65]
In 883, he conquered theDrevlians, imposing a fur tribute on them. By 885 he had subjugated the Poliane, Severiane, Vyatichi, andRadimichs, forbidding them to pay further tribute to the Khazars. Oleg continued to develop and expand a network of Rus' forts in Slavic lands, begun by Rurik in the north.[76]
The new Kievan state prospered due to its abundant supply of furs, beeswax, honey and slaves for export,[77] and because it controlled three main trade routes ofEastern Europe. In the north, Novgorod served as a commercial link between the Baltic Sea and theVolga trade route to the lands of theVolga Bulgars, the Khazars, and across theCaspian Sea as far asBaghdad, providing access to markets and products from Central Asia and the Middle East.[78][79] Trade from the Baltic also moved south on a network of rivers and short portages along the Dnieper known as the "route from the Varangians to the Greeks," continuing to the Black Sea and on to Constantinople.[80]
Kiev was a central outpost along the Dnieper route and a hub with the east–west overlandtrade route between the Khazars and the Germanic lands of Central Europe.[80] and may have been a staging post forRadhanite Jewish traders between Western Europe, Itil and China.[81] These commercial connections enriched Rus' merchants and princes, funding military forces and the construction of churches, palaces, fortifications, and further towns.[79] Demand for luxury goods fostered production of expensive jewelry and religious wares, allowing their export, and an advanced credit and money-lending system may have also been in place.[77]
Early foreign relations
Volatile steppe politics
The rapid expansion of the Rus' to the south led to conflict and volatile relationships with theKhazars and other neighbors on thePontic steppe.[82][83] The Khazars dominated trade from the Volga-Don steppes to easternCrimea and the northernCaucasus during the 8th century, an era historians call the 'Pax Khazarica',[84] trading and frequentlyallying with theByzantine Empire against Persians and Arabs. In the late 8th century, the collapse of theGöktürk Khaganate led theMagyars and thePechenegs to migrate west from Central Asia into thesteppe region,[85] leading to military conflict, disruption of trade, and instability within the Khazar Khaganate.[86] The Rus' and Slavs had earlier allied with the Khazars against Arab raids on the Caucasus, but they increasingly worked against them to secure control of thetrade routes.[87]
The Byzantine Empire was able to take advantage of the turmoil to expand its political influence and commercial relationships, first with the Khazars and later with the Rus' and other steppe groups.[88] The Byzantines established theTheme ofCherson, formally known as Klimata, in the Crimea in the 830s to defend against raids by the Rus' and to protect vital grain shipments supplying Constantinople.[68] Cherson also served as a key diplomatic link with the Khazars and others on the steppe, and it became the centre of Black Sea commerce.[89] The Byzantines also helped the Khazars build a fortress atSarkel on the Don river to protect their northwest frontier against incursions by the Turkic migrants and the Rus', and to control caravan trade routes and the portage between the Don and Volga rivers.[90]
The expansion of the Rus' put further military and economic pressure on the Khazars, depriving them of territory, tributaries and trade.[91] In around 890, Oleg waged an indecisive war in the lands of the lowerDniester and Dnieper rivers with theTivertsi and theUlichs, who were likely acting as vassals of the Magyars, blocking Rus' access to the Black Sea.[92] In 894, the Magyars and Pechenegs were drawn intothe wars between the Byzantines and theBulgarian Empire. The Byzantines arranged for the Magyars to attack Bulgarian territory from the north, and Bulgaria in turn persuaded the Pechenegs to attack the Magyars from their rear.[93][94]
Boxed in, the Magyars were forced to migrate further west across theCarpathian Mountains into the Hungarian plain, depriving the Khazars of an important ally and a buffer from the Rus'.[93][94] The migration of the Magyars allowed access for the Rus' to the Black Sea,[95] and they soon launched excursions into Khazar territory along the sea coast, up the Don river, and into the lower Volga region. The Rus' wereraiding and plundering into the Caspian Sea region from 864,[f] with the first large-scale expedition in 913, when they extensively raided Baku, Gilan, Mazandaran and penetrated into the Caucasus.[g][97][98][99]
As the 10th century progressed, the Khazars were no longer able to command tribute from the Volga Bulgars, and their relationship with the Byzantines deteriorated, as Byzantium increasingly allied with the Pechenegs against them.[100] The Pechenegs were thus secure to raid the lands of the Khazars from their base between the Volga andDon rivers, allowing them to expand to the west.[101] Relations between the Rus' and Pechenegs were complex, as the groups alternately formed alliances with and against one another. The Pechenegs were nomads roaming the steppe raising livestock which they traded with the Rus' for agricultural goods and other products.[102]
The lucrative Rus' trade with the Byzantine Empire had to pass through Pecheneg-controlled territory, so the need for generally peaceful relations was essential. Nevertheless, while thePrimary Chronicle reports the Pechenegs entering Rus' territory in 915 and then making peace, they were waging war with one another again in 920.[103][104][non-primary source needed] Pechenegs are reported assisting the Rus' in later campaigns against the Byzantines, yet allied with the Byzantines against the Rus' at other times.[105]
After the Rus' attack on Constantinople in 860, the ByzantinePatriarch Photius sent missionaries north to convert the Rus' and the Slavs to Christianity. PrinceRastislav of Moravia had requested the Emperor to provide teachers to interpret the holy scriptures, so in 863 the brothersCyril and Methodius were sent as missionaries, due to their knowledge of the Slavonic language.[72][106][failed verification][107][non-primary source needed] The Slavs had no written language, so the brothers devised theGlagolitic alphabet, later replaced byCyrillic (developed in theFirst Bulgarian Empire) and standardized the language of the Slavs, later known asOld Church Slavonic. They translated portions of the Bible and drafted the first Slavic civil code and other documents, and the language and texts spread throughout Slavic territories, including Kievan Rus'.[citation needed] The mission of Cyril and Methodius served both evangelical and diplomatic purposes, spreading Byzantine cultural influence in support of imperial foreign policy.[108][dead link] In 867 the Patriarch announced that the Rus' had accepted a bishop, and in 874 he speaks of an "Archbishop of the Rus'."[71]
Relations between the Rus' and Byzantines became more complex after Oleg took control over Kiev, reflecting commercial, cultural, and military concerns.[109] The wealth and income of the Rus' depended heavily upon trade with Byzantium.Constantine Porphyrogenitus described the annual course of the princes of Kiev, collecting tribute from client tribes, assembling the product into a flotilla of hundreds of boats, conducting them down the Dnieper to the Black Sea, and sailing to the estuary of the Dniester, the Danube delta, and on to Constantinople.[102][110] On their return trip they would carry silk fabrics, spices, wine, and fruit.[71][111]
The importance of this trade relationship led to military action when disputes arose. ThePrimary Chronicle reports that the Rus'attacked Constantinople again in 907, probably to secure trade access. The Chronicle glorifies the military prowess and shrewdness of Oleg, an account imbued with legendary detail.[71][111] Byzantine sources do not mention the attack, but a pair of treaties in907 and911 set forth a trade agreement with the Rus',[103][112] the terms suggesting pressure on the Byzantines, who granted the Rus' quarters and supplies for their merchants and tax-free trading privileges in Constantinople.[71][113]
TheChronicle provides a mythic tale of Oleg's death. A sorcerer prophesies that the death of theprince would be associated with a certain horse. Oleg has the horse sequestered, and it later dies. Oleg goes to visit the horse and stands over the carcass, gloating that he had outlived the threat, when a snake strikes him from among the bones, and he soon becomes ill and dies.[114][115][non-primary source needed] TheChronicle reports thatPrince Igor succeeded Oleg in 913, and after some brief conflicts with the Drevlians and the Pechenegs, a period of peace ensued for over twenty years.[citation needed]
Princess Olga's avenge to the Drevlians,Radziwiłł Chronicle
In 941, Igor led anothermajor Rus' attack on Constantinople, probably over trading rights again.[71] A navy of 10,000 vessels, including Pecheneg allies, landed on theBithynian coast and devastated the Asiatic shore of the Bosphorus.[116] The attack was well timed, perhaps due to intelligence, as the Byzantine fleet was occupied with the Arabs in the Mediterranean, and the bulk of its army was stationed in the east. The Rus' burned towns, churches and monasteries, butchering the people and amassing booty. The emperor arranged for a small group of retired ships to be outfitted withGreek fire throwers and sent them out to meet the Rus', luring them into surrounding the contingent before unleashing the Greek fire.[117]
Liutprand of Cremona wrote that "the Rus', seeing the flames, jumped overboard, preferring water to fire. Some sank, weighed down by the weight of their breastplates and helmets; others caught fire." Those captured were beheaded. The ploy dispelled the Rus' fleet, but their attacks continued into the hinterland as far asNicomedia, with many atrocities reported as victims were crucified and set up for use as targets. At last a Byzantine army arrived from the Balkans to drive the Rus' back, and a naval contingent reportedly destroyed much of the Rus' fleet on its return voyage (possibly an exaggeration since the Rus' soon mounted another attack). The outcome indicates increased military might by Byzantium since 911, suggesting a shift in the balance of power.[116]
Igor returned to Kiev keen for revenge. He assembled a large force of warriors from among neighboring Slavs and Pecheneg allies, and sent for reinforcements of Varangians from "beyond the sea".[117][118] In 944, the Rus' force advanced again on the Greeks, by land and sea, and a Byzantine force from Cherson responded. The Emperor sent gifts and offered tribute in lieu of war, and the Rus' accepted. Envoys were sent between the Rus', the Byzantines, and the Bulgarians in 945, and apeace treaty was completed. The agreement again focused on trade, but this time with terms less favorable to the Rus', including stringent regulations on the conduct of Rus' merchants in Cherson and Constantinople and specific punishments for violations of the law.[119][non-primary source needed] The Byzantines may have been motivated to enter the treaty out of concern of a prolonged alliance of the Rus', Pechenegs, and Bulgarians against them,[120] though the more favorable terms further suggest a shift in power.[116]
Following the death ofIgor in 945, his wifeOlga ruled asregent in Kiev until their sonSviatoslav reached maturity (c. 963).[h] His decade-long reign over Kievan Rus' was marked by rapid expansion through the conquest of the Khazars of thePontic steppe and theinvasion of the Balkans. By the end of his short life, Sviatoslav carved out for himself the largest state in Europe, eventually moving his capital from Kiev toPereyaslavets on theDanube in 969.[citation needed]
In contrast with his mother's conversion toChristianity, Sviatoslav, like hisdruzhina, remained a staunchpagan. Due to his abrupt death in an ambush in 972, Sviatoslav's conquests, for the most part, were not consolidated into a functioning empire, while his failure to establish a stable succession led to afratricidal feud among his sons, which resulted in two of his three sons being killed.[citation needed]
It is not clearly documented when the title of grand prince was first introduced, but the importance of the Kiev principality was recognized after the death of Sviatoslav I in 972 andthe ensuing struggle betweenVladimir andYaropolk. The region of Kiev dominated the region for the next two centuries. The grand prince (or grand duke) of Kiev controlled the lands around the city, and his formally subordinate relatives ruled the other cities and paid him tribute. The zenith of the state's power came during the reigns of Vladimir the Great (r. 980–1015) and PrinceYaroslav I the Wise (r. 1019–1054). Both rulers continued the steady expansion of Kievan Rus' that had begun under Oleg.[citation needed]
Vladimir had beenprince of Novgorod when his father Sviatoslav I died in 972, but fled toScandinavia in 977 after his half-brother Yaropolk killed his other half-brother Oleg.[122] According to thePrimary Chronicle, Vladimir assembled a host of Varangian warriors, first subdued thePrincipality of Polotsk and then defeated and killed Yaropolk, thus establishing his reign over the entire Kievan Rus' realm.[122]
Although sometimes solely attributed to Vladimir, theChristianization of Kievan Rus' was a long and complicated process that began before the state's formation.[123] As early as the 1st century AD,Greeks in the Black Sea Colonies converted to Christianity, and thePrimary Chronicle even records the legend ofAndrew the Apostle's mission to these coastal settlements, as well as blessing the site of present-day Kyiv.[123] TheGoths migrated to through the region in the 3rd century, adoptingArian Christianity in the 4th century, leaving behind 4th- and 5th-century churches excavated in Crimea, although theHunnic invasion of the 370s halted Christianisation for several centuries.[123] Some of the earliest Kievan princes and princesses such asAskold and Dir andOlga of Kiev reportedly converted to Christianity, butOleg,Igor andSviatoslav remained pagans.[124]
ThePrimary Chronicle records the legend that when Vladimir had decided to accept a new faith instead of traditionalSlavic paganism, he sent out some of his most valued advisors and warriors as emissaries to different parts of Europe. They visited the Christians of theLatin Church, theJews, and theMuslims before finally arriving in Constantinople. They rejected Islam because, among other things, it prohibited the consumption of alcohol, and Judaism because the god of the Jews had permitted hischosen people to be deprived of their country.[125] They found the ceremonies in the Roman church to be dull. But at Constantinople, they were so astounded by the beauty of the cathedral ofHagia Sophia and the liturgical service held there that they made up their minds there and then about the faith they would like to follow. Upon their arrival home, they convinced Vladimir that the faith of theByzantine Rite was the best choice of all, upon which Vladimir made a journey to Constantinople and arranged to marryPrincess Anna, the sister of Byzantine emperorBasil II.[125] Historically, it is more likely that he adopted Byzantine Christianity in order to strengthen his diplomatic relations with Constantinople.[126] Vladimir's choice of Eastern Christianity may have reflected his close personal ties with Constantinople, which dominated the Black Sea and hence trade on Kiev's most vital commercial route, theDnieper River.[127] According to thePrimary Chronicle, Vladimir was baptised inc. 987, and ordered the population of Kiev to be baptised in August 988.[126] The greatest resistance against Christianisation appears to have occurred in northern towns including Novgorod, Suzdal, and Belozersk.[126]
Adherence to theEastern Church had long-range political, cultural, and religious consequences.[127] The church had aliturgy written inCyrillic and a corpus of translations from Greek that had been produced for theSlavic peoples. This literature facilitated the conversion to Christianity of theEastern Slavs and introduced them to rudimentaryGreek philosophy, science, andhistoriography without the necessity of learningGreek (there were some merchants who did business with Greeks and likely had an understanding of contemporary business Greek).[127] Following theGreat Schism of 1054, the Kievan church maintained communion with both Rome and Constantinople for some time, but along with most of the Eastern churches it eventually split to follow the Eastern Orthodox. That being said, unlike other parts of the Greek world, Kievan Rus' did not have a strong hostility to the Western world.[128]
Yaroslav, known as "the Wise", struggled for power with his brothers. A son ofVladimir the Great, he was prince of Novgorod at the time of his father's death in 1015.[129]
Although he first established his rule over Kiev in 1019, he did not have uncontested rule of all of Kievan Rus' until 1036. Like Vladimir, Yaroslav was eager to improve relations with the rest of Europe, especially the Byzantine Empire. Yaroslav's granddaughter,Eupraxia, the daughter of his sonVsevolod I, was married toHenry IV, Holy Roman Emperor. Yaroslav also arranged marriages for his sister and three daughters to the kings of Poland, France, Hungary and Norway.[citation needed]
The principalities of later Kievan Rus' (c.1054–1132)
In the centuries that followed the state's foundation,Rurik's descendants shared power over Kievan Rus'. The means by which royal power was transferred from one Rurikid ruler to the next is unclear, however, historianPaul Magocsi mentioned that 'Scholars have debated what the actual system of succession was or whether there was any system at all.'[130] According to historianNancy Shields Kollmann, therota system was used with the princely succession moving from elder to younger brother and from uncle to nephew, as well as from father to son. Junior members of the dynasty usually began their official careers as rulers of a minor district, progressed to more lucrative principalities, and then competed for the coveted throne of Kiev.[131] Whatever the case, according to professor Ivan Katchanovski 'no adequate system of succession to the Kievan throne was developed' after the death ofYaroslav the Wise (r. 1019–1054), commencing a process of gradual disintegration.[132]
The unconventional power succession system fomented constant hatred and rivalry within the royal family.Familicide was frequently deployed to obtain power and can be traced particularly during the time of the Yaroslavichi (sons of Yaroslav), when the established succession system was skipped in the establishment ofVladimir II Monomakh as the Grand Prince of Kiev (r. 1113–1125), in turn creating major squabbles between theOlegovichi (sons ofOleg I) from Chernigov, theMonomakhovichi from Pereyaslavl, theIzyaslavichi (sons ofIziaslav) fromTurov–Volhynia, and thePolotsk Princes. The position of the grand prince of Kiev was weakened by the growing influence of regional clans.[citation needed]
Fragmentation and decline
The rivalPrincipality of Polotsk was contesting the power of the Grand Prince by occupying Novgorod, whileRostislav Vladimirovich was fighting for the Black Sea port ofTmutarakan belonging to Chernigov. Three of Yaroslav's sons who first allied together found themselves fighting each other especially after their defeat to the Cuman forces in 1068 at theBattle of the Alta River.[citation needed]
The ruling Grand Prince Iziaslav fled to Poland asking for support and in a couple of years returned to establish the order. The affairs became even more complicated by the end of the 11th century driving the state into chaos and constant warfare. On the initiative of Vladimir II Monomakh in 1097 theCouncil of Liubech of Kievan Rus' took place near Chernigov with the main intention to find an understanding among the fighting sides.[citation needed]
By 1130, all descendants ofVseslav the Seer had been exiled to the Byzantine Empire byMstislav the Great. The most fierce resistance to the Monomakhs was posed by the Olegovichi when theizgoiVsevolod II managed to become the Grand Prince of Kiev. TheRostislavichi, who had initially established in the lands ofGalicia by 1189, were defeated by the Monomakh-Piast descendantRoman the Great.[citation needed]
The decline of Constantinople—a main trading partner of Kievan Rus'—played a significant role in the decline of the Kievan Rus'. Thetrade route from the Varangians to the Greeks, along which the goods were moving from the Black Sea (mainly Byzantine) througheastern Europe to the Baltic, was a cornerstone of Kievan wealth and prosperity. These trading routes became less important as the Byzantine Empire declined in power and Western Europe created new trade routes to Asia and the Near East. As people relied less on passing through the territories of Kievan Rus' for trade, the economy of Kievan Rus' suffered.[133]
The last ruler to maintain a united state was Mstislav the Great. After his death in 1132, Kievan Rus' fell into recession and a rapid decline, and Mstislav's successorYaropolk II of Kiev, instead of focusing on the external threat of theCumans, was embroiled in conflicts with the growing power of theNovgorod Republic. In March 1169, a coalition of native princes led by Andrei Bogolyubsky of Vladimirsacked Kiev.[134] This changed the perception of Kiev and was evidence of the fragmentation of the Kievan Rus'.[135] By the end of the 12th century, the Kievan state fragmented even further, into roughly twelve different principalities.[136]
In the north, theNovgorod Republic prospered because it controlled trade routes from theRiver Volga to the Baltic Sea. As Kievan Rus' declined, Novgorod became more independent. A localoligarchy ruled Novgorod; major government decisions were made by a town assembly, which also elected a prince as the city's military leader. In 1136, Novgorod revolted against Kiev, and became independent.[137] Now an independentcity republic, and referred to as "Lord Novgorod the Great" it would spread its "mercantile interest" to the west and the north; to the Baltic Sea and the low-populated forest regions, respectively.[137]
Following the Mongol invasion ofCumania (or the Kipchaks), in which case many Cuman rulers fled to Rus', such asKöten, the state finally disintegrated under the pressure of theMongol invasion of Kievan Rus', fragmenting it into successor principalities who paid tribute to theGolden Horde (the so-calledTatar Yoke). Just prior to the Mongol invasion, Kievan Rus' had been a relatively prosperous region. International trade as well as skilled artisans flourished, while its farms produced enough to feed the urban population. After the invasion of the late 1230s, the economy shattered, and its population were either slaughtered orsold into slavery; while skilled laborers and artisans were sent to the Mongol's steppe regions.[140]
On the southwestern periphery, Kievan Rus' was succeeded by thePrincipality of Galicia-Volhynia. Later, as these territories, now part of modern centralUkraine andBelarus, fell to theGediminids, the powerful, largely RuthenizedGrand Duchy of Lithuania drew heavily on the cultural and legal traditions of the Rus'. From 1398 until theUnion of Lublin in 1569, its full name was the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Ruthenia and Samogitia.[141]
On the north-eastern periphery of Kievan Rus', traditions were adapted in theVladimir-Suzdal principality that gradually gravitated towards Moscow. To the very north, theNovgorod andPskov feudal republics were less autocratic than Vladimir-Suzdal-Moscow until they were absorbed by theGrand Duchy of Moscow. Modern historians from Belarus, Russia and Ukraine alike consider Kievan Rus' the first period of their modern countries' histories.[132][19]
Society
Culture
Administering justice in Kievan Rus', byIvan Bilibin
The lands of Kievan Rus' were mostly made up of forests and steppes (seeEast European forest steppe andCentral European mixed forests), while its main rivers all originated in theValdai Hills: theDnieper, and primarily populated bySlavic andFinnic tribes.[142] All tribes werehunter-gatherers to a certain degree, but the Slavs were primarily agriculturalists, growing cereal grains and crops, as well as raising livestock.[41] Before the emergence of the Kievan state, these tribes had their own leaders and gods, and interaction between tribes was occasionally marked either by trading goods or fighting battles.[41] The most valuable commodities traded were captive slaves and fur pelts (usually in exchange for silver coins or oriental finery), and common trade partners wereVolgaBolghar,KhazarItil andByzantineChersonesus.[41] By the early 9th century, bands of Scandinavian adventurers known asVarangians and laterRus' started plundering various (Slavic) villages in the region, later extracting tribute in exchange for protection against pillaging by other Varangians.[41] Over time, these relationships of tribute for protection evolved into more permanent political structures: the Rus' lords became princes and the Slavic populace their subjects.[143]
In the early 10th century, Kievan Rus' mainly traded with other tribes inEastern Europe andScandinavia. "There was little need for complex social structures to carry out these exchanges in the forests north of the steppes. So long as the entrepreneurs operated in small numbers and kept to the north, they did not catch the attention of observers or writers". The Rus' also had strong trading ties toByzantium, particularly in the early 900s, as treaties in 911 and 944 indicate. These treaties deal with the treatment of runaway Byzantine slaves and limitations on the amounts of certain commodities such assilk that could be bought from Byzantium. The Rus' used log rafts floated down theDnieper River bySlavic tribes for the transport of goods, particularlyslaves to Byzantium.[144]
During the Kievan era, trade and transport depended largely on networks of rivers and portages.[145] By this period, trade networks had expanded to cater to more than just local demand. This is evidenced by a survey of glassware found in over 30 sites ranging from Suzdal, Drutsk and Beloozero, which found that a substantial majority was manufactured in Kiev. Kiev was the main depot and transit point for trade between itself,Byzantium and theBlack Sea region. Even though this trade network had already been existent, the volume of which had expanded rapidly in the 11th century. Kiev was also dominant in internal trade between the towns of Rus'; it held a monopoly on glassware products (glass vessels, glazed pottery and window glass) up until the early- to mid-12th century until which it lost its monopoly to the other towns in Rus'. Inlaidenamel production techniques was borrowed from Byzantine. Byzantine amphorae, wine and olive oil have been found along the middle Dnieper, suggesting trade between Kiev, along trade towns to Byzantium.[146]
In winter, the ruler of Kiev went out on rounds, visitingDregovichs,Krivichs,Drevlians,Severians, and other subordinated tribes. Some paid tribute in money, some in furs or other commodities, and some in slaves. This system was calledpoliudie.[147][148]
According to Martin (2009), 'Christianity, Judaism, and Islam had long been known in these lands, andOlga personally converted to Christianity. WhenVladimir assumed the throne, however, he set idols of Norse, Slav, Finn, and Iranian gods, worshipped by the disparate elements of his society, on a hilltop in Kiev in an attempt to create a single pantheon for his people. But for reasons that remain unclear he soon abandoned this attempt in favour of Christianity.'[149]
The architecture of Kievan Rus' is the earliest period of Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian architecture, using the foundations of Byzantine culture, but with great use of innovations and architectural features. Most remains are Russian Orthodox churches or parts of the gates and fortifications of cities.[citation needed]
The East Slavic lands were originally divided into princely domains calledzemlias, "lands", orvolosts (from a term meaning "power" or "government").[150] A smaller clan-sized unit was called averv, orpogost, headed by akopa orviche.[151]
From the 11th to 13th centuries the principalities were divided intovolosts, its centre usually called apryhorod (orGord a fortified settlement).[152][150] A volost consisted of severalvervs orhromadas (commune or community).[150] A local official was called avolostel orstarosta.[150]
Druzhyna: princely cavalry.The military of Kievan Rus' served as the armed forces of Kievan Rus' between the 9th to 13th century. It was mainly characterised by infantry armies of townmilitia that were supported bydruzhyna cavalry.
Steppe peoples
From the 9th century on, thePecheneg nomads had an uneasy relationship with Kievan Rus'. For over two centuries they launched sporadic raids into Rus', which sometimes escalated into full-scale wars, such as the 920 war on the Pechenegs by Igor of Kiev, reported in thePrimary Chronicle, but there were also temporary military alliances e.g., the 943 Byzantine campaign by Igor.[i] In 968, the Pechenegsattacked and besieged the city of Kiev.[153]
Byzantium quickly became the maintrading and cultural partner for Kiev, but relations were not always friendly. One of the largest military accomplishments of the Rurikid dynasty was the attack on Byzantium in 960. Pilgrims of the Rus' had been making the journey fromKiev toConstantinople for many years, andConstantine Porphyrogenitus, the Emperor of theByzantine Empire, believed that this gave them significant information about the arduous parts of the journey and where travelers were most at risk, as would be pertinent for an invasion. This route took travelers through domain of thePechenegs, journeying mostly by river. In June 941, the Rus' staged a naval ambush on Byzantine forces, making up for their smaller numbers with small, maneuverable boats. These boats were ill-equipped for the transportation of large quantities of treasure, suggesting that looting was not the goal. The raid was led, according to thePrimary Chronicle, by a king called Igor. Three years later, the treaty of 944 stated that all ships approaching Byzantium must be preceded by a letter from the Rurikid prince stating the number of ships and assuring their peaceful intent. This not only indicates fear of another surprise attack, but an increased Kievan presence in theBlack Sea.[155]
TheMongol Empire invaded Kievan Rus' in the 13th century, devastating numerous cities, includingRyazan,Kolomna,Moscow,Vladimir and Kiev. Thesiege of Kiev in 1240 by the Mongols is generally understood as the end of Kievan Rus'.Batu Khan went on to subjugate Galicia and Volhynia, raid Poland and Hungary, and founded theGolden Horde at Sarai in 1242.[156] The conquests mostly halted due to a succession crisis following khanOgedei's death, leading Batu to return to Mongolia to select the clan's next overlord.[156]
Kievan Rus', although sparsely populated compared to Western Europe,[157] was not only the largest contemporary European state in terms of area but also culturally advanced.[158] Literacy in Kiev, Novgorod and other large cities was high.[159][j] Novgorod had asewage system andwood pavement not often found in other cities at the time.[161] TheRusskaya Pravda confined punishments to fines and generally did not usecapital punishment.[k] Certainrights were accorded to women, such as property andinheritance rights.[163][164][165]
The economic development of Kievan Rus' may be reflected in its demographics. Scholarly estimates of Kiev's population around 1200 range from 36,000 to 50,000 (at the time, Paris had about 50,000, and London 30,000).[166] Novgorod had about 10,000 to 15,000 inhabitants in 1000, and about double that number by 1200, while Chernigov had a larger land area than both Kiev and Novgorod at the time, and is therefore estimated have had even more inhabitants.[166] Constantinople, then one of the largest cities in the world, had a population of about 400,000 around 1180.[167] Soviet scholarMikhail Tikhomirov calculated that Kievan Rus' had around 300 urban centres on the eve of the Mongol invasion.[168]
Kievan Rus' also played an important genealogical role in European politics.Yaroslav the Wise, whose stepmother belonged to theMacedonian dynasty that ruled the Byzantine Empire from 867 to 1056, married the only legitimate daughter of the king who Christianized Sweden. His daughters became queens of Hungary, France and Norway; his sons married the daughters of aPolish king and Byzantine emperor, and a niece of the Pope; and his granddaughters were a German empress and (according to one theory) the queen ofScotland. A grandson married the only daughter of the lastAnglo-Saxon king of England. Thus theRurikids were a well-connected royal family of the time.[l][m]
Serhii Plokhy (2006) proposed to "denationalize" Kievan Rus': contrary to what modern nationalist interpretations had been doing, he argued for 'separating Kievan Rus' as a multi-ethnic state from the national histories of Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus. This applies to the word Rus' and to the concept of the Rus' Land.'[171] According to Halperin (2010), 'Plokhy's approach does not invalidate analysis of rival claims by Muscovy, Lithuania or Ukraine to the Kievan inheritance; it merely relegates such pretensions entirely to the realm of ideology.'[172]
^"In these early centuries East Slavic tribes and their neighbours coalesced into the Christian state of Kievan Rus."[5]
^'For all the salient differences between these three post-Soviet nations, they have much in common when it comes to their culture and history, which goes back to Kievan Rus', the medievalEast Slavic state based in the capital of present-day Ukraine,'[19]
^"The controversies over the nature of the Rus and the origins of the Russian state have bedevilled Viking studies, and indeed Russian history, for well over a century. It is historically certain that the Rus were Swedes. The evidence is incontrovertible, and that a debate still lingers at some levels of historical writing is clear evidence of the holding power of received notions. The debate over this issue – futile, embittered, tendentious, doctrinaire – served to obscure the most serious and genuine historical problem which remains: the assimilation of these Viking Rus into the Slavic people among whom they lived. The principal historical question is not whether the Rus were Scandinavians or Slavs, but, rather, how quickly these Scandinavian Rus became absorbed into Slavic life and culture."[40]
^Normanist scholars accept this moment as the foundation of the Kievan Rus' state, while anti-Normanists point to otherChronicle entries to argue that the East Slav Polianes were already in the process of forming a state independently.[75]
^Abaskun, first recorded byPtolemy asSocanaa, was documented in Arab sources as "the most famous port of the Khazarian Sea". It was situated within three days' journey fromGorgan. The southern part of the Caspian Sea was known as the "Sea of Abaskun".[96]
^The Khazar khagan initially granted the Rus' safe passage in exchange for a share of the booty but attacked them on their return voyage, killing most of the raiders and seizing their haul.
^If Olga was indeed born in 879, as thePrimary Chronicle seems to imply, she would have been about 65 at the time of Sviatoslav's birth. There are clearly some problems with chronology.[121]
^"It is to the credit of Vladimir and his advisors they built not only churches but schools as well. This compulsory baptism was followed by compulsory education... Schools were thus founded not only in Kiev but also in provincial cities. From the "Life of St. Feodosi" we know that a school existed in Kursk around the year of 1023. By the time of Yaroslav's reign (1019–54), education had struck roots and its benefits were apparent. Around 1030, Iaroslav founded a divinity school in Novgorod for 300 children of both laymen and clergy to be instructed in "book-learning". As a general measure, he made the parish priests "teach the people"."[160]
^"The most notable aspect of the criminal provisions was that punishments took the form of seizure of property, banishment, or, more often, payment of a fine. Even murder and other severe crimes (arson, organised horse thieving, androbbery) were settled by monetary fines. Although the death penalty had been introduced by Vladimir the Great, it too was soon replaced by fines."[162]
^"In medieval Europe, a mark of a dynasty's prestige and power was the willingness with which other leading dynasties entered into matrimonial relations with it. Measured by this standard, Yaroslav's prestige must have been great indeed... . Little wonder that Iaroslav is often dubbed by historians as 'the father-in-law of Europe.'"[169]
^"By means of these marital ties, Kievan Rus' became well known throughout Europe."[170]
Citations
^Slavic Culture in the Middle Ages. California Slavic Studies. University of California Press. 2021. p. 141.ISBN9780520309180.
^abRubin, Barnett R.; Snyder, Jack L. (1998).Post-Soviet Political Order: Conflict and State Building. London: Routledge. p. 93.As the capital of Kyivan Rus ...."The Golden Age of Kyivan Rus'".gis.huri.harvard.edu.Archived from the original on 30 October 2022. Retrieved30 October 2022."Ukraine – History, section "Kyivan (Kievan) Rus"".Encyclopedia Britannica. 5 March 2020.Archived from the original on 6 September 2015. Retrieved2 July 2020.
Zhdan, Mykhailo (1988)."Kyivan Rus'".Encyclopedia of Ukraine.Archived from the original on 26 March 2023. Retrieved2 July 2020.
^Curtis, Glenn Eldon (1998).Russia: A Country Study. Federal Research Division, Library of Congress.ISBN978-0-8444-0866-8.Kievan Rus', the first East Slavic state, emerged in the ninth century A.D. and developed a complex and frequently unstable political system that flourished until the thirteenth century, when it declined abruptly.
^abcJohn Channon & Robert Hudson,Penguin Historical Atlas of Russia (Penguin, 1995), p.14–16.
^abStefan Brink, 'Who were the Vikings?', inThe Viking WorldArchived 14 April 2023 at theWayback Machine, ed. by Stefan Brink and Neil Price (Abingdon: Routledge, 2008), pp. 4–10 (pp. 6–7).
^"Russ, adj. and n." OED Online, Oxford University Press, June 2018, www.oed.com/view/Entry/169069. Accessed 12 January 2021.
^Tolochko, A. P. (1999). "Khimera "Kievskoy Rusi"".Rodina (in Russian) (8):29–33.
^Колесса, Олександер Михайлович (1898).Столїтє обновленої українсько-руської лїтератури: (1798–1898). Львів: З друкарні Наукового Товариства імені Шевченка під зарядом К. Беднарського. p. 26.В XII та XIII в., в часі, коли південна, Київська Русь породила такі перли літературні ... (In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, at a time when southern, Kyivan Rus' gave birth to such literary pearls ...)
^Elena Melnikova, 'The "Varangian Problem": Science in the Grip of Ideology and Politics', inRussia's Identity in International Relations: Images, Perceptions, Misperceptions, ed. by Ray Taras (Abingdon: Routledge, 2013), pp. 42–52.
^Jonathan Shepard, "Review Article: Back in Old Rus and the USSR: Archaeology, History and Politics",English Historical Review, vol. 131 (no. 549) (2016), 384–405doi:10.1093/ehr/cew104 (p. 387), citing Leo S. Klejn,Soviet Archaeology: Trends, Schools, and History, trans. by Rosh Ireland and Kevin Windle (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012), p. 119.
^Artem Istranin and Alexander Drono, "Competing historical Narratives in Russian Textbooks", inMutual Images: Textbook Representations of Historical Neighbours in the East of Europe, ed. by János M. Bak and Robert Maier, Eckert. Dossiers, 10 ([Braunschweig]: Georg Eckert Institute for International Textbook Research, 2017), 31–43 (pp. 35–36).
^Smith, Graham (10 September 1998).Nation-building in the Post-Soviet Borderlands: The Politics of National Identities. Cambridge University Press. p. 31.ISBN978-0-521-59968-9.The Ukrainophile claim is that, in the words of the 1991 declaration of Ukrainian independence, the Ukrainians have a 'thousand-year tradition of state-building'... As in Russophile historiography, the 'Normanist theory' that Rus' was in fact established by Viking envoys, is rejected as a German invention.
^Williams, Tom (28 February 2014)."Vikings in Russia".blog.britishmuseum.org. The British Museum.Archived from the original on 21 January 2021. Retrieved15 January 2021.Objects now on loan to the British Museum for the BP exhibition Vikings: life and legend indicate the extent of Scandinavian settlement from the Baltic to the Black Sea . . .
^Franklin, Simon; Shepard, Jonathan (1996).The Emergence of Rus: 750–1200. Longman History of Russia. Essex: Harlow.ISBN0-582-49090-1.
^Fadlan, Ibn (2005).(Richard Frey) Ibn Fadlan's Journey to Russia. Princeton, NJ: Markus Wiener Publishers.
^Rusios, quos alio nos nomine Nordmannos apellamus.(in Polish) Henryk Paszkiewicz (2000).Wzrost potęgi Moskwy, s.13, Kraków.ISBN83-86956-93-3
^abKonstam, Angus (2005).Historical Atlas of the Viking World. London: Mercury Books London. p. 165.ISBN1904668127.This unlikely invitation was clearly a vehicle to explain the annexation of these territories by the Vikings, and to lend authority to a later generation of Rus rulers.
^The Life of St. George of Amastris describes the Rus' as a barbaric people "who are brutal and crude and bear no remnant of love for humankind". David Jenkins,The Life of St. George of AmastrisArchived 5 August 2019 at theWayback Machine (University of Notre Dame Press, 2001), p.18.
^Victor Spinei,The Romanians and the Turkic Nomads North of the Danube Delta from the Tenth to the Mid-Thirteenth Century (2009),pp. 47–49Archived 22 March 2023 at theWayback Machine
^abJohn V. A. Fine,The Early Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Sixth to the Late Twelfth Century (1991),pp. 138–139Archived 22 March 2023 at theWayback Machine.
^B. N. Zakhoder (1898–1960).The Caspian Compilation of Records about Eastern Europe (online versionArchived 1 May 2021 at theWayback Machine) (in Russian).
^Thompson, John M. (John Means) (25 July 2017).Russia : a historical introduction from Kievan Rus' to the present. Ward, Christopher J., 1972– (Eighth ed.). New York, NY. p. 20.ISBN978-0-8133-4985-5.OCLC987591571.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
^Franklin, Simon, and Jonathan Shepard (1996).The Emergence of Rus 750–1200. Harlow, Essex: Longman Group, Ltd., pp. 27–28, 127.
^William H. McNeill (1 January 1979). Jean Cuisenier (ed.).Europe as a Cultural Area. World Anthropology. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 32–33.ISBN978-3-11-080070-8. Retrieved8 February 2016.For a while, it looked as if the Scandinavian thrust toward monarchy and centralization might succeed in building two impressive and imperial structures: a Danish empire of the northern seas, and a Varangian empire of the Russian rivers, headquartered at Kiev.... In the east, new hordes of steppe nomads, fresh from central Asia, intruded upon the river-based empire of the Varangians by taking over its southern portion.
^Sherman, Charles Phineas (1917)."Russia".Roman Law in the Modern World. Boston: The Boston Book Company. p. 191.Archived from the original on 23 April 2023. Retrieved14 November 2020.The adoption of Christianity by Vladimir... was followed by commerce with theByzantine Empire. In its wake came Byzantine art and culture. And in the course of the next century, what is now Southeastern Russia becamemore advanced in civilization than any western European State of the period, for Russia came in for a share of Byzantine culture, then vastly superior to the rudeness of Western nations.
^Miklashevsky, N.; et al. (2000)."Istoriya vodoprovoda v Rossii".ИСТОРИЯ ВОДОПРОВОДА В РОССИИ [History of water-supply in Russia] (in Russian). Saint Petersburg, Russia: ?. p. 240.ISBN978-5-8206-0114-9.Archived from the original on 10 March 2006. Retrieved18 March 2006.
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