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Native name: Kepulauan Indonesia | |
|---|---|
 Map of the Indonesian archipelago | |
.svg) Indonesian archipelago on the world map | |
| Etymology |
|
| Geography | |
| Location | Southeast Asia andOceania |
| Coordinates | 6°10′S 106°49′E |
| Adjacent to | |
| Total islands | ± 17,000–18,000 islands[1][2] |
| Major islands | |
| Area | 1,904,569[3]–8,300,000[4][5] km2 (735,358–3,204,648 sq mi) |
| Highest elevation | 4,884 m (16024 ft)[a] |
| Highest point | Puncak Jaya,Central Papua |
| Administration | |
| Capital and largest city | Jakarta (pop. 10.56 million as of 2020) |
| President | Prabowo Subianto |
| Demographics | |
| Demonym | Indonesians |
| Population | ± 280,000,000 (2023) |
| Ethnic groups | |
TheIndonesian archipelago (Indonesian:Kepulauan Indonesia) is a large collection of over17,000 to 18,000 islands[6][7] located between theIndian andPacific Oceans inSoutheast Asia andOceania.[8] It is the world's largestarchipelago,[9] with five main islands—Sumatra,Java,Borneo (shared withMalaysia andBrunei),Sulawesi, andNew Guinea (shared withPapua New Guinea).
Indonesia is famous for itsbiodiversity, unique animals and ecosystems that range fromtropical rainforests tovolcanoes, making it one of the most biodiverse countries in the world.[10][11] The cultural heritage of the Indonesian archipelago reflects a profound diversity, encompassing hundreds of distinctethnic groups andlanguages. Its strategic location and natural resources have long made Indonesia an important trading center and a major player in regional and global affairs. Influenced by Hindu, Buddhist, Islamic, and European colonial cultures, Indonesia gained independence in 1945.
The Indonesian archipelago consists of about 6,000 inhabited islands, with many others that are uninhabited.[3] These islands range from densely populatedJava—often regarded as the economic and cultural heart of Indonesia, home to numerous candi (temples), includingBorobudur, the world’s largestBuddhist temple—to small, remote islands.Bali is known as a tourist destination, famous for its nature and culture making it one of the most popular tourist destinations in the world,Sumatra with its natural resources and strategic position on theMalacca Strait, and Komodo with its uniquelizards. TheMaluku Islands, or Rem-pah Islands, have an important history in the worldspice trade.[12]
The term "Indonesian Archipelago", derived from theGreek "Indos" meaning India referring to theIndian subcontinent and "nesos" meaning island, literally translating to "Indian Archipelago".[13] The Indonesian archipelago is the largest archipelago in the world, consisting of large islands such asSumatra,Java,Kalimantan,Sulawesi, andPapua, as well as 17,000 to 18,000 medium-sized and small islands spread across the Indian Ocean and Pacific Ocean. Within the Indonesian archipelago, the “Sunda Islands” form an important subgroup, divided into theGreater Sunda Islands -islands in the western part of Indonesia such as Sumatra, Java, Borneo (Kalimantan), and Sulawesi - known for their large size and dense population and theLesser Sunda Islands, which extend eastward from Bali and are characterized by smaller islands such asLombok,Sumbawa,Flores, andTimor, each of which has a distinct ecology.
The term "Nusantara", often an alternative name for the Indonesian archipelago, comes from Old Javanese,[14][15] which emphasizes unity as a maritime nation with diverse cultures and vast landscapes. The term is closely associated with theMajapahit era in Java, a period characterized by extensive maritime dominance in the region, which matched the boundaries of present-day Indonesia. Majapahit's influence extended through trade networks, maritime routes and the influence of a shared cultural heritage that shaped its identity.[16]
Eighth-centuryArab geographers identified the whole Maritime Southeast Asian region as "Jawi" (Arabic:جاوي). The word "Jawi" (جاوي) is anadjective for the ArabicnounJawah (جاوة). Both terms may originate from anIndian source, the term "Javadvipa", the ancient name for Java, or from Javanese source because (Javanese:ꦗꦮꦶ,romanized: jawi) is theJavanese Krama form of the word (Javanese:ꦗꦮ,romanized: jawa) to meanJava (geographically:ꦠꦤꦃꦗꦮꦶ, romanized:tanah Jawi, or ethnically:ꦠꦶꦪꦁꦗꦮꦶ, romanized:tiyang Jawi).[17][18]
The term “Malay Archipelago” (Indonesian:Kepulauan Melayu) is sometimes used interchangeably with the Indonesian Archipelago, highlighting the connections among theMalay-speaking peoples of these islands. The term derives from the old European concept of the ‘Malay race’, which referred to the brown-skinned people of maritime southeast Asia.[19] The name “Malay” was derived from European explorers' observations of the strong influence of theSrivijaya Empire, centered on the island ofSumatra. The term remains highly controversial in Indonesia and outside the Malay-speaking areas, because it is considered politically charged and irredentist rather than purely cultural.[20]
The Indonesian archipelago has been inhabited since 2 million years ago, with the discovery of the remains of aHomo erectus specimen, known as theJava Man, on the island of Java.[21][22] These findings represent some of the earliest evidence of human habitation in Southeast Asia.[23] The discovery of ancient human remains inFlores, including thehobbit-likeHomo floresiensis, is estimated to be 500,000 years old. The Indonesian archipelago is also home to many of the world's oldestcave paintings, found mainly in caves inSulawesi andBorneo. These paintings, which depict hand stencils and animal images, are about 40,000 years old, and provide valuable knowledge regarding the artistic expression of early humans.[24] Recent discoveries, such as those found in caves in Sulawesi, Leang Karampuang, which are about 51,200 years old, are considered to be the oldest known paintings in the world.[25][26][27]
Austronesian people form the majority of the modern population. They may have arrived in Indonesia around 2000 BCE and are thought to have originated in Taiwan.[28] Ideal agricultural conditions, and the mastery of rice cultivation in the fields since the 8th century BC, allowed villages, towns, and small kingdoms to flourish in the 1st century AD. These kingdoms (which were nothing more than collections of villages subject to tribal chiefs) flourished with their own ethnic and tribal religions.[29]
By the first millennium CE, the Indonesian archipelago had become a crucial maritime trade route connecting the East and West. Early trade networks facilitated the exchange of goods, ideas, and cultures between the islands and neighboring regions, includingMainland China,Indian subcontinent, and theMiddle East. This period saw the rise of influentialHinduism andBuddhist kingdoms, which played a significant role in shaping the political landscape of the archipelago.[30][31][32]
References to the Dvipantara orYawadvipa, aHindu kingdom inJava andSumatra appear in Sanskrit writings from 200 BCE. InIndia's earliest epic, theRamayana,Sugriva, the chief ofRama's army dispatched his men to Yawadvipa, the island of Java, in search ofSita.[33] According to the ancientTamil text Manimekalai Java had a kingdom with a capital called Nagapuram.[34][35][36] The earliest archaeological relic discovered in Indonesia is from the Ujung Kulon National Park, West Java, where an earlyHindu statue ofGanesha estimated from the 1st century CE was found on the summit of Mount Raksa inPanaitan island. There is also archaeological evidence ofSunda Kingdom in West Java dating from the 2nd-century, andJiwa Temple inBatujaya, Karawang,West Java was probably built around this time.[37]
One of the earliest and most powerful of these kingdoms was theSrivijaya Empire, which emerged in the 7th century inSumatra.[38][39] Srivijaya dominated trade in Southeast Asia for several centuries, controlling the strategicMalacca andSunda Straits, as well as the world'sSpice Route, and facilitating the spread of Hinduism and Buddhism throughout the region.[40] The wealth and influence of Srivijaya were reflected in its capital,Palembang, which became a major center of learning and culture.[41] At that time, ancient Indonesian sailors had made long voyages toMadagascar andEast Africa.[42]
Mataram Kingdom, ruled by theSailendra andSanjaya inCentral Java during the 8th and 9th centuries, is renowned for successfully integrating two major religions—Hinduism and Buddhism—within a single government. The Sailendra, adherents ofMahayana Buddhism, left an enduring legacy with the construction ofBorobudur temple, the world’s largest Buddhist monument. Meanwhile, the Sanjaya, followers of ShaivismHinduism, constructed the Prambanan temple complex, one of the largest Hindu temple sites in Asia, dedicated to the Trimurti: Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva.[43] By the late 9th and early 10th centuries, the center of power shifted from Central Java to East Java, a move often attributed to volcanic activity fromMount Merapi or pressure from the expandingMelayu/Srivijaya Empire.[44]
The subsequent rise of the HinduMajapahit Empire in the 13th century marked another golden age in Indonesian history. Under the leadership of powerful rulers such as KingHayam Wuruk and his prime ministerGajah Mada, Majapahit extended its influence over much of modern-day Indonesia, as well as parts of Malaysia, Singapore, and the Philippines.[45]
The first evidence of Indonesian Muslims comes from northern Sumatra;Marco Polo, on his way home from China in 1292, reported at least one Muslim town.[46]
The limited evidence that is currently known suggests that the spread of Islam accelerated in the 15th century. One of the defining characteristics of the spread was that it was achieved through generally peaceful means.[27][47][48]
The European colonial era began in the early 16th century with the arrival of Portuguese explorers, who sought to control the lucrative spice trade. The Portuguese established a foothold in the Maluku Islands, but their influence was soon challenged by theDutch and theBritish. TheDutch East India Company (VOC) emerged as the dominant colonial power, establishing a network of trading posts and fortresses across the archipelago. By the 17th century, the VOC had effectively monopolized the spice trade and exerted considerable political influence over the local sultanates.[citation needed]
In the 19th century, following the bankruptcy of the VOC, the Dutch government took direct control of the archipelago, consolidating its territories into theDutch East Indies. The colonial period brought significant social, economic, and infrastructural changes, but it was also marked by resistance and uprisings from local populations. Notable revolts include theJava War (1825–1830) led byPrince Diponegoro and theAceh War (1873–1904). The struggle for independence intensified in the early 20th century, with the rise of nationalist movements and organizations such as theBudi Utomo,Sarekat Islam, and theIndonesian National Party (PNI) founded bySukarno.[citation needed]
TheProclamation of Indonesian Independence on August 17, 1945, by Sukarno andMohammad Hatta, marked a pivotal moment in the archipelago's history. However, the path to full sovereignty was fraught with conflict, as the Dutch sought to re-establish control after World War II. The ensuing Indonesian National Revolution involved diplomatic negotiations and armed struggle, culminating in the recognition of Indonesian independence by the Dutch in 1949.[citation needed]
The Indonesian archipelago is a vast and diverse island chain located inSoutheast Asia, stretching from the edge ofMaritime Southeast Asia to the fringes ofOceania. This expansive archipelago spans approximately 5,120 kilometres (3,181 mi) from east to west and 1,760 kilometres (1,094 mi) from north to south, straddling the equator between 6°N and 11°S latitude and 95°E to 141°E longitude. Comprising over 17,000 islands, of which about 6,000 are inhabited, it is the world's largestarchipelagic state.[49]
The Indonesian archipelago has a totalland area of 1,904,569 square kilometers (735,358 sq mi), including 93,000 square kilometres (35,908 sq mi) ofinland seas such asstraits,bays, and other bodies of water. The surrounding sea areas increase the generally recognized territory of the Indonesian archipelago (land and sea) to about 5 million km². The exclusive economic zone is 6,159,032 km² (2,378,016 sq mi), bringing the total area to approximately 7.9 million km².[50][51]
The archipelago is composed of several major island groups, including theGreater Sunda Islands,Lesser Sunda Islands,Maluku Islands, andWestern New Guinea. Among these, the largest islands areSumatra,Java,Borneo (shared with Malaysia and Brunei),Sulawesi, and the western half ofNew Guinea. These islands vary greatly in size, with Sumatra covering 473,481 square kilometers, Java 138,794 square kilometers, and the Indonesian portion of Borneo, known as Kalimantan, spanning 743,330 square kilometers.
The Indonesian archipelago is complex and dynamic, shaped by millions of years of tectonic activity and volcanic processes. It sits at the convergence of several major tectonic plates: theEurasian,Indo-Australian,Philippine Sea, andPacific Plates. This interaction has created one of the most geologically active areas on Earth, part of thePacific Ring of Fire.[52] Between 1972 and 1991, there were 29 volcanic eruptions, mostly on Java.[53]
The western archipelago, includingSumatra andJava, features a volcanic arc from the subduction of the Indo-Australian Plate beneath the Eurasian Plate, resulting in volcanoes likeMount Merapi andMount Kerinci. The central and eastern regions, such as Sulawesi and the Maluku, are shaped by interactions of multiple plates, creating diverse geological features and island arcs.
Indonesia has around150 active volcanoes, with volcanic activity contributing to fertile soils, especially inJava. Frequent earthquakes result from constant tectonic movement, with fault lines such as theGreat Sumatran fault contributing to seismic activity and tsunamis, exemplified by the2004 Indian Ocean tsunami.[52]
The archipelago is rich in mineral resources, includingoil,natural gas,coal,gold,tin,copper, andnickel. Unique geological formations also create karst landscapes, such as the Gunung Sewu and Maros-Pangkep areas, with cave systems and hills. Varied geology also leads to features like underground rivers in karst areas and crater lakes in volcanic regions, such asLake Toba.[54]
The Indonesian Archipelago is one of the most biodiverse regions on the planet, and it is among the 17Megadiverse countries identified byConservation International.[55] This vast area spans both the Asian and Australian biogeographic zones, resulting in a unique and rich array of flora, fauna, and marine life.[56][57] Indonesian archipelago diverse ecosystems, ranging from lush rainforests to mangroves and savannas, support a variety of plant life. The archipelago is home to approximately 28,000 species of flowering plants, including around 2,500 species of orchids. Some of the most notable plants include theRafflesia arnoldii, which produces the world’s largest flower, and the titan arum, known for its enormous inflorescence and distinctive odor.
The fauna of Indonesia is equally diverse and includes many endemic species. The archipelago hosts around 1,531 bird species, 515 of which are endemic. Notable avian residents include the critically endangered Javan Hawk-Eagle and the beautiful Birds of Paradise.[58] Mammalian diversity is also significant, with species such as theSumatran tiger,orangutan, and theBorneo pygmy elephant. Indonesia is also home to theKomodo dragon, the largest livinglizard on Earth, found exclusively on a few islands within the archipelago.
Indonesia's marine biodiversity is among the richest in the world, making it a critical hotspot for marine conservation. The coral reefs in theCoral Triangle, which includes parts of Indonesia, are teeming with life, hosting over 500 species of coral and more than 2,000 species of reef fish. The waters around Indonesia also support populations of large marine animals such aswhale sharks,manta rays, and various species ofsea turtles.[59] The vibrant marine ecosystems not only support a wide range of species but also provide crucial resources and livelihoods for millions of Indonesians.
| Island's name | Area (km2) | Area (sq mi) | Population | Province(s), Country or countries |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| New Guinea | 785,753[60] | 303,381 | 11,818,000 |  Indonesia (Western New Guinea) and Papua New Guinea |
| Borneo | 748,168 | 288,869 | 21,258,000 |  Brunei, Malaysia and Indonesia (Central,East,North,South andWest Kalimantan) |
| Sumatra | 473,481 | 184,954 | 47,010,000 | Indonesia (Aceh,Bengkulu,Jambi,Lampung,Riau andNorth,South andWest Sumatra) |
| Sulawesi | 180,681 | 69,761 | 17,371,783 | Indonesia (Gorontalo andCentral,North,South,South East Sulawesi andWest Sulawesi) |
| Java | 138,794 | 53,589 | 139,448,718 | Indonesia (Banten,Jakarta,Yogyakarta andCentral,East andWest Java |
_(2022)_(alternate_colour_scheme).svg)
The population of the Indonesian archipelago is 270.20 million based on the2020 national census, up from 237.64 million in2010.[61][62] The official estimate by the end of 2024 is 283 million, increasing at a rate of 1.2% per year. The Indonesian archipelago is the most densely populated archipelago in the world, followed by theJapanese archipelago. Although dense, the distribution of the population is uneven, about 55% of Indonesia's population lives on the island ofJava,the most populous island in the world.
The Indonesian archipelago is characterized by significant ethnic diversity, comprising approximately600 distinct native ethnic groups.[63][64] The majority of Indonesians are descended fromAustronesian peoples, whose languages trace back toProto-Austronesian, likely originating in present-dayTaiwan.[65][66] Another prominent group is theMelanesians, who primarily reside ineastern Indonesia, including theMaluku Islands,Western New Guinea, and the eastern part of the Lesser Sunda Islands.[67][68]
TheJavanese are the largest ethnic group, making up 40.2% of the population and holding considerable political influence. They are predominantly located in thecentral andeastern parts ofJava, with significant numbers spread across various provinces. Following the Javanese, theSundanese are the next largest group at 15.4%, with other notable groups including theMalay,Batak,Madurese,Betawi,Minangkabau, andBugis.
The linguistic landscape of Indonesia is equally diverse, with over700 indigenous languages spoken across the archipelago.[69] Despite this diversity,Indonesian also known as “Bahasa Indonesia” serves as the national language and unifying lingua franca. Religious diversity is also prominent, withIslam being the predominant faith, followed by significant populations ofChristians,Hindus, andBuddhists. Despite the strong sense of regional identities, there exists a robust sense of Indonesian national identity.[70]
This article incorporates text from this source, which is in thepublic domain:Seekins, Donald M. (1993). "Indianized empires". In Frederick, William H.; Worden, Robert L. (eds.).Indonesia: a country study. Area handbook series1057-5294 (5th ed.). Washington, D.C.:Federal Research Division,Library of Congress.ISBN 9780844407906.Archived from the original on 9 December 2022. Retrieved25 September 2022.
