Excavations at Jaffa indicate that the city was settled as early as theEarly Bronze Age. The city is referenced in several ancientEgyptian andAssyrian documents. Biblically, Jaffa is noted as one of the boundaries of thetribe of Dan and as a port through whichLebanese cedars were imported for the construction of theTemple in Jerusalem. UnderPersian rule, Jaffa was given to thePhoenicians. The city features in the biblical story ofJonah and the Greek legend ofAndromeda. Later, the city served as the major port ofHasmonean Judea. However, its importance declined during theRoman period due to the construction ofCaesarea.
As an Arab majority city in the Ottoman era, Jaffa became known starting from the 19th century for its expansive orchards and fruits, including its namesakeJaffa orange. It was also aPalestinian hub for journalism inMandatory Palestine in the 20th century, whereFalastin andAl-Difa' newspapers were established. After the1948 Palestine War, most of its Arab populationfled or were expelled, and the city became part of then newly established state of Israel, and was unified into a single municipality with Tel Aviv in 1950. Today, Jaffa is one of Israel'smixed cities, with approximately 37% of the city being Arab.[1]
Etymology
The town was mentioned inEgyptian sources and theAmarna letters asYapu.Mythology says that it is named forYafet (Japheth), one of the sons ofNoah, the one who built it after theFlood.[2][3] TheHellenist tradition links the name toIopeia, orCassiopeia, mother ofAndromeda. An outcropping of rocks near the harbor is reputed to have been the place where Andromeda was rescued by Perseus.Pliny the Elder associated the name with Iopa, daughter ofAeolus, god of the wind. The medievalArab geographeral-Muqaddasi referred to it asYaffa.[4]
Ancient Jaffa was built on a 40 metres (130 ft) highkurkar sandstone ridge,[5] with a broad view of the coastline, giving it a strategic importance in military history.[6] Thetell of Jaffa, created through the accumulation of debris and landfill over the centuries, made the hill even higher.
Bronze Age
The city as such was established at the latest around 1800 BCE.[7]
Jaffa is mentioned in anAncient Egyptian letter from 1440 BCE. The so-called story ofthe Taking of Joppa glorifies its conquest byPharaohThutmose III, whose general,Djehuty, hid Egyptian soldiers in sacks carried by pack animals and sent them camouflaged as tribute into theCanaanite city, where the soldiers emerged and conquered it. The story predates the story of theTrojan horse, as told byHomer, by at least two centuries.
The city is also mentioned in theAmarna letters under its Egyptian nameYa-Pho (Ya-Pu, EA 296, l.33). The city was under Egyptian rule until around 1200 BCE.[8]: 270–271
Iron Age
In theHebrew Bible, Jaffa is depicted as the northernmostPhilistine city, bordering theIsraelite territories – more specifically those ofTribe of Dan (hence the modern term "Gush Dan" for the center of the coastal plain). The Israelites did not manage to take Jaffa from the Philistines.[9]
Jaffa is not mentioned inAlexander the Great's coastal campaign, but during theWars of the Diadochi,Antigonus Monophthalmus captured Jaffa in 315 BCE.Ptolemy I Soter later destroyed it in 312 BCE. Despite this, Jaffa was resettled and became aPtolemaic mint site in the third century BCE. Archaeological evidence from this period includes a watchtower and numerous stamped amphora handles.[10] Additionally, the city is mentioned in severalZeno papyri.[10][11] The area was transferred toSeleucid control after the Battle of Paneas in 198 BCE.[10]
Around 163–162 BCE, during theMaccabean revolt, the inhabitants of Jaffa invited the local Jews onto boats, subsequently sinking them and drowning hundreds. In retaliation,Judas Maccabeus attacked Jaffa, setting the harbor on fire, destroying ships, and killing many inhabitants, though he did not attempt to hold the city. By 147–146 BCE, his brotherJonathan Apphus expelled the garrison of Seleucid kingDemetrius II from Jaffa but did not conquer the city. In 143 BCE,Simon Thassi established a garrison in Jaffa, expelled the non-Jewish inhabitants to prevent them from collaborating with the Seleucid commander Tryphon, and fortified the city. During the operations ofAntiochus VII Sidetes in Judaea, he demanded the surrender of Jaffa among other cities. Simon negotiated a settlement by agreeing to pay a smaller tribute.[10] Simon's capture of Jaffa is praised in1 Maccabees because of the city's strategic importance as a port.[10]
In theHasmonean period, the city was fortified and served as the main port of Judaea.[11][12] Under Hasmonean kingAlexander Jannaeus (103–76 BCE), Jaffa was one of several coastal cities controlled by the Jews, includingStraton's Tower,Apollonia,Iamnia, andGaza.[10][13] Archaeological evidence from this period is limited but includes remnants of walls, tombs from the early first century BCE, and hoards of coins. Incidents of piracy before the Roman conquest are mentioned byJosephus, who accused Aristobulus of instigating raids and acts of piracy. These claims are echoed by Diodorus and Strabo, though their reliability is debated, given the termleistai (pirates) was often used pejoratively in this period.[10]
Jaffa was annexed toSyria byPompey but later restored to Judaea byJulius Caesar, reaffirming Jewish access to the sea through their traditional port. In 39 BCE,Herod captured Jaffa fromAntigonus, though control fluctuated untilOctavian returned it to Herod after the defeat ofAntony andCleopatra. After Herod's death, Jaffa, along with Strato's Tower (Caesarea),Sebaste, and Jerusalem, was assigned toArchelaus'ethnarchy in Judaea.[10] The construction of Herod's superior harbor at Caesarea diminished Jaffa's regional importance.[10][11][12]
Josephus's accounts indicate that Jaffa had city status, administering surrounding districts, reflecting continued regional significance.[10] However, he adds that the harbor at Jaffa was inferior to that ofCaesarea.[14] The population of the city during this period was predominantly Jewish.[10]Strabo, writing in the early 1st century CE, describes Jaffa as a location from which it is possible to seeJerusalem, the capital of the Jews, and writes that the Jews used it as their naval arsenal when they descended to the sea.[15] Excavations suggest urban expansion during theHellenistic period under Ptolemaic rule, followed by contraction under Seleucid and early Roman rule, and renewed expansion later in the Roman and Byzantine periods.[10] Archaeological remains from the Roman period are mainly found near the harbor, including rich finds liketerra sigillata, a bread or cheese stamp, and coins.[10]
In the early stages of theFirst Jewish–Roman War in 66 CE,Cestius Gallus sent forces to Jaffa, where the city was destroyed and its inhabitants indiscriminately killed. Josephus writes that 8,400 inhabitants were massacred.[16][17] Subsequently, the city was resettled by Jews expelled from neighboring regions,[10] who used it to disrupt maritime commerce betweenEgypt andSyria. As the Romans, led byVespasian, approached Jaffa, those Jews fled to sea but were devastated by a storm, killing 4,200 people. Those who reached shore were killed by the Romans, who subsequently destroyed Jaffa again and stationed troops to prevent its reuse as a pirate base.[16] In the 3rd century CE, Jaffa was known by the nameFlavia Ioppe, potentially indicating an honorary designation underFlavian rule.[10]
Late antiquity
Despite the devastation and loss of life during the revolt, Jaffa maintained a Jewish population.[10] Inscriptions from the early 2nd century indicate Jewish involvement in local governance. Further evidence includes Jewish epitaphs dating from the 3rd to 6th centuries, some from members of thediaspora,[18] along with references inTalmudic sources to scholars associated with Jaffa.[10] Archaeological findings from the 2nd and 3rd centuries reveal structures destroyed by fire, possibly linked to regional unrest.[10]
During the first centuries ofChristianity, Jaffa was a fairly unimportant Roman andByzantine locality, which only in the 5th century became abishopric.[19] The new religion arrived in Jaffa relatively late, not appearing in historical records until theCouncil of Ephesus in 431 CE.[10] A very small number of its Greek or Latin bishops are known.[20][21] Early Christian texts describe Jaffa as a modest settlement, with varying accounts of its prosperity and state of preservation.[10]
InMidrash Tanna'im in its chapterDeuteronomy 33:19, reference is made toJose ben Halafta (2nd century) traveling through Jaffa. Jaffa seems to have attracted serious Jewish scholars in the 4th and 5th century. TheJerusalem Talmud (compiled 4th and 5th century) inMoed Ketan referencesRabi Akha bar Khanina of Jaffa; and inPesachim chapter 1 refers toRabi Pinchas ben Yair of Jaffa. TheBabylonian Talmud (compiled 5th century) inMegillah 16b mentions Rav Adda Demin of Jaffa.Leviticus Rabbah (compiled between 5th and 7th century) mentions Rav Nachman of Jaffa. ThePesikta Rabbati (written in the 9th century) in chapter 17 mentions R. Tanchum of Jaffa.[23] Several streets and alleys of the Jaffa Flea Market area are named after these scholars.
Middle Ages
Early Islamic period
Jaffa Museum in Old Saraya building, in the historicalOld Jaffa region
In 636 Jaffa was conquered by Arabs. Under Islamic rule, it served as a port ofRamla, then the provincial capital.
Saladin conquered Jaffa in 1187. The city surrendered toKing Richard the Lionheart on 10 September 1191, three days after theBattle of Arsuf. Despite efforts by Saladin to reoccupy the city in the July 1192Battle of Jaffa, the city remained in the hands of the Crusaders. On 2 September 1192, theTreaty of Jaffa was formally signed, guaranteeing a three-year truce between the two armies.
In 1229,Frederick II signed a ten-year truce in a newTreaty of Jaffa. He fortified the castle of Jaffa and had two inscriptions carved into city wall, one Latin and the other Arabic. The inscription, deciphered in 2011, describes him as the "Holy Roman Emperor" and bears the date "1229 of the Incarnation of our Lord Jesus the Messiah."[24]
In the name of God the Merciful, the Compassionate,...gave power to his servant...who has trust in him...who fights for Him and defends the faith of His Prophet...Sultan of Islam and the Muslims, Baybars...who came out with his victorious army on the 10th of the month ofRajab from the land of Egypt, resolved to carry outjihad and combat the intransigentinfidels. He camped in the port city of Jaffa in the morning and conquered it, by God's will, in the third hour of that day. Then he ordered the erection of the dome over the blessed minaret, as well as the gate of this mosque...in the year 666 of theHijra [1268 CE]. May God have mercy upon him and upon all Muslims.[27][28]
Abu'l-Fida (1273–1331), writing in 1321, described "Yafa, in Filastin" as "a small but very pleasant town lying on the sea-shore. It has a celebrated harbour. The town of Yafa is well fortified. Its markets are much frequented, and many merchants ply their trades here. There is a large harbour frequented by all the ships coming to Filastin, and from it they set sail to all lands. Between it and Ar Ramlah the distance is 6 miles, and it lies west of Ar Ramlah."[4]
In 1432,Bertrandon de la Broquière observed that Jaffa was in ruins, with only a few tents standing. He wrote: "At Jaffa, the pardons commence for pilgrims to the Holy Land ... at present, it is entirely destroyed, having only a few tents covered with reeds, where pilgrims seek shelter from the heat of the sun. The sea enters the town, forming a poor and shallow harbor: it is dangerous to remain there long for fear of being driven onshore by a gust of wind. When any pilgrims disembark there, interpreters and other officers of the sultan instantly hasten to ascertain their numbers, to serve them as guides, and to receive, in the name of their master, the customary tribute."[29]
In thecensus of 1596, it appeared located in thenahiya ofRamla in theliwa ofGaza. It had a population of 15 households, allMuslim. They paid a fixed tax rate of 33,3 % on various products; a total of 7,520akçe.[30]
The travellerJean Cotwyk (Cotovicus) described Jaffa as a heap of ruins when he visited in 1598.[31][32] Botanist and travellerLeonhard Rauwolf landed near the site of the town on 13 September 1575 and wrote "we landed on the high, rocky shore where the town of Joppe did stand formerly, at this time the town was so demolished that there was not one house to be found." (p. 212, Rauwolf, 1582)
The 17th century saw the beginning of the re-establishment of churches and hostels for Christian pilgrims en route to Jerusalem and the Galilee. During the 18th century, the coastline around Jaffa was often besieged by pirates and this led to the inhabitants relocating toRamla andLod, where they relied on messages from a solitary guard house to inform them when ships were approaching the harbour. The landing of goods and passengers was notoriously difficult and dangerous. Until well into the 20th century, ships had to rely on teams of oarsmen to bring their cargo ashore.[33]
Napoleon (1799)
On 7 March 1799,Napoleon captured the town in what became known as theSiege of Jaffa, breached its walls, ransacked it, and killed scores of local inhabitants as a reaction to his envoys being brutally killed when delivering an ultimatum of surrender.
Napoleon ordered the massacre of thousands of Muslim soldiers who were imprisoned having surrendered to the French.[34] Napoleon's deputy commissioner of war Jacques-François Miot described it thus:
On 10 March 1799 in the afternoon, the prisoners of Jaffa were marched off in the midst of a vast square phalanx formed by the troops of General Bon... The Turks, walking along in total disorder, had already guessed their fate and appeared not even to shed any tears... When they finally arrived in the sand dunes to the southwest of Jaffa, they were ordered to halt beside a pool of yellowish water. The officer commanding the troops then divided the mass of prisoners into small groups, who were led off to several different points and shot... Finally, of all the prisoners there only remained those who were beside the pool of water. Our soldiers had used up their cartridges, so there was nothing to be done but to dispatch them with bayonets and knives. ... The result ... was a terrible pyramid of dead and dying bodies dripping blood and the bodies of those already dead had to be pulled away so as to finish off those unfortunate beings who, concealed under this awful and terrible wall of bodies, had not yet been struck down.[34]
Many more died in an epidemic ofbubonic plague that broke out soon afterwards.[35]
In 1820, Isaiah Ajiman of Istanbul built a synagogue and hostel for the accommodation of Jews on their way to theirfour holy cities - Jerusalem,Hebron,Tiberias andSafed. This area became known as Dar al-Yehud (Arabic for "the house of the Jews"); and was the basis of the Jewish community in Jaffa. The appointment of Mahmud Aja as Ottoman governor marked the beginning of a period of stability and growth for the city, interrupted by the 1832 conquest of the city byMuhammad Ali of Egypt.[citation needed]
By 1839, at least 153Sephardic Jews were living in Jaffa.[37] The community was served for fifty years by Rabbi Yehuda HaLevimiRagusa. In the early 1850s, HaLevi leased an orchard toClorinda S. Minor, founder of a Christian messianic community that established Mount Hope, a farming initiative to encourage local Jews to learn manual trades, which theMessianics did in order to pave wave for theSecond Coming of Jesus. In 1855, the British Jewish philanthropistMoses Montefiore bought the orchard from HaLevi, although Minor continued to manage it.[38]
American missionary Ellen Clare Miller, visiting Jaffa in 1867, reported that the town had a population of "about 5000, 1000 of these being Christians, 800 Jews and the rest Moslems".[39][40]
The citywalls were torn down during the 1870s, allowing the city to expand.[41]
1900–1914
Boatmen waiting to land passengers,c. 1911Jaffa street beside port, 1914
By the beginning of the 20th century, the population of Jaffa had swelled considerably. A group of Jews left Jaffa for the sand dunes to the north, where in 1909 they held a lottery to divide the lots acquired earlier. The settlement was known at first as Ahuzat Bayit, but an assembly of its residents changed its name toTel Aviv in 1910. Other Jewish suburbs to Jaffa had already been foundedsince 1887, with others following untilthe Great War.[citation needed]
In the 19th century, Jaffa was best known for its soap industry. Modern industry emerged in the late 1880s.[43] The most successful enterprises were metalworking factories, among them the machine shop run by theTemplers that employed over 100 workers in 1910.[43] Other factories produced orange-crates, barrels, corks, noodles, ice, seltzer, candy, soap, olive oil, leather, alkali, wine, cosmetics and ink.[43] Most of the newspapers and books printed in Ottoman Palestine werepublished in Jaffa.
In 1859, a Jewish visitor,L.A. Frankl, found sixty-five Jewish families living in Jaffa, 'about 400 soul in all.' Of these four were shoemakers, three tailors, one silversmith and one watchmaker. There were also merchants and shopkeepers and 'many live by manual labour, porters, sailors, messengers, etc.'[44]
Late Ottoman agriculture; Jaffa oranges
Crates of Jaffa oranges being ferried to a waiting freighter for export, circa 1930
Until the mid-19th century, Jaffa's orange groves were mainly owned by Arabs, who employed traditional methods of farming. The pioneers of modern agriculture in Jaffa were American settlers, who brought in farm machinery in the 1850s and 1860s, followed by the Templers and the Jews.[45] From the 1880s, real estate became an important branch of the economy. A 'biarah' (a watered garden) cost 100,000 piastres and annually produced 15,000, of which the farming costs were 5,000: 'A very fair percentage return on the investment.' Water for the gardens was easily accessible with wells between ten and forty feet deep.[46][47]
Jaffa's citrus industry began to flourish in the last quarter of the 19th century. E.C. Miller records that 'about ten million' oranges were being exported annually, and that the town was surrounded by 'three or four hundred orange gardens, each containing upwards of one thousand trees'.[48] Shamuti or Shamouti oranges, aka "Jaffa oranges", were the major crop, butcitrons, lemons andmandarin oranges were also grown.[49] Jaffa had a reputation for producing the bestpomegranates.[50]
Developed the mid-19th century, the Jaffa orange was first produced for export in the city after being developed by Arab farmers.[51][52] The orange was the primary citrus export for the city. Today,[dubious –discuss] along with thenavel andbitter orange, it is one of three main varieties of the fruit grown in theMediterranean, theMiddle East, andSouthern Europe.[52][53]
The Jaffa orange emerged as a mutation on a tree of the 'Baladi' variety ofsweet orange (C. sinensis) near the city of Jaffa.[51][52] After theCrimean War (1853–56), the most important innovation in local agriculture was the rapid expansion of citrus cultivation.[54] Foremost among the varieties cultivated was the Jaffa (Shamouti) orange, and mention of it being exported to Europe first appears in British consular reports in the 1850s.[51][54] One factor cited in the growth of the export market was the development ofsteamships in the first half of the 19th century, which enabled the export of oranges to the European markets in days rather than weeks.[55] Another reason cited for the growth of the industry was the relative lack of European control over the cultivation of oranges compared to cotton, formerly a primary commodity crop of Palestine, but outpaced by the Jaffa orange.[56]
The prosperity of the orange industry brought increased European interest and involvement in the development ofJaffa. In 1902, a study of the growth of the orange industry byZionist officials outlined the different Palestinian owners and their primary export markets as England, Turkey, Egypt andAustria-Hungary. While the traditional Arabic cultivation methods were considered "primitive," an in-depth study of the financial expenditure involved reveals that they were ultimately more cost-efficient than the Zionist-European enterprises that followed them some two decades later.[57]
First World War
In 1917, theTel Aviv and Jaffa deportation resulted in the Ottomans expelling the entire civilian population. While Muslim evacuees were allowed to return before long, the Jewish evacuees remained in camps (and some in Egypt) until after the British conquest.[58]
New Zealand soldiers outside Jaffa municipality building, WWI (winter 1917–18)
During the course of theircampaign through Ottoman Palestine and the Sinai (1915–1918) against the Ottomans, the British took Jaffa in November 1917, although it remained under observation and fire from the Ottomans. Thebattle of Jaffa in late December 1917 pushed back the Ottoman forces securing Jaffa and the line of communication between it and Jerusalem, which had already beentaken on 11 December.
During theBritish Mandate, tension between the Jewish and Arab population increased. A wave of Arab attacks during 1920 and 1921 caused many Jewish residents to flee and resettle inTel Aviv, initially a marginal Jewish neighborhood north of Jaffa. TheJaffa riots in 1921, (known in Hebrew asMeoraot Tarpa) began with aMay Day parade that turned violent. Arab rioters attacked Jewish residents and buildings killing 47 Jews and wounding 146.[61] The Hebrew authorYosef Haim Brenner was killed in the riots.[62] At the end of 1922, Tel Aviv had 15,000 residents: by 1927, the population had risen to 38,000.
Still, during most of the 1920s Jaffa and Tel Aviv maintained peaceful co-existence. Most Jewish businesses were located in Jaffa, some Jewish neighbourhoods paid taxes to the municipality of Jaffa, many young Jews who could not afford the housing costs of Tel Aviv resided there, and the big neighbourhood ofMenashiya was by and large fully mixed. The first electric company in the British Mandate of Palestine, although owned by Jewish shareholders, had been named the Jaffa Electric Company. In 1923, both Jaffa and Tel Aviv had begun a rapid process of wired electrification through a joint grid.[63]
The1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine severely impacted Jaffa. On 19 April 1936,riots broke out in Jaffa after rumors spread among the local Arab community that Jews had started to kill Arabs; Arab rioters attacked Jewish targets for three days before British security forces quelled the rioting. 9 Jews and 2 Arabs were killed and dozens more were wounded.[64] In response to the riots, Arab leadership in Palestine declared ageneral strike, which began in theJaffa Port and quickly spread to the rest of the region.[65] After the start of the general strike,British troops stationed in Palestine were bolstered by reinforcements fromMalta andEgypt to subdue rioting which had broken out in several major Palestinian cities. Arab rioters in Jaffa used theOld City, which contained a maze of homes, winding alleyways and an underground sewer system, to escape arrest by British security forces.[65]
Beginning in May 1936, in response to further Arab unrest in Jaffa, the British authorities suspended municipal services in the city, establishing barricades around the Old City and covering access roads with glass shards and nails.[65] On June of that year,Royal Air Force bombers dropped boxes of leaflets in Arabic on Jaffa, requesting the city's inhabitants to evacuate that same day.[65] In June 15, theRoyal Engineers usedgelignite charges todemolish between 220 and 240 Arab-owned homes in the Old City, leaving an open strip which cut through the center of Jaffa from end to end and displacing approximately 6,000 Arabs.[66] On the evening of 17 June, 1,500 British troops entered Jaffa and aRoyal Navy warship moved near the Jaffa Port to seal off escape routes by sea. On 29 June, British forces carried out another round of house demolitions, carving a swath from north to south.[65]
The British authorities claimed that house demolitions in Jaffa were part of a "facelift" given to the Old City.[65] Local Arab newspapers resorted to using sarcasm to describe the demolitions, writing that the British had "beautified" Jaffa using boxes of gelignite.[66]Sir Michael McDonnell, then serving as theChief Justice of the Supreme Court of Palestine, found in favor of Arab petitions from Jaffa and, upholding existing laws regarding house demolitions, ruled against the demolitions carried out by British forces in the Old City. In response, theColonial Office dismissed him from his post.[67] The report produced by thePeel Commission in 1937 recommended that Jaffa, together withBethlehem,Jerusalem,Lydda andRamle, remain under permanent British control, forming a "corridor" from the sea port to the Holy Places, accessible to Arabs and Jews alike; whereas the rest of Mandatory Palestine was to be split between an Arab state and a Jewish state.[68]
1940-47: WWII; frictions
Village Statistics of 1945 listed Jaffa with a population of 94,310, of whom 50,880 were Muslims, 28,000 were Jews, 15,400 were Christians and 30 were classified as "other".[69] The Christians were mostlyGreek Orthodox and about one-sixth of them were members of theEastern Catholic Churches. One of the most prominent members of the Arab Christian community was the Greek OrthodoxIssa El-Issa, publisher of the newspaperFalastin.
In 1945, the Jewish community of Jaffa complained to the city mayorYousef Haikal that their neighbourhoods don't receive appropriate municipal services (street lighting and paving, garbage removal, sewerage etc.) even though they contribute 40% of the municipality's budget. Some of the services (education, healthcare, and social services) had already been provided byTel Aviv Municipality at its own expense, which formed the base for the Jewish community's demand that the Mandatory government annex their neighbourhoods to Tel Aviv.[70] In the year of 1946, Tel Aviv Municipality spent£P 300K on services for the Jewish neighbourhoods of Jaffa,[71] an increase from £P 80K in the year of 1942.[72]
In 1947, the UN Special Commission on Palestine recommended that Jaffa be included in the planned Jewish state. Due to the large Arab majority, however, it was instead designated as anenclave of the Arab state in the 1947United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine. The enclave would have excluded the northern Jewish-populated parts of the city, but included the agricultural lands to the south and east of the city, extending to the then-boundaries ofMikveh Israel,Holon andBat Yam.[73] The resolution was rejected by Palestinian Arab leadership and by the Arab League.[74][75]
Following the inter-communal violence which broke out following the passing of the UN partition resolution, the mayors of Jaffa and Tel Aviv tried to calm their communities.[76] One of the main concerns for the people of Jaffa was the protection of the citrus fruit export trade which had still not reached its pre-Second World War highs.[77] Eventually the bilateral orange-picking and exporting of both sides continued although without a formal agreement.[78]
Jewish fighters on the Jaffa-Tel Aviv front in 1947
At the beginning of 1948 Jaffa's defenders consisted of one company of around 400 men organised by theMuslim Brotherhood, almost none of them Palestinian Arabs (the "Arab Brigade"), and the local Arab irregulars of the National Guard.[79] As in Haifa, the irregulars intimidated the local population.[78]
On 4 January 1948, theLehi detonated a truck bomb outside theSaraya, also known as the "Grand Serai," formerly the Ottoman administrative building and now housing the Arab National Committee. The building and some nearby buildings were destroyed and twenty-six Palestinian civilians were killed. Most of the dead and many wounded were not connected to the National Committee but were passersby and staff at a food distribution programme for poor children that was also in the same building. Most of the children were not present as it was Sunday.[80][81]
In February Jaffa's Mayor,Yousef Haikal, contactedDavid Ben-Gurion through a British intermediary trying to secure a peace agreement with Tel Aviv, but the commander of the Arab militia in Jaffa opposed it.[78][82] The frontline saw a period of mostly static warfare, with sporadic sniper fire, machine gun bursts, and limited skirmishes. While the introduction of medium mortars in early March 1948 escalated the intensity of the fighting, tactics remained largely unchanged.
On 25 April 1948, theIrgun launched an offensive on Jaffa. This began with a mortar bombardment which went on for three days during which twenty tons of high explosive were fired into the town.[83][84] On 27 April the British Government, fearing a repetition of the mass exodus fromHaifa the week before, ordered the British Army to confront the Irgun and their offensive ended. Simultaneously theHaganah had launchedOperation Hametz, which overran the villages east of Jaffa and cut the town off from the interior.[85] On 29 April, the Irgun commander for the Tel-Aviv & Jaffa district,Eliyahu Tamler, was killed by a British shell.[86]
Thefall of Haifa a few days earlier, and fear of another massacre similar to Irgun'sDeir Yassin massacre, caused panic across the Arabs of Jaffa, leading most of them to flee.[87] The population of Jaffa on the eve of the attack was between 50,000 and 60,000, with some 20,000 people having already left the town.[83] By 30 April, there were 15,000–25,000 remaining.[85][88] In the following days a further 10,000–20,000 people fled by sea. When the Haganah took control of the town on 14 May around 4,000 people were left.[89] The town and harbour's warehouses were extensively looted.[90][91] The displacement of Jaffa's Arab population was part of the larger1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight.
The city surrendered to the Haganah on 14 May 1948 and shortly after the British police and army left the city.[92]The 3,800 Arabs who remained in Jaffa after the exodus were concentrated in theAjami district and subject to strict martial law.[93] The military administration in Jaffa lasted until 1 June 1949, at which point,Tel Aviv Municipality took over the administration; Jaffa Municipality,de-jure still in existence at the time, had not exercised any authority since 1948 until its dissolution in 1950.[94]
State of Israel
Gradual annexation into Tel Aviv
Red: current boundary (as of 2022); blue: UN proposed enclave (1947); green: historic boundary (as of 1944)Last Tel Aviv–Jaffa border (1949); no street names in Jaffa at that timeAlleyway inJaffa's Old CityFormer Hotel du Parc in Jaffa's American ColonyJaffa Light
The boundaries of Tel Aviv and Jaffa became a matter of contention between the Tel Aviv municipality and the Israeli government during 1948.[95] The former wished to incorporate only the well-off Jewish suburbs in the north of Jaffa, while the latter wanted a more complete unification.[95] The issue also had international sensitivity, since the main part of Jaffa was in the Arab portion of theUnited Nations Partition Plan, whereas Tel Aviv was not, and no armistice agreements had yet been signed.[95] An alternative proposal, mergingBat Yam andHolon into Jaffa to form a bigger city south of Tel Aviv, was rejected on financial grounds, as the two small Jewish settlements lacked the funds necessary to sustain Jaffa.[94]
On 10 December 1948, the government announced the annexation to Tel Aviv of Jaffa's Jewish suburbs of Maccabi (American–German Colony), Volovelsky (northwesternFlorentin),Giv'at Herzl, andShapira; territories outside Jaffa's municipal boundary, specifically the Arab neighbourhood ofAbu Kabir, the Arab village ofSalama and some of its agricultural land, and the working class Jewish areas ofHatikva and Ezra, were annexed to Tel Aviv at the same time, thus introducing around 50,000 new residents into the city.[94][95] On 18 May 1949, the new boundary was drawn along Shari' Es Salahi (now Olei Zion Street) and Shari' El Quds (now Ben-Zvi Road), thereby adding into Tel Aviv the former Arab neighbourhood ofManshiya and part of Jaffa city centre, for the first time including land that had been in the Arab portion of the UN partition plan.[95]
The government decided on a permanent unification of Tel Aviv and Jaffa on 4 October 1949, but the actual unification was delayed until 16 June 1950 due to concerted opposition from Tel Aviv's mayorIsrael Rokach, who had demanded government funding of 1MI£ towards the expenses of providing municipal services to Jaffa.[96][97][95] Jaffa was expected to consume 18% of the unified municipality's budget, while contributing only 4% of its income.[94] The two sides came to an agreement under which the government covered 100K I£ of the unified municipality's expenses, as well as funded healthcare, education, and social services for Jaffa residents directly from the state budget.[94] The name of the unified city was Tel Aviv until 19 August 1950, when it was renamed as Tel Aviv–Yafo in order to preserve the historical name Jaffa.[95] The population of Jaffa prior to the unification was estimated as 40,000, out of them 5,000 Arabs,[98] and most of the others newolim.[94]
After the Jewish takeover, all pre-existing street names in Jaffa were abolished, and replaced with numeric identifiers. By 1954, only the four main streets had proper names: Jerusalem (formerDjemal Pasha; thenKing George V; then No.1) Avenue; Tarshish (former Bustrus; then No.2; nowDavid Raziel) Street; Eilat Street (former No.298); and Shalma Road (former No.310).[103][104]
The road passing betweenFlorentin andNeve Tzedek neighbourhoods was until 1948 named Tel Aviv Road, being the main thoroughfare between the two city centres. After the annexation of Florentin into Tel Aviv, it became an internal road in Tel Aviv, so its name no longer made sense. Thus the section lying within the new Tel Aviv boundaries was renamed into Jaffa Road; and the section which became the new Tel Aviv–Jaffa boundary, into Eilat Street.
Salama Road, a main eastwards road from Jaffa towards the depopulated village ofSalama, was renamed Shalma Road after the reconstructed Hebrew name ofCapharsalama (Greek:Χαφαρσαλαμα) which is mentioned in1 Maccabees 7:31 as the location of thebattle of Caphar-salama. However, both names remain in use.[105]
Arabic street names were eventually replaced with Hebrew ones, e.g. Al-Kutub Street was renamed Resh Galuta Street, Abu Ubeyda Street was renamed She’erit Yisra’el Street, and Al-Salahi Street was renamed Olei Zion Street.[106] This practice has been criticized by residents of affected Arabic neighborhoods, who deem the names inappropriate (for example, a street named after RabbiSimcha Bunim of Peshischa was called a "local laughingstock" by Tel Aviv-Jaffa city councillor Ahmed Belha;[107] and a street where the Al Siksik Mosque is located was renamedBeit Eshel Street, after a short-lived Jewish settlement in what is nowBeersheba[108]) and demand a return to Arabic names.
Urban development
From the 1990s onwards, efforts have been made to restore Arab and Islamic landmarks, such as the Mosque of the Sea andHassan Bek Mosque, and document the history of Jaffa's Arab population.Parts of theOld City have been renovated, turning Jaffa into a tourist attraction featuring old restored buildings, art galleries, theaters, souvenir shops, restaurants, sidewalk cafes and promenades.[109][110] Many artists have moved their studios from Tel Aviv to the Old City and its surroundings, such as the Jaffa port,[111] theAmerican–Germany Colony and the flea market.[112] Beyond the Old City and tourist sites, many neighborhoods of Jaffa are poor and underdeveloped. However, real-estate prices have risen sharply due to gentrification projects in Ajami, Noga, and Lev Yafo.[113][114][115] The municipality of Tel Aviv–Yafo is currently working to beautify and modernize the port area.[116]
Modern Jaffa has aheterogeneous population of Jews, Christians, and Muslims. As of 2021, Jaffa has 52,470 residents, about a third of which areArabs.[117][118]
TheClock Square with its distinctive clocktower was built in 1906 in honor ofSultanAbdul Hamid II. TheSaraya (governor's palace) was built in the 1890s.[119][failed verification]Andromeda rock is the rock to which beautiful Andromeda was chained inGreek mythology.[120] TheZodiac alleys are a maze of restored alleys leading to the harbor.Jaffa Hill is a center forarchaeological finds, including restored Egyptian gates, about 3,500 years old.Jaffa Lighthouse is an inactivelighthouse located in the old port.
The Jaffa Museum of Antiquities is located in an 18th-century Ottoman building constructed on the remains of aCrusader fortress. In 1811, Abu Nabout turned it into his seat of government. In the late 19th century, the governmental moved to the "New Saraya," and the building was sold to a wealthy Greek-Orthodox family who established a soap factory there. Since 1961, it has housed an archaeological museum,[121] which is currently closed to the general public.[122]
TheLibyan Synagogue (Beit Zunana) was a synagogue built by a Jewish landlord, Zunana, in the 18th century. It was turned into a hotel and then a soap factory, and reopened as a synagogue for Libyan Jewish immigrants after 1948. In 1995, it became a museum.
TheGreek OrthodoxMonastery of Archangel Michael (Patriarchate of Jerusalem) nearJaffa Port also hasRomanian and Russian communities in its compound. Built in 1894, the Church of St. Peter andSt. Tabitha serves the Russian Orthodox Christian community, with services in Russian and Hebrew; underneath the chapel nearby there is what is believed to be the tomb of St Tabitha.[123]St. Peter's Church is aFranciscanRoman-Catholic basilica and hospice built in 1654 on the remains of aCrusaderfortress, and commemoratesSt Peter, as he brought the discipleTabitha back from the dead;Napoleon is believed to have stayed there.
Immanuel Church, built 1904, serves today aLutheran congregation with services in English and Hebrew.
Al-Bahr Mosque, lit. the Sea Mosque, overlooking the harbour, is depicted in a painting from 1675 by the Dutch painterCornelis de Bruijn.[125][126] It may be Jaffa's oldest existing mosque. Built originally in 1675,[127] changes to the structure have been made since then, such as the addition of a second floor and reconstruction of the upper part of the minaret. It was used by fishermen and sailors frequenting the port, and residents of the surrounding area. According to local legend, the wives of sailors living in Jaffa prayed there for the safe return of their husbands. The mosque was renovated in 1997.[citation needed]
Mahmoudia Mosque was built in 1812 by Abu Nabbut, governor of Jaffa from 1810 to 1820.[128] Outside the mosque is a water fountain (sabil) for pilgrims.[129]
Nouzha Mosque on Jerusalem Boulevard is Jaffa's main mosque today.
Archaeology
Jaffa flea market
The majority of excavations in Jaffa are salvage in nature and have been conducted by theIsrael Antiquities Authority (IAA) since the 1990s. Excavations on Rabbi Pinchas Street, for example, in the flea market have revealed walls and water conduits dating to the Iron Age, Hellenistic, Early Islamic, Crusader and Ottoman periods. A limestone slab (50 cm × 50 cm or 20 in × 20 in) engraved with amenorah discovered on Tanchum Street is believed to be the door of a tomb.[130]
Additional efforts to conduct research excavations at that site included those of B. J. Isserlin (1950),Ze'ev Herzog ofTel Aviv University (1997–1999), and most recently the Jaffa Cultural Heritage Project (since 2007), directed by Aaron A. Burke (UCLA) and Martin Peilstocker (Johannes Gutenberg University).
In December 2020, archaeologists from the IAA revealed a 3,800-year-old jar containing the badly preserved remains of a baby dates back to theMiddle Bronze Age.[131] "There's always the interpretation that the jar is almost like a womb, so basically the idea is to return [the] baby back into Mother Earth, or into the symbolic protection of his mother", said archaeologist Alfredo Mederos Martin.[132] Researchers also covered the remains of at least two horses and pottery dated to the lateOttoman Empire, 232seashells, 30Hellenistic coins, 95 glass vessel fragments from the Roman andCrusader periods 14 fifth-century BCE rock-carved burials featuring lamps.[133][134]
Tabeetha School in Jaffa was founded in 1863. It is owned by theChurch of Scotland. The school provides education in English to children from Christian, Jewish and Muslim backgrounds.[135]
Muzot (Hebrew:מוזות) is an arts school in old Jaffa that caters to teenagers who haven't successfully integrated into traditional schools. It offers them a unique opportunity to combine artistic pursuits with academic studies leading to a matriculation certificate.[136]
The democratic school in Jaffa established in 2004 is based on the ideas ofdemocratic education, catering students from 1st to 12th grade.[137]
Administratively, Jaffa constitutes Borough 7 of theTel Aviv-Yafo Municipality, and is divided into four sub-boroughs and twelve neighborhoods.[140]
Compared to Tel Aviv-Yafo as a whole, votes for Arab parties are especially prevalent in Jaffa in national elections.[141] In the2018 Tel Aviv-Jaffa city council election, the Yafa list, which represents the Arab population of Jaffa, received 28% of the vote in Jaffa, making it the most voted party there; the second place was taken by theHadash-affiliated[142]We are the City list, with 14% of the vote.[143] Among Jewish political parties, right-wing parties such asShas andLikud perform better in Jaffa relative to the municipality-wide results,[143] similarly to the working-class neighborhoods in southern Tel Aviv;[141] in particular, Shas received 12% of the vote in Jaffa in the 2018 city council elections, making it the third-most voted for party in Jaffa.[143]
Socioeconomic and political problems
Jaffa suffers from drug problems, high crime rates and violence.[citation needed] Some Arab residents have alleged that the Israeli authorities are attempting to Judaize Jaffa by evicting Arab residents from houses owned by theAmidar government-operated public housing company. Amidar representatives say the residents are illegal squatters.[144]
Transportation
Ottoman station, now leisure venue
Jaffa Railway Station was the first railway station in the Levant. It served as the terminus for theJaffa–Jerusalem railway. The station opened in 1891 and closed in 1948. In 2005–09, the station was restored and converted into an entertainment and leisure venue marketed as "HaTachana", Hebrew for "the station".[145]
^One example of this legend is the 16th-century French pilgrim Denis Possot who recorded, "Jaffe, est le port de la Terre saincte, anciennement nommé Joppe, faict et construict premierment en ville et cité grande à merveilles et de grant renom, par Japhet, fils de Noé." in hisLe Voyage de la Terre Sainte (Geneva: Slatkine Reprints 1971, reprint of Paris edition, 1890, orig. 1532), p. 155.
^Another pilgrim, Sir Richard of Guylforde, wrote,"This Jaffe was sometyme a grete Cytie [...] and it was one of the firste Cyties of the worlde founded by Japheth, Noes sone, and beryth yet his name." In the pilgrimage narrative from 1506, recorded by his chaplain in 1511, edited by Sir Henry Ellis (London: Camden Society, 1851), p. 16.
^Stacey Jennifer Miller,The Lion Temple of Jaffa: Archaeological Investigations of the Late Bronze Age Egyptian Occupation in Canaan.BA thesisArchived 19 August 2019 at theWayback Machine, University of California, Los Angeles, 2012
^abRocca, Samuel (2008).Herod's Judaea: a Mediterranean State in the Classical World. Texte und Studien zum antiken Judentum. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck. pp. 185, 191.ISBN978-3-16-149717-9.
^abRogers, Guy MacLean (2021).For the Freedom of Zion: the Great Revolt of Jews against Romans, 66-74 CE. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 167.ISBN978-0-300-24813-5.
^Cytryn-Silverman, Katia (15 December 2010)."The Mamluk Minarets of Ramla".Bulletin du Centre de Recherche Français À Jérusalem (21).Archived from the original on 18 September 2024. Retrieved23 June 2022.
^de la Brocquière, Bertrandon; Rossabi, Morris (2019).A mission to the medieval Middle East: the travels of Bertrandon de la Brocquière to Jerusalem and Constantinople. Translated by Johnes, Thomas. London New York Oxford New Delhi Sydney: I.B. Tauris. p. 92.ISBN978-1-83860-794-4.
^abJacques-François Miot (1814).Mémoires pour servir à l'histoire des expéditions en Égypte et en Syrie., quoted inVéronique Nahoum-Grappe (2002). "The anthropology of extreme violence: the crime of desecration".International Social Science Journal.54 (174):549–557.doi:10.1111/1468-2451.00409.
^Jaffa: a City in Evolution Ruth Kark, Yad Yitzhak Ben-Zvi, Jerusalem, 1990, pp. 8–9
^Friedman, Lior (5 April 2009)."The mountain of despair". Haaretz.com.Archived from the original on 3 October 2017. Retrieved25 August 2013.
^Ellen Clare Miller, 'Eastern Sketches — notes of scenery, schools and tent life in Syria and Palestine'. Edinburgh: William Oliphant and Company. 1871. Page 97. See also Miller's populations ofDamascus,Jerusalem,Bethlehem,Nablus andSamaria
^Thompson (above) writing in 1856 has '25 years ago the inhabitants of the city and gardens were about 6000; now there must be 15,000 at least...' Considering the length of time he lived in the area this may be a more accurate count.
^abcJaffa: A City in Evolution Ruth Kark, Yad Yitzhak Ben-Zvi, Jerusalem, 1990, pp. 256–257.
^Dr Frankl, translated by P. Beaton, 'The Jews in the East'. Volume 1. Hurst and Blackett, London, 1859. Page 345. He adds 'The community is poor, and receives no alms from any quarter.' which resulted in some envy of the 'our bethren' in Jerusalem.
^Jaffa: A City in Evolution Ruth Kark, Yad Yitzhak Ben-Zvi, Jerusalem, 1990, pp. 244–246.
^Jaffa: A City in Evolution Ruth Kark, Yad Yitzhak Ben-Zvi, Jerusalem, 1990, p.262.
^Miller, page 97: 'The orange gardens are the finest in the East; and during the late winter and early spring, little white sailed vessels from Greece, Constantinople and the islands of the Archipelago, lie in calm weather at a short distance from the coast, waiting to carry away the fruit'.
^Jaffa: A City in Evolution Ruth Kark, Yad Yitzhak Ben-Zvi, Jerusalem, 1990, pp. 242.
^Thomson p.517: Sidon has best bananas, Jaffa the best pomegranates, oranges of Sidon are more juicy and have richer flavour. Jaffa oranges hang on the trees much later, and will bear shipping to distant regions.'
^Report of the Commission of Inquiry into the disturbances in the British Mandate of Palestine in May 1921, with correspondence relating thereto (Disturbances), 1921, Cmd. 1540, p. 60.
^abcdefThe Land That Become Israel: Studies in Historical Geography, ed. Ruth Kark, Yale University Press & Magnes Press, 1989, "Aerial Perspectives of Past Landscapes," Dov Gavish, pp. 316–317
^Matthew Hughes,Britain’s Pacification of Palestine: The British Army, the Colonial State, and the Arab Revolt, 1936– 1939,Cambridge University Press2019 p.36.
^Peel Report, quote: "Jaffa is an essentially Arab town in which the Jewish minority has recently been dwindling. We suggest that it should form part of the Arab State. The question of its communication with the latter presents no difficulty, since transit through the Jaffa-Jerusalem Corridor would be open to all. The Corridor, on the other hand, requires its own access to the sea, and for this purpose a narrow belt of land should be acquired and cleared on the north and south sides of the town. This would also solve the problem, sometimes said to be insoluble, created by the contiguity of Jaffa with Tel Aviv to the north and the nascent Jewish town [Bat Yam] to the south. If necessary, Mandatory police could be stationed on this belt. This arrangement may seem artificial, but it is clearly practicable."
^A/RES/181(II)(A+B), Resolution 181 (II). Future government of Palestine (UN Partition Plan details), United Nations General Assembly, 29 November 1947, archived fromthe original on 16 April 2013,The area of the Arab enclave of Jaffa consists of that part of the town-planning area of Jaffa which lies to the west of the Jewish quarters lying south of Tel-Aviv, to the west of the continuation of Herzl street up to its junction with the Jaffa-Jerusalem road, to the south-west of the section of the Jaffa-Jerusalem road lying south-east of that junction, to the west of Miqve Israel lands, to the north-west of Holon local council area, to the north of the line linking up the north-west corner of Holon with the north-east corner of Bat Yam local council area and to the north of Bat Yam local council area. The question of Karton quarter will be decided by the Boundary Commission, bearing in mind among other considerations the desirability of including the smallest possible number of its Arab inhabitants and the largest possible number of its Jewish inhabitants in the Jewish State.
^'A survey of Palestine', printed 1946–1947. Reprinted ISP, Washington, 1991ISBN0-88728-211-3. Page 474: Exports of citrus fruit total value in Palestine Pounds, 1938/39 = P£4,355,853. 1944/45 = P£1,474,854. Ironically, due to the Nazi conquest of theNetherlands, Tel Aviv's trade in polished diamonds had increased over three-fold to P£3,235,117. Page 476
^abcBenny Morris (2004).The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem Revisited. Cambridge University Press. pp. 115–.ISBN978-0-521-00967-6.Archived from the original on 18 September 2024. Retrieved1 July 2015.(p. 114) And rifts among the Jaffa Arabs from the beginning subverted all efforts at peacemaking. In February, Ben-Gurion wrote to Shertok that Heikal, through a British intermediary, was trying to secure an agreement with Tel Aviv but that the new irregulars' commander, 'Abdul Wahab 'Ali Shihaini, had blocked him. .... According to Ben-Gurion, Shihaini had answered: 'I do not mind [the] destruction [of] Jaffa if we secure [the] destruction [of] Tel Aviv. As in Haifa, the irregulars intimidated the local population, echoing the experience of 1936–1939. '. . . The inhabitants were more afraid of their defenders-saviours than of the Jews their enemies', wroteNimr al Khatib. (p. 115) But Arab notables, through British intermediaries, continued to press for a wider citrus agreement. ... In the end, a formal agreement was never concluded. But neither was a complete blockade imposed on Jaffa, and the bilateral orange-picking and -exporting continued largely unhampered.
^Pritzke, Herbert (1956).Bedouin Doctor — The adventures of a German in the Middle East. Translated by Richard Graves. Weidenfeld and Nicolson (1957), copyright Ullstein and Co, Vienna (1956). Page 149: "At that time the Arab Brigade in Jaffa consisted of seven Germans, one hundred and fiftyJugoslavs, thirty Egyptians and two hundred Lebanese and Syrians. There were very few Arabs among them as these preferred irregular warfare with the National Guard ..."
^Radai, Itamar (2016).Palestinians in Jerusalem and Jaffa, 1948. Routledge. p. 140.
^Khalidi, Walid.Before Their Diaspora: A Photographic History of the Palestinians, 1876-1948. Washington, D.C.: Institute for Palestine Studies, 1991, 324.
^Morris 1987, p. 101, "On 18 May Ben-Gurion visited the conquered city for the first time and commented:"I couldn't understand: Why did the inhabitants of Jaffa leave?"
^Jon Kimche, 'Seven Falen Pillars; The Middle East, 1915–1950'. Secker and Warburg, London. 1950. Page 224 :'the orgy of looting and wanton destruction which hangs like a black pall over almost all the Jewish military successes.'
^Goldhaber, Ravit; Schnell, Izhak (2007). "A Model of Multidimensional Segregation in the Arab Ghetto in Tel Aviv-Jaffa".Tijdschrift voor Economische en Sociale Geografie.98 (5):603–620.doi:10.1111/j.1467-9663.2007.00428.x.
^Areas to Visit(PDF), Tel Aviv Municipality, archived fromthe original(PDF) on 12 July 2012, retrieved18 December 2012,Today, local fisherman still use the harbor and the main hangars of the port have been restored and include art galleries
^"Project Partners".The Jaffa Cultural Heritage Project. The Jaffa Museum of Archaeology.Archived from the original on 24 December 2012. Retrieved18 December 2012.
^Zafran, Eric; Resendez, Sydney (1998).French Paintings in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston: Artists born before 1790. Boston: Museum of Fine Arts Boston. p. 189.ISBN0878464611.
Lebor, Adam (2007).City of Oranges. Arabs and Jews in Jaffa. New York: W.W. Norton & Co.ISBN978-0-7475-8602-9.
Levine, Mark (2005).Overthrowing Geography, Jaffa, Tel Aviv, and the Struggle for Palestine, 1880–1948. Berkeley: University of California Press.ISBN0-520-23994-6.
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