This article is about the Hijri calendar based on lunar observation. For the solar calendar whose first year is fixed to the Hijra, seeSolar Hijri calendar. For the rule-based Hijri calendar, seeTabular Islamic calendar.
"Crescent moon of Islam" redirects here. For the symbol, seeStar and crescent.
This calendar enumerates theHijri era, whoseepoch was established as theIslamic New Year in 622CE.[1] During that year,Muhammad and his followers migrated fromMecca toMedina and established the first Muslim community (ummah), an event commemorated as theHijrah. In the West, dates in this era are usually denotedAH (Latin:Anno Hegirae,lit. 'In the year of the Hijrah').[a] In Muslim countries, it is also sometimes denoted asH[2] from its Arabic form (سَنَة هِجْرِيَّة, abbreviatedھ). In English, years prior to the Hijra are denoted asBH ("Before the Hijra").[3]
Since 7 July 2024 CE, the current Islamic year is 1446 AH. In theGregorian calendar reckoning, 1446 AH runs from 7 July 2024 to approximately 26 June 2025.[4][5][b]
For central Arabia, especiallyMecca, there is a lack of epigraphical evidence but details are found in the writings of Muslim authors of theAbbasid era. Inscriptions of the ancientSouth Arabian calendars reveal the use of a number of local calendars. At least some of these South Arabian calendars followed thelunisolar system. Bothal-Biruni andal-Mas'udi suggest that the ancient Arabs used the same month names as the Muslims, though they also record other month names used by the pre-Islamic Arabs.[6][which?]
The Islamic tradition is unanimous in stating that Arabs ofTihamah,Hejaz, andNajd distinguished between two types of months, permitted (ḥalāl) and forbidden (ḥarām) months.[6] The forbidden months were four months during which fighting is forbidden, listed as Rajab and the three months around thepilgrimage season, Dhu al-Qa‘dah, Dhu al-Hijjah, and Muharram.[6] A similar if not identical concept to the forbidden months is also attested byProcopius, where he describes an armistice that the Eastern Arabs of the Lakhmid al-Mundhir respected for two months in thesummer solstice of 541 CE.[6] However, Muslim historians do not link these months to a particular season. TheQur'an links the four forbidden months withNasī', a word that literally means "postponement".[6] According to Muslim tradition, the decision of postponement was administered by the tribe ofKinanah,[7] by a man known as theal-Qalammas of Kinanah and his descendants (pl.qalāmisa).[8]
Different interpretations of the concept ofNasī' have been proposed.[9] Some scholars, both Muslim[10][11] and Western,[6][7] maintain that thepre-Islamic calendar used in central Arabia was a purely lunar calendar similar to the modern Islamic calendar. According to this view,Nasī' is related to the pre-Islamic practices of the Meccan Arabs, where they would alter the distribution of the forbidden months within a given year without implying a calendar manipulation. This interpretation is supported by Arab historians and lexicographers, likeIbn Hisham,Ibn Manzur, and the corpus ofQur'anic exegesis.[12]
This is corroborated by an earlySabaic inscription, where a religious ritual was "postponed" (ns'w) due to war. According to the context of this inscription, the verbns'’ has nothing to do with intercalation, but only with moving religious events within the calendar itself. The similarity between the religious concept of this ancient inscription and the Qur'an suggests that non-calendaring postponement is also the Qur'anic meaning ofNasī'.[6] TheEncyclopaedia of Islam concludes "The Arabic system of [Nasī'] can only have been intended to move the Hajj and the fairs associated with it in the vicinity of Mecca to a suitable season of the year. It was not intended to establish a fixed calendar to be generally observed."[13] The term "fixed calendar" is generally understood to refer to the non-intercalated calendar.
Others concur that it was originally a lunar calendar, but suggest that about 200 years before theHijra it was transformed into alunisolar calendar containing anintercalary month added from time to time to keep the pilgrimage within the season of the year when merchandise was most abundant. This interpretation was first proposed by the medieval Muslim astrologer and astronomerAbu Ma'shar al-Balkhi, and later byal-Biruni,[8][14]al-Mas'udi, and some western scholars.[15] This interpretation considersNasī' to be a synonym to the Arabic word for "intercalation" (kabīsa). The Arabs, according to one explanation mentioned by Abu Ma'shar, learned of this type of intercalation from the Jews.[7][8][14] The JewishNasi was the official who decided when to intercalate the Jewish calendar.[16][full citation needed] Some sources say that the Arabs followed the Jewish practice and intercalated seven months over nineteen years, or else that they intercalated nine months over 24 years; there is, however, no consensus among scholars on this issue.[17][full citation needed]
Nasi' is interpreted to signify either the postponement of the pre-Islamic month of Hajj, or the (also pre-Islamic) practice ofintercalation – periodic insertion of an additional month to reset the calendar into accordance with the seasons.
In the tenth year of the Hijra, as documented in theQur'an (Surah At-Tawbah (9):36–37), Muslims believeGod revealed the "prohibition of the Nasī'".
Indeed, the number of months ordained by Allah is twelve—in Allah's Record since the day He created the heavens and the earth—of which four are sacred. That is the Right Way. So do not wrong one another during these months. And together fight the polytheists as they fight against you together. And know that Allah is with those mindful ˹of Him˺. Reallocating the sanctity of ˹these˺ months is an increase in disbelief, by which the disbelievers are led ˹far˺ astray. They adjust the sanctity one year and uphold it in another, only to maintain the number of months sanctified by Allah, violating the very months Allah has made sacred. Their evil deeds have been made appealing to them. And Allah does not guide the disbelieving people.
The prohibition of Nasī' would presumably have been announced when the intercalated month had returned to its position just before the month of Nasi' began. If Nasī' meant intercalation, then the number and the position of the intercalary months between AH 1 and AH 10 are uncertain; western calendar dates commonly cited for key events in early Islam such as theHijra, theBattle of Badr, theBattle of Uhud and theBattle of the Trench should be viewed with caution as they might be in error by one, two, three or even four lunar months. This prohibition was mentioned by Muhammad during thefarewell sermon which was delivered on 9 Dhu al-Hijjah AH 10 (Julian date Friday 6 March 632 CE) onMount Arafat during thefarewell pilgrimage to Mecca.[citation needed]
Certainly the Nasi' is an impious addition, which has led the infidels into error. One year they authorise the Nasi', another year they forbid it. They observe the divine precept with respect to the number of the sacred months, but in fact they profane that which God has declared to be inviolable, and sanctify that which God has declared to be profane. Assuredly time, in its revolution, has returned to such as it was at the creation of the heavens and the earth. In the eyes of God the number of the months is twelve. Among these twelve months four are sacred, namely, Rajab, which stands alone, and three others which are consecutive.
The three successive sacred (forbidden) months mentioned by Muhammad (months in which battles are forbidden) areDhu al-Qa'dah,Dhu al-Hijjah, andMuharram, months 11, 12, and 1 respectively. The single forbidden month isRajab, month 7. These months were considered forbidden both within the new Islamic calendar and within the old pagan Meccan calendar.[20][6][21][22][23]
Days of the week
Traditionally, the Islamic day begins at sunset and ends at the next sunset. Each Islamic day thus begins at nightfall and ends at the end of daylight.
The days in the seven-day week are, with the exception of the last two days, named after their ordinal place in the week.
On the sixth day of the week, the "gathering day" (Yawm al-Jumʿah), Muslims assemble for the Friday-prayer at a local mosque at noon. The "gathering day" is often regarded as the weekly day off. This is frequently made official, with many Muslim countries adopting Friday and Saturday (e.g., Egypt, Saudi Arabia) or Thursday and Friday as officialweekends, during which offices are closed; other countries (e.g., Iran) choose to make Friday alone a day of rest. A few others (e.g., Turkey, Pakistan, Morocco, Nigeria, Malaysia) have adopted the Saturday-Sunday weekend while making Friday a working day with a long midday break to allow time off for worship.[citation needed]
Each month of the Islamic calendar commences on the birth of the new lunar cycle.[24] Traditionally, this is based on actual observation of the moon's crescent (hilal) marking the end of the previous lunar cycle and hence the previous month, thereby beginning the new month. Consequently, each month can have 29 or 30 days depending on the visibility of the Moon, astronomical positioning of the Earth and weather conditions.[c]
Four of the twelve Hijri months are considered sacred:Rajab (7), and the three consecutive months ofDhū al-Qa'dah (11),Dhu al-Ḥijjah (12) andMuḥarram (1), in which battles are forbidden.[25]
Also means to graze, because cattle were grazed during this month. Also a very holy month of celebration for many Muslims, as it was the month Muhammad was born.[26]
Often considered the pre-Islamic summer.Jumādā may also be related to a verb meaning "to freeze" and another account relates that water would freeze during this time of year.
This is the second sacred month in which fighting is forbidden.Rajab may also be related to a verb meaning "to remove", so called because pre-Islamic Arabs would remove the heads of their spears and refrain from fighting.
Marked the time of year when Arab tribes dispersed to find water.Sha‘bān may also be related to a verb meaning "to be in between two things". Another account relates that it was called thus because the month lies between Rajab and Ramadan.
Burning is related to fasting as with an empty stomach one's worldly desire will burn[citation needed]. Supposedly so called because of high temperatures caused by the excessive heat of the sun[citation needed].Ramaḍān is the most venerated month of the Hijri calendar. During this time, Muslims mustfast and not do anything sinful from pre-dawn until sunset and shouldgive charity to the poor and needy.
Femalecamels would normally be in calf at this time of year and raise their tails. At the first day of this month, theEid al-Fitr, "Festival of Breaking the Fast" begins, marking the end offasting and the end of Ramadan.
During this month Muslim pilgrims from all around the world congregate atMecca to visit theKaaba. The Hajj is performed on the eighth, ninth and the tenth of this month.Day of Arafah takes place on the ninth of the month.Eid al-Adha, the "Festival of the Sacrifice", begins on the tenth day and ends on the thirteenth, and this is a fourth holy month during which war is banned.
Alternative names
Afghan lunar calendar
The "Afghan lunar calendar" refers to two distinct naming systems for the months of the Hijri calendar, one of which was used by thePashtuns and the other by theHazaras. They were in use until the time ofAmanullah Khan's reign, when the usage of theSolar Hijri Calendar was formalized across Afghanistan.[27][28]
With effect from March 2022, theGovernment of Afghanistan has formally ceased use Solar Hijri calendar in favour of the Lunar Hijri calendar.[29]
Turki lunar calendar
InXinjiang, theUyghur Muslims traditionally had different names for the months of the Hijri calendar, which were in use until the adoption of the Gregorian calendar in the 20th century.[30][31][32] These names were collectively referred to as the "Turki lunar year" or "Turki lunar calendar".[33][34]
Twelver Shia Muslims believe theIslamic new year and first month of the Hijri calendar is Rabi' al-Awwal rather than Muharram, due to it being the month in which theHijrah took place.[35] This has led to difference regarding description of the years in which some events took place, such as the Muharram-occurringbattle of Karbala, which Shias say took place in 60 AH, whileSunnis say it took place in 61 AH.[36]
Length of year
The mean duration of atropical year is 365.24219 days, while the long-term average duration of asynodic month is 29.530587981 days. Thus the average lunar year (twelve new moons) is 10.87513 days shorter than the average solar year (365.24219 − (12 × 29.530587981)), causing months of the Hijri calendar to advance about eleven days earlier each year, relative to the equinoxes.[d] "As a result," says theAstronomical Almanac, "the cycle of twelve lunar months regresses through the seasons over a period of about 33 [solar] years".[24][e]
In pre-Islamic Arabia, it was customary to identify a year after a major event which took place in it. Thus, according to Islamic tradition,Abraha, governor of Yemen, then a province of the ChristianKingdom of Aksum ofNortheast Africa andSouth Arabia, attempted to destroy theKaaba with an army which included several elephants. The raid was unsuccessful, but that year became known as theYear of the Elephant, during which Muhammad was born (surahal-Fil). Most equate this to the year 570 CE, but a minority use 571 CE.
The first ten years of the Hijra were not numbered, but were named after events in the life of Muhammad according toal-Biruni:[38]
The year of permission.
The year of the order of fighting.
The year of the trial.
The year of congratulation on marriage.
The year of the earthquake.
The year of enquiring.
The year of gaining victory.
The year of equality.
The year of exemption.
The year of farewell.
Inc. 638 (17 AH),Abu Musa al-Ash'ari, one of the officials of theRashid CaliphUmar (r. 634–644) inBasra, complained about the absence of any years on the correspondence he received from Umar, making it difficult for him to determine which instructions were most recent. This report convinced Umar of the need to introduce an era for Muslims. After debating the issue with his counsellors, he decided that the first year should be the year of Muhammad's arrival at Medina (known as Yathrib, before Muhammad's arrival).[39]Uthman then suggested that the months begin with Muharram, in line with the established custom of the Arabs at that time. The years of the Islamic calendar thus began with the month of Muharram in the year of Muhammad's arrival at the city of Medina, even though the actual emigration took place in Safar and Rabi' I of the intercalated calendar, two months before the commencement of Muharram in the new fixed calendar.[2] Because of the Hijra, the calendar was named the Hijri calendar.
F A Shamsi (1984) postulated that the Arabic calendar was never intercalated. According to him, the first day of the first month of the new fixed Islamic calendar (1 Muharram AH 1) was no different from what was observed at the time. The day the Prophet moved from Quba' to Medina was originally 26 Rabi' I on the pre-Islamic calendar.[40] 1 Muharram of the new fixed calendar corresponded to Friday, 16 July 622 CE, the equivalent civil tabular date (same daylight period) in theJulian calendar.[41][42] The Islamic day began at the preceding sunset on the evening of 15 July. This Julian date (16 July) was determined bymedieval Muslim astronomers by projecting back in time their owntabular Islamic calendar, which had alternating 30- and 29-day months in each lunar year plus eleven leap days every 30 years. For example, al-Biruni mentioned this Julian date in the year 1000 CE.[43] Although not used by either medieval Muslim astronomers or modern scholars to determine the Islamic epoch, the thincrescent moon would have also first become visible (assuming clouds did not obscure it) shortly after the preceding sunset on the evening of 15 July, 1.5 days after the associateddark moon (astronomicalnew moon) on the morning of 14 July.[44]
Due to the Islamic calendar's reliance on certain variable methods of observation to determine its month-start-dates, these dates sometimes vary slightly from the month-start-dates of the astronomical lunar calendar,[which?] which are based directly on astronomical calculations. Still, the Islamic calendar roughly approximates the astronomical-lunar-calendar system, seldom varying by more than three days from it. Both the Islamic calendar and the astronomical-lunar-calendar take no account of thesolar year in their calculations, and thus both of these strictly lunar based calendar systems have no ability to reckon the timing of the four seasons of the year.
In the astronomical-lunar-calendar system, a year of 12 lunar months is 354.37 days long. In this calendar system, lunar months begin precisely at the time of the monthly "conjunction", when the Moon is located most directly between the Earth and the Sun. The month is defined as the average duration of a revolution of the Moon around the Earth (29.53 days). By convention, months of 30 days and 29 days succeed each other, adding up over two successive months to 59 full days. This leaves only a small monthly variation of 44 minutes to account for, which adds up to a total of 24 hours (i.e., the equivalent of one full day) in 2.73 years. To settle accounts, it is sufficient to add one day every three years to the lunar calendar, in the same way that one adds one day to the Gregorian calendar every four years.[45] The technical details of the adjustment are described inTabular Islamic calendar.
The Islamic calendar, however, is based on a different set of conventions being used for the determination of the month-start-dates.[46] Each month still has either 29 or 30 days, but due to the variable method of observations employed, there is usually no discernible order in the sequencing of either 29 or 30-day month lengths. Traditionally, the first day of each month is the day (beginning at sunset) of the first sighting of thehilal (crescent moon) shortly after sunset. If thehilal is not observed immediately after the 29th day of a month (either because clouds block its view or because the western sky is still too bright when the moon sets), then the day that begins at that sunset is the 30th. Such a sighting has to be made by one or more trustworthy men testifying before a committee of Muslim leaders. Determining the most likely day that thehilal could be observed was a motivation for Muslim interest in astronomy, which put Islam in the forefront of that science for many centuries. Still, due to the fact that both lunar reckoning systems are ultimately based on the lunar cycle itself, both systems still do roughly correspond to one another, never being more than three days out of synchronisation with one another.
Muslim clerics observe the moon.
This traditional practice for the determination of the start-date of the month is still followed in the overwhelming majority of Muslim countries. For instance,Saudi Arabia uses the sighting method to determine the beginning of each month of the Hijri calendar. Since AH 1419 (1998/99), several officialhilal sighting committees have been set up by the government to determine the first visual sighting of the lunar crescent at the beginning of each lunar month. Nevertheless, the religious authorities also allow the testimony of less experienced observers and thus often announce the sighting of the lunar crescent on a date when none of the official committees could see it.
Each Islamic state proceeds with its own monthly observation of the new moon (or, failing that, awaits the completion of 30 days) before declaring the beginning of a new month on its territory. However, the lunar crescent becomes visible only some 17 hours after the conjunction, and only subject to the existence of a number of favourable conditions relative to weather, time, geographic location, as well as various astronomical parameters.[47] Given the fact that the moon sets progressively later than the sun as one goes west, with a corresponding increase in its "age" since conjunction, Western Muslim countries may, under favorable conditions, observe the new moon one day earlier than eastern Muslim countries. Due to the interplay of all these factors, the beginning of each month differs from one Muslim country to another, during the 48-hour period following the conjunction. The information provided by the calendar in any country does not extend beyond the current month.
A number of Muslim countries try to overcome some of these difficulties by applying different astronomy-related rules to determine the beginning of months. Thus,Malaysia,Indonesia, and a few others begin each month at sunset on the first day that the moon sets after the sun (moonset after sunset). In Egypt, the month begins at sunset on the first day that the moon sets at least five minutes after the sun. A detailed analysis of the available data shows, however, that there are major discrepancies between what countries say they do on this subject, and what they actually do. In some instances, what a country says it does is impossible.[48][49]
Due to the somewhat variable nature of the Islamic calendar, in most Muslim countries, the Islamic calendar is used primarily for religious purposes, while the Solar-based Gregorian calendar is still used primarily for matters ofcommerce andagriculture.
Theological considerations
If the Islamic calendar were prepared using astronomical calculations, Muslims throughout the Muslim world could use it to meet all their needs, the way they use the Gregorian calendar today. But, there are divergent views on whether it is licit to do so.[50]
A majority of theologians oppose the use of calculations (beyond the constraint that each month must be not less than 29 nor more than 30 days) on the grounds that the latter would not conform with Muhammad's recommendation to observe the new moon of Ramadan and Shawal in order to determine the beginning of these months.[51][f]
However, someIslamic jurists see no contradiction between Muhammad's teachings and the use of calculations to determine the beginnings of lunar months.[52] They consider that Muhammad's recommendation was adapted to the culture of the times, and should not be confused with the acts of worship.[53][g][54]
The major Muslim associations of France also announced in 2012 that they would henceforth use a calendar based on astronomical calculations, taking into account the criteria of the possibility of crescent sighting in any place on Earth.[61][62] But, shortly after the official adoption of this rule by theFrench Council of the Muslim Faith (CFCM) in 2013, the new leadership of the association decided, on the eve of Ramadan 2013, to follow the Saudi announcement rather than to apply the rule just adopted. This resulted in a division of the Muslim community of France, with some members following the new rule, and others following the Saudi announcement.
Isma'ili-Taiyebi Bohras having the institution ofda'i al-mutlaq follow the tabular Islamic calendar (see section below) prepared on the basis of astronomical calculations from the days ofFatimidimams.
Calculated Islamic calendars
Islamic calendar of Turkey
Turkish Muslims use an Islamic calendar which is calculated several years in advance by theTurkish Presidency of Religious Affairs (Diyanet İşleri Başkanlığı). From 1 Muharrem 1400 AH (21 November 1979) until 29 Zilhicce 1435 (24 October 2014) the computed Turkish lunar calendar was based on the following rule: "The lunar month is assumed to begin on the evening when, within some region of the terrestrial globe, the computed centre of the lunar crescent at local sunset is more than 5° above the local horizon and (geocentrically) more than 8° from the Sun." In the current rule the (computed) lunar crescent has to be above the local horizon ofAnkara at sunset.[63]
Saudi Arabia'sUmm al-Qura calendar
Saudi Arabia has traditionally used the Umm al-Qura calendar, which is based on astronomical calculations, for administrative purposes. The parameters used in the establishment of this calendar underwent significant changes during the decade to AH 1423.[64][65]
Before AH 1420 (before 18 April 1999), if the moon's age at sunset inRiyadh was at least 12 hours, then the dayending at that sunset was the first day of the month. This often caused the Saudis to celebrate holy days one or even two days before other predominantly Muslim countries, including the dates for the Hajj, which can only be dated using Saudi dates because it is performed in Mecca.
From AH 1420–22, if moonset occurred after sunset at Mecca, then the day beginning at that sunset was the first day of a Saudi month, essentially the same rule used by Malaysia, Indonesia, and others (except for the location from which thehilal was observed).
Since the beginning of AH 1423 (16 March 2002), the rule has been clarified a little by requiring the geocentric conjunction of the sun and moon to occur before sunset, in addition to requiring moonset to occur after sunset at Mecca. This ensures that the moon has moved past the sun by sunset, even though the sky may still be too bright immediately before moonset to actually see the crescent.
In 2007, theIslamic Society of North America, theFiqh Council of North America and the European Council forFatwa and Research announced that they would henceforth use a calendar based on calculations using the same parameters as theUmm al-Qura calendar to determine (well in advance) the beginning of all lunar months (and therefore the days associated with all religious observances). This was intended as a first step on the way to unify, at some future time, Muslims' calendars throughout the world.[66]
On 14 February 2016, Saudi Arabiaadopted the Gregorian calendar for payment of the monthly salaries of government employees (as a cost cutting measure),[67] while retaining the Islamic calendar for religious purposes.[68]
Other calendars using the Islamic era
TheSolar Hijri calendar is a solar calendar used in Iran which counts its years from theHijra or migration of Muhammad from Mecca to Medina in 622 CE.[69]
The Tabular Islamic calendar is a rule-based variation of the Islamic calendar, in which months are worked out by arithmetic rules rather than by observation or astronomical calculation. It has a 30-year cycle with 11leap years of 355 days and 19 years of 354 days. In the long term, it is accurate to one day in about 2,500 solar years or 2,570 lunar years. It also deviates up to about one or two days in the short term.
Kuwaiti algorithm
Microsoft uses the "Kuwaiti algorithm", a variant of the tabular Islamic calendar,[70] to convert Gregorian dates to the Islamic ones. Microsoft claimed that the variant is based on a statistical analysis of historical data fromKuwait, however it matches a known tabular calendar.
10 Muharram:Day of Ashura. For both Shias and Sunnis, the martyrdom ofHusayn ibn Ali, the grandson of Muhammad, and his followers. For Sunnis, the crossing of theRed Sea byMoses occurred on this day, along with many other significant events in thelives of prophets and that have to do withCreation.[71]
12 Rabi al-Awwal:Mawlid or Birth of the Prophet for Sunnis.
27 Ramadan: Start of theRevelation of the Qur’an. The most probable day Muhammad received the first verses of theQuran (17 Ramadan in Indonesia and Malaysia).
Civil and Hijri establishment dates of a library in Old City, Jerusalem
The Islamic calendar is now used primarily for religious purposes, and for official dating of public events and documents in Muslim countries. Because of its nature as a purely lunar calendar, it cannot be used for agricultural purposes and historically Islamic communities have used other calendars for this purpose: theEgyptian calendar was formerly widespread in Islamic countries, and theIranian calendar, theAkbar's calendar (from where theBengali calendar originated),[72][73] the 1789Ottoman calendar (a modifiedJulian calendar) were also used for agriculture in their countries.[citation needed] In theLevant andIraq theAramaic names of the Babylonian calendar are still used for all secular matters. In theMaghreb, Berber farmers in the countryside still use the Julian calendar for agrarian purposes.[74] These local solar calendars have receded in importance with the near-universal adoption of the Gregorian calendar for civil purposes.[citation needed] Saudi Arabia uses the lunar Islamic calendar.[h] In Indonesia, theJavanese calendar combines elements of the Islamic and pre-IslamicSaka calendars.[citation needed]
British authorNicholas Hagger writes that after seizing control ofLibya,Muammar Gaddafi "declared" on 1 December 1978 "that the Muslim calendar should start with the death of the prophet Mohammed in 632 rather than the hijra (Mohammed's 'emigration' from Mecca to Medina) in 622". This put the country ten solar years behind the standard Muslim calendar.[76] However, according to the 2006Encyclopedia of the Developing World, "More confusing still is Qaddafi's unique Libyan calendar, which counts the years from the Prophet's birth, or sometimes from his death. The months July and August, named afterJulius andAugustus Caesar, are nowNasser andHannibal respectively."[77] Reflecting on a 2001 visit to the country, American reporterNeil MacFarquhar observed, "Life in Libya was so unpredictable that people weren't even sure what year it was. The year of my visit was officially 1369. But just two years earlier Libyans had been living through 1429. No one could quite name for me the day the count changed, especially since both remained in play. ... Event organizers threw up their hands and put the Western year in parentheses somewhere in their announcements."[78]
Computer support
Hijri support was available in later versions of traditionalVisual Basic, and is also available in the.NET Framework.
Since the release ofJava 8, the Islamic calendar is supported in the new Date and Time API.
^exact dates depend on which variant of the Islamic calendar is followed.
^Certain sects and groups, most notably Bohras Muslims namelyAlavis,Dawoodis andSulaymanis andShiaIsmaili Muslims, use atabular Islamic calendar in which odd-numbered months have thirty days (and also the twelfth month in a leap year) and even months have 29. However this article is about the calendar used by Sunni Islam, in which there are no explicit leap years.
^The precise number varies, depending on the length of thesynodic month (the time it takes the Moon to reach the same visualphase. This varies notably throughout the year.[37])
^This means that there are 34 Hijri years to 33 Gregorian years.
^Some theologians also interpretSurah al-Baqarah 2:185 as requiring direct sighting, but they represent only a minority. The Quranic verse reads as follows : "The month of Ramadân in which was revealed the Qur'ân, a guidance for mankind and clear proofs for the guidance and the criterion (between right and wrong). So whoever of you sights (the crescent on the first night of) the month (of Ramadân i.e., is present at his home), he must observe Saum (fasts) that month, and whoever is ill or on a journey, the same number [of days which one did not observeSaum (fasts) must be made up] from other days. God intends for you ease, and He does not want to make things difficult for you. (He wants that you) must complete the same number (of days), and that you must magnify God [i.e., to sayTakbîr ("Allāhu-Akbar", [i.e.] "God is the Most Great") on seeing the crescent of the months of Ramadân and Shawwâl] for having guided you so that you may be grateful to Him."-Quran2:185-Noble Quran (Hilali–Khan).
^The dynasty of Fatimids in Egypt used a tabular pre-calculated calendar over a period of two centuries, between the 10th and 12th centuries, before a change of political regime reactivated the procedure of observation of the new moon.
^The start of each lunar month determined not ahead of time by astronomical calculation, but only after the crescent moon is sighted by the proper religious authorities.[75]
^abcdefghF.C. De Blois, "TA’RĪKH": I.1.iv. "Pre-Islamic and agricultural calendars of the Arabian peninsula",The Encyclopaedia of Islam, 2nd edition,X:260.
^abcA. Moberg, "NASI'",The Encyclopaedia of Islam, 2nd, VII: 977.
^From an illustrated manuscript of Al-Biruni's 11th-centuryVestiges of the Past (Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, Arabe 1489 fol. 5v. (Bibliothèque Nationale on-line catalog). See also: Robert Hillenbrand, "Images of Muhammad in al-Bīrūnī's Chronology of Ancient Nations", in: R. Hillenbrand (ed.),Persian Painting from the Mongols to the Qajars: Studies in Honour of Basil W. Robinson (London/New York: I.B. Tauris Publishers, 2000), pp. 129–46.
^abRichards, E. G. (2012)."Calendars"(PDF). In Urban, Sean E.; Seidelmann, P. Kenneth (eds.).Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Almanac. Mill Valley, CA: University Science Books. p. 606.ISBN978-1-891389-85-6. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 30 April 2019.
^Raquette, Gösta (1912). "Eastern Turki Grammar". InSachau, Eduard (ed.).Mitteilungen des Seminars für Orientalische Sprachen an der Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität zu Berlin [Notices from the Seminar for Oriental Languages at the Friedrich Wilhelm University in Berlin]. Part 2: Westasiatische Studien [West Asian Studies]. Vol. 15. Berlin:Georg Reimer publishing house [de]. pp. 179–183.The Mohammedans only employ the Chinese system in documents to be presented before the Chinese authorities, otherwise they keep to their own. They have a Lunar year[.] (...) It has 12 months with 29 or 30 days. Their names, corresponding to the Arabic ones, (...) are as follows:عشور آیʾä̬šu̬r ay,صفر آیsäpär ay,صفر قوشنەسیsäpär qošnä̬sı̬̊,جمادیالاولǰämadi ulä̬vä̬l,جمادیالآخرǰämadi ulaχir,تلاش آیtalaš ay,دعا آیdʾu̥ā ay,براعت آیbaraʾt ay,روزە آیroze ay,عید آیʾä̬yd ay,آرا آیārḁ ay,عید قربان آیʾä̬ydqurban ay.
^Schwarz, Henry G. (1992)."Calendars"(PDF).An Uyghur-English Dictionary. Vol. East Asian Research Aids & Translations, 3. Bellingham, Washington: East Asian Studies Press. pp. 1073–1074.doi:10.25710/c1bm-2e85.OCLC26635636.Turki Lunar Year: aşur ay, säpär ay, säpär qoşnisi, jamadi ulaval, jamadi ulaxir, talaş ay, du'a ay, barat ay, roza ay, heyt ay, ara ay, aydi qurban ay.
^Jean Meeus,Astronomical Algorithms (Richmond, VA: Willmann-Bell, 1998) p 354. From 1900–2100, the shortest time from one new moon to the next is 29 days, 6 hours, and 35 min, and the longest 29 days, 19 hours, and 55 min.
^Allal el Fassi : "Aljawab assahih wannass-hi al-khaliss 'an nazilati fas wama yata’allaqo bimabda-i acchouhouri al-islamiyati al-arabiyah", "[...] and the beginning of Islamic Arab months", report prepared at the request of King Hassan II of Morocco, Rabat, 1965 (36 p.), with no indication of editor.
^al-Shaârawi, Muhammad Mutawalli (2000). Ahmad Azzaâbi (ed.).Fiqh al-halal wal haram. Dar al-Qalam, Beyrouth. p. 88.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
^Abderrahman al-Haj (2003)."لماذا الاختلاف حول الحساب الفلكي؟" [Why the difference about the astronomical calculation?] (in Arabic).Archived from the original on 30 April 2008. Retrieved13 June 2008.
^"Pahela Baishakh".Banglapedia. Dhaka, Bangladesh: Asiatic Society of Bangladesh. 2015.Archived from the original on 7 September 2019. Retrieved11 October 2024.
