The city center is 568 meters above sea level.Ceyhan River, which originates from the mountains surroundingElbistan Plain is the most important hydrological feature in the city.[4]
Kahramanmaraş has aMediterranean climate (Köppen:Csa,Trewartha:Cs) withcontinental influences from the surrounding northern areas.[4] Summers are very hot and dry with a daytime average of 35 °C (95 °F) but temperatures can reach 40 °C (104 °F) quite easily. The highest recorded temperature is 47.2 °C (117.0 °F) on 14 August 2023. Winters are cool and wet with daytime temperatures typically in the 5–10 °C (41–50 °F) range. The coldest temperature recorded is −9.6 °C (14.7 °F) on 6 February 1997.
Climate data for Kahramanmaraş (1991–2020, extremes 1930–2023)
A statue in Kahramanmaraş Archaeology MuseumA statue in Kahramanmaraş Archaeology MuseumTrabzon street, Kahramanmaraş city center
In the earlyIron Age (late 11th century BC to ca. 711 BC[10]), Maraş was the capital city of theSyro-Hittite stateGurgum (Hieroglyphic Luwian Kurkuma). It was known as "theKurkumaean city" to itsLuwian inhabitants and asMarqas to theAssyrians.[11] In 711 BC, the land of Gurgum was annexed as anAssyrian province and renamed Marqas after its capital.[12]
Maraş was calledGermanicia Caesarea (Ancient Greek:Γερμανίκεια,Germanikeia) in the time of theRoman andByzantine empires, probably afterGermanicus Julius Caesar rather than the German people. According to a 2010Cumhuriyet article, the first ruins of Germanicia have already been unearthed in the Dulkadiroğulları quarters of the city.[13]
During the Byzantine Empire, Germanikeia was seat of aneparch and one of the city's eparch participated in theFirst Council of Nicea.[14] The city was lost to the Arabs in the 7th century and during the rule ofal-Mansur the whole Christian population of the Germanikeia valley was deported and resettled atRamla inPalestine.[15] After the fall of the Armenian kingdoms in the 11th century the city became an important stronghold for the exiledArmenians and the city became the capital of the short-lived principality ofPhilaretos Brachamios that at times includedAntioch andEdessa.[16]
After Philaretos' death, another Armenian general namedTatoul took over the city and hosted the exhausted army of theFirst Crusade for four days before it moved on to theSiege of Antioch.[17] According to the Chronicle ofMatthew of Edessa,it was destroyed by an earthquake and 40,000 people were killed on the 12th of the month ofMareri in the Armenian year 563 (November 29, 1114).[18] In 1100, the city was captured by theDanishmends, followed by theSeljuks in 1103. In 1107,Crusaders led byTancred retook it with aid fromToros I ofCilician Armenia. In 1135, the Danishmends besieged Germanikeia unsuccessfully, but captured it the next year. However, the Crusaders retook it in 1137.[19]
Panorama view (c1875)
Marash was ruled by theBeylik of Dulkadir as vassals of theMamluk Empire from 1337 to 1515 before being annexed to theOttoman Empire. In the early days of Ottoman rule (1525–6) there were 1,557 adult males (total population 7,500); at this time all the inhabitants were Muslims,[20] but later a substantial number of non-Muslims migrated to the city, mainly in the 19th century.[21]
Around Maras, Armenians from Kishifli, Dere Keoy, and Fundijak chose to fight the Ottoman army to oppose deportation.[22] On the morning of 26 July 1915, they attacked and burned six Turkish villages and their crops. Due toMuslim conscription forWorld War One, victims were women, children, and the elderly.[23] In response, the Turkish army began a siege of Fundijak under Ali Bey on August 1.[24] 91 captured fighters were executed, and another 100 were deported. The Turkish losses were estimated at 2,000 soldiers and between 4,000 and 5,000 villagers, while the Armenians lost 2,100, mostly civilians.[25][23]
In the months following the end of the war, Cilicia had also become a source of dispute between the British and French, who both aspired to establish influence in the region. The British government, however, was under strong domestic pressure to withdraw and demobilize its forces in the Middle East and on 15 September 1919, Prime MinisterDavid Lloyd George begrudgingly accepted a proposal by Prime MinisterGeorges Clemenceau to have the French formally assume control of Cilicia. The transfer of command took place on 4 November, but Field MarshalFerdinand Foch's promise to reinforce the existing forces in the area with at least 32 infantrybattalions, 20 cavalrysquadrons and 14artillery batteries went unfulfilled. The French units were thus deprived of armoured cars and air support and lacked automatic weapons, heavy artillery and even wireless transmitters andcarrier pigeons.[citation needed]
After theFirst World War, Maras was controlled byBritish troops between 22 February 1919 and 30 October 1919, then byFrench troops, after theArmistice of Mudros. Dr. Mustafa, a Turkish revolutionary and leader in Marash, heard news of theErzurum Congress that stated Turkish people had the right to resist in majority Turkish speaking lands.[26] On the first day of the French occupation, he was able to telegraph withMustafa Kemal and succeeded in requesting support from the Turkish National Forces in Marash, though they would not arrive in time for the battle.[26]
TheSütçü İmam incident, in which a French Legionnaire ripped off the hijab of a woman, contributed to the sparking of public unrest and led to the first shot being fired against the French occupying forces.[27] There was also another incident in which 20 Turkish 'notables' of the city would be killed during the beginning of the occupation, and 20 more would be injured.[28] The Reverend Pascal Maljian was hit by a stone thrown through a window and cut his cheek. According to his account, "Hovnan Pasha had summoned several of the new Armenian recruits and demanded that my blood should not be allowed to dry without being avenged on that very Sunday afternoon... He fired at the lamp, and taking advantage of the confusion when it flared up, tossed a German hand grenade into the cafe". The explosion wounded some twenty of the Turkish notables and killed another twenty."[29] The cafe was chosen due to its closeness to where the Reverend had been hit, and due to the fact that respected members of the community, or 'notables', often gathered there in the evenings.[28]
On 27 November 1919, a group of Turks gathered in secret at the home of Mehmet Veziroghlu to organize resistance to the French occupation. A committee of eight was decided upon, and all members took this vow:
"For the security of our Nation we swear to Allah to sacrifice our lives; and to punish by death —even if it should be our brothers—any treachery made against our organization; and to guard all secrets".[30]
They named the organization The Committee for the Defense of Rights, and split their forces into aclandestine cell system, with the members of each cell only knowing the activities and identities of members of their own group of ten. Additional recruits were sought from neighboring villages.[26]
The Turkish forces in Marash numbered 2,500.[31] Some of them were armed with old hunting rifles and others with melee weapons. Before the battle, they obtained 850 rifles, two machine guns and two cannons (not used during the fighting), from thegendarmerie building in Marash.[32][31] Those without firearms armed themselves with rifles acquired from dead French soldiers.[31]
On 20 January, the French Captain Fontaine and his battalion[33] were ambushed by Turkish rebels, losing twelve legionnaires.[34] When General Querette of the French learned of these events, he summoned Marash 'notables' (respected leaders of the city) and charged them with complicity in the attacks.[35] The notables refused responsibility, but agreed to paying the French a compensation to replace supplies. However, they also stated that France was violating the terms of theArmistice of Mudros.[35]
Immediately after the remaining notables had left the French headquarters, the Turkish rebellion began.[35] The plan was to strike suddenly.[36][37] The very first shots fired were witnessed by nurse Osanna Maksudian, who "noted a Turkish gendarme escorting four Muslim women to a house. When they were safely inside he turned and fired his rifle into the air three times. Immediately fire replied from every quarter."[38]
As Stanley Kerr recounts:
The city was deserted except for groups of heavily armed Turks who were all headed in one direction... It was apparent that the insurrection had been carefully planned. Groups of armed men occupied houses at street intersections and shot down French soldiers on the street and sentries at their posts, making use of loopholes prepared in advance. Anyone seen moving was shot, for it was only the Christians who knew nothing of the plan. In the patrols used for policing the city composed of both Turkish gendarmes and French soldiers, the gendarmes turned suddenly on their French companions and killed them. The orders given by the general for the seizure of certain strategic positions could not be carried out, for the Turks themselves performed that maneuver only half an hour before the French zero hour[39]
The French responded with cannon fire, shelling Turkish houses and subjecting the city to 'heavy bombardment'.[39][40] Lieutenant Colonel Thibault recorded that General Querette was head of much of the operations, and told ordered his men to flush out enemy troops from the houses, though Turkish rebels would adopt this strategy to greater success using fire rather than cannons.[41] Turkish rebels threwkerosene-doused rags on Armenian houses and laid a constant barrage upon the American relief hospital.[40][42][43] Thibault recorded "the vigilance and boldness of the rebels, who seemed to be animated by an ardent offensive spirit."[44]
Previously, a telegram sent to the French Commander by the most respected elders of Marash stated that British occupation had been understandable and no incident had occurred and they did not object to a French occupation, but the majority of the occupying force was Armenian,[45] and "from the moment of their arrival had shown nothing but hatred for the Muslims".[46] Recruitment for the occupying forces began at Fort Said, andStanley Kerr states that the motivation for many joining up was "revenge for the cruel deportation and massacres".[45][47]
On 8 February, General Querette gave the order to bombard houses rebel Turks were in, in addition to the previous bombardment of Turkish houses.[39][48] During the battle, a massacre of Christian civilians took place.[49] Most died within the first three days, and those that fled were held in French military quarters or otherwise military defended churches and schools.[42] Christians found shelter in Marash's sixArmenian Apostolic and threeArmenian Evangelical churches alongside soldiers. All of the churches were set alight.[50][51][52] When the 2,000 Armenians who had taken shelter in the Catholic cathedral attempted to leave, they were shot.[53] The official French report stated that the victims did "not exceed 5,000".[49] Early reports put the number of Armenians dead at no less than 16,000, although this was later revised down to 5,000–12,000.[54][55] Stanley Kerr, who served the remaining Christians, stated that 9,700 Armenians were in Marash after the battle.[55]
In a telegraph, General Dufieux advised the immediate evacuation of Marash if there was no ceasefire.[48] The French secretly planned to withdraw, but Armenian legionnaires spread the word to their neighbors.[56] That morning, Turkish rebels told their families to evacuate the city.[57] Upon hearing this news, an Armenian pastor recounted:
The Armenians—learning that the city was now evacuated by the Turks—rushed out from their imprisonment and began to help themselves to everything they could carry out of the empty Turkish houses. They soon reached our center with the news and our people, too, ran for booty. In a few hours our two buildings were filled with food, clothes, house furnishings, etc. I was displeased by all this... At nightfall, as if to avenge the deeds of the Turks, the Armenians set mosques and Turkish houses on fire and killed a few Turks they found here and there. The Armenians were rejoicing at the defeat of the Turks—not knowing that the French were in the process of evacuating the city.[58]
Dr. Mustafa, a leader of the Turks, planned to surrender under the condition that Turkish women and children would be protected, but was murdered after meeting with French leaders.[59] His letter stating his willingness to surrender and his terms was initially hidden by Nazaret Bilezikjian, who protested allowing surrender by turning it in to French authorities in a confrontation with Stanley Kerr, saying "Let the Turks get the punishment that they deserve!"[60] According to Dr. Robert Lambert's report to theAmerican Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, 4,500 Turks were killed during the battle, but were ultimately victorious against French forces.[61]
In the years following the battle, theTreaty of Lausanne would be established and Marash would become part of the newTurkish Republic. On 7 April 1925, Marash became one of two cities in Turkey to receive aTurkish Medal of Independence (the other city beingİnebolu). In 1973, Marash's name was changed to Kahramanmaraş when the Turkish government added "Kahraman" to the name, in reference to the resistance to the French occupation after the First World War.Kahraman means "heroic" or “brave” inTurkish.[63]
In February 2023, a powerful7.8 magnitude earthquake struck near Kahramanmaraş, causing widespread damage to the city, leaving more than 50,000 people dead.[65][66] The city center was hardest-hit as many homes were destroyed. An estimated 17.37 percent of the city was destroyed.[67]
In 1904,Mark Sykes recorded Marash as a city inhabited by Armenians and Turks.[69] Ephraim K. Jernazian estimated that in 1913 the city was home to 45 thousand Turks and 30 thousand Armenians, while other ethnic groups had very small representation.[70] Stanley Kerr reported Turks comprised 75% of the population.[71] Ottoman censuses from the time are not fully reliable for many reasons, one of which being that during census taking every household was assumed to have 5 residents.[72]
The Armenian population of Maraş, like many other Armenian communities in Turkey. Maraş was the site of massacres and deportations of Armenians,[73][74] who were subjected to violence, harassment,[75] looting and appropriation of property,[76] and were forced to flee. In 1915, Armenians from Marash villages attacked and burned six Turkish villages and their crops.[22] 4,000-5,000 Turkish villagers died, and the Turkish forces lost 2,000 soldiers. Due toMuslim conscription forWorld War One, victims were women, children, and the elderly.[23] This would severely accelerate the deportation process for Armenians in Marash.[22] A total of 20,000 Armenians from Marash would be deported,[77] as local officials intentionally grouped the local population under the deportation orders for 'foreign armies'.[78]
During theTurkish War of Independence, the French army occupied Maraş, and some Armenians returned to the city as French legionnaires,[45] in addition to returning locals. In February 1920, Turkish nationalist forces regained control from the French, resulting in amassacre of the Armenian population. The official French report stated that the victims did "not exceed 5,000", though the initial estimates varied.[49] According to Dr. Robert Lambert's report to theAmerican Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, 4,500 Turks were killed during the battle.[61]
In modern Turkey, data on the ethnic makeup of the country is not officially collected, though estimates exist.[79] Kahramanmaraş is currently predominantly populated by Turkish and also Kurdish people, with a small Armenian population.[80] The population of the city was 571,266 as of 2022.[81][1] In February 2023, a powerful7.8 magnitude earthquake struck near Kahramanmaraş, causing widespread damage to the city and leaving more than 50,000 people dead.[65]
Several internationally known ice cream companies, likeMADO,Yaşar Pastanesi,EDO andFerah Pastanesi, started their business in Kahramanmaraş, and thousands of people visit the city because of its ice cream (dondurma in Turkish).
Turkish Ice Cream, also known as Kahramanmaraş Ice cream originates from the city.
^Kim, Young Richard (2021).The Cambridge Companion to the Council of Nicaea. Cambridge University Press.ISBN9781108427746.
^Bat, Ye'or (1996).The Decline of Eastern Christianity Under Islam: From Jihad to Dhimmitude : Seventh-twentieth Century. Fairleigh Dickinson Univ Press. p. 88.ISBN9780838636886.
^Tonghini, Cristina (2021).From Edessa to Urfa: The Fortification of the Citadel. Archaeopress Publishing Ltd. p. 39.ISBN9781789697575.
^abcKerr, Stanley Elphinstone (1973).The Lions of Marash: Personal Experiences with American Near East Relief, 1919-1922. SUNY Press, pp. 95–142.ISBN. p. 18
^abcKerr, Stanley Elphinstone (1973).The Lions of Marash: Personal Experiences with American Near East Relief, 1919-1922. SUNY Press, pp. 95–142.ISBN978-0-87395-200-2. p. 19
^Kerr, Stanley Elphinstone (1973).The Lions of Marash: Personal Experiences with American Near East Relief, 1919-1922. SUNY Press, pp. 95–142.ISBN978-0-87395-200-2. p. 41
^abc(in Turkish)Çarpışmaların Başlaması (Beginning of the engagements) Archived 11 April 2013 at theWayback Machine. (History of Kahramanmaraş); Kahramanmaraş Official Governor Website.
^Toplumsal tarih (Edition 3), Türkiye Ekonomik ve Toplumsal Tarih Vakfı, 1995, p. 29.
^abHovannisian, Richard G. (2008-01). "The Postwar Contest for Cilicia". InArmenian Cilicia, ed. Richard G. Hovannisian & Simon Payaslian. Mazda Publishers. p. 509.ISBN978-1-56859-154-4
^Muré, Materne (1921).Un épisode de la tragédie arménienne: le massacre de Marache (février 1920). Brussels: Société Belge de Libraire.(in French)
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^Sahakyan, Ruben G. (1970).Turk-Fransiakan haraberutyunnere ev Kilikian 1919-1921 tt. [Turkish-French Relations and Cilicia, 1919-1921]. Erevan: Armenian Academy of Sciences, pp. 150–52.
^Hovannisian, Richard G. (1971).The Republic of Armenia: The first year, 1918-1919. University of California Press, p. 41.ISBN978-0-520-01805-1
^Documents on British Foreign Policy, vol. vii, p. 303.
^abRobert A. Lambert to Major Nicol, 11 March 1920, "Western Turkey, igzo-August 1924," American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, vol. 4, Document 91, Houghton Library, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts.
^Rustow, Dankwart A. (1959). "The Army and the Founding of the Turkish Republic".World Politics.11 (4):513–552.doi:10.2307/2009591.JSTOR2009591.
^Kerr, Stanley Elphinstone (1973).The Lions of Marash: Personal Experiences with American Near East Relief, 1919-1922. SUNY Press.ISBN. Introduction, p. xx
^Behar, Cem, ed. 1996. Osmanlı Đmparatorluğu'nun ve Türkiye'nin nüfusu, 1500-1927. Ankara: T.C. Basbakanlık Devlet Đstatistik Enstitüsü = State Institute of Statistics Prime Ministry Republic of Turkey.
^Kerr, Stanley Elphinstone (1973).The Lions of Marash: Personal Experiences with American Near East Relief, 1919-1922. SUNY Press.ISBN. Introduction, p. xxi
^Bayır, Derya (2013).Minorities and nationalism in Turkish law. Cultural Diversity and Law. Farnham:Ashgate Publishing. pp. 88–89, 203–204.ISBN978-1-4094-7254-4.
^De Waal, Thomas (2015).Great Catastrophe: Armenians and Turks in the Shadow of Genocide. Oxford University Press. p. 15.
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