Indigenous resistance to American settlement was broken with defeat of theTecumseh's confederacy in 1813. The new settlers were primarily Americans ofBritish ancestry from theeastern seaboard and theUpland South, andGermans. After theCivil War, in which the state fought for theUnion, natural gas attracted heavy industry and newEuropean immigrants to its northern counties. In the first half of the 20th century, northern and central sections experienced a boom in goods manufacture and automobile production. Southern Indiana remained largely rural.
After the rise and fall of theKlan in the 1920s, the state swung politically from theRepublican toDemocratic Party in theNew Deal 1930s. Today, with a decades-long record of returning Republican majorities, Indiana is counted a "Red state".
Indiana's name means "Land of theIndians", or simply "Indian Land".[b] It also stems from Indiana's territorial history. On May 7, 1800, theUnited States Congress passed legislation to divide theNorthwest Territory into two areas and named the western section theIndiana Territory. In 1816, when Congress passed an Enabling Act to begin the process of establishing statehood for Indiana, a part of this territorial land became the geographic area for the new state.[c][20][21]
Formal use of the wordIndiana dates from 1768, when aPhiladelphia-based trading company gave its land claim in present-dayWest Virginia the name "Indiana" in honor of its previous owners, theIroquois. Later, ownership of the claim was transferred to theIndiana Land Company, the first recorded use of the wordIndiana. But theVirginia colony argued that it was the rightful owner of the land because it fell within its geographic boundaries. TheU.S. Supreme Court denied the land company's right to the claim in 1798.[22]
A native or resident of Indiana is known as aHoosier.[23] The etymology of this word is disputed, but the leading theory, advanced by the Indiana Historical Bureau and the Indiana Historical Society, has its origin in Virginia, Kentucky, the Carolinas, and Tennessee (theUpland South) as a term for a backwoodsman, a rough countryman, or a country bumpkin.[24][25]
The first inhabitants in what is now Indiana were thePaleo-Indians, who arrived about 8000 BC after the melting of the glaciers at the end of theIce Age. Divided into small groups, the Paleo-Indians werenomads who hunted largegame such asmastodons. They created stone tools made out ofchert by chipping,knapping andflaking.[26]
TheArchaic period, which began between 5000 and 4000 BC, covered the next phase of indigenous culture. The people developed new tools as well as techniques to cook food, an important step in civilization. These new tools included different types of spear points and knives, with various forms ofnotches. They made ground-stone tools such as stone axes, woodworking tools and grinding stones. During the latter part of the period, they built earthworkmounds andmiddens, which showed settlements were becoming more permanent. The Archaic period ended at about 1500 BC, although some Archaic people lived until 700 BC.[26]
TheWoodland period began around 1500 BC when new cultural attributes appeared. The people created ceramics and pottery and extended their cultivation of plants. An early Woodland period group named theAdena people had elegant burial rituals, featuring log tombs beneath earth mounds. In the middle of the Woodland period, theHopewell people began to develop long-range trade ofgoods. Nearing the end of the stage, the people developed highly productive cultivation and adaptation of agriculture, growing such crops ascorn andsquash. The Woodland period ended around 1000 AD.[26]
TheMississippian culture emerged, lasting from 1000 AD until the 15th century, shortly before the arrival of Europeans. During this stage, the people created large urban settlements designed according to theircosmology, with large mounds and plazas defining ceremonial and public spaces. The concentrated settlements depended on the agricultural surpluses. One such complex was theAngel Mounds. They had large public areas such as plazas and platform mounds, where leaders lived or conducted rituals. Mississippian civilization collapsed in Indiana during the mid-15th century for reasons that remain unclear.[26]
The historic Native American tribes in the area at the time of European encounter spoke different languages of theAlgonquian family. They included theShawnee,Miami, andIllini. Refugee tribes from eastern regions, including theDelaware who settled in the White and Whitewater River Valleys, later joined them.
Native Indians guide French explorers through Indiana, as depicted byMaurice Thompson inStories of Indiana
In 1679, French explorerRené-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle was the first European to cross into Indiana after reaching present-daySouth Bend at theSt. Joseph River.[27] He returned the following year to learn about the region. French-Canadianfur traders soon arrived, bringing blankets, jewelry, tools, whiskey and weapons to trade for skins with the Native Americans.
In 1732, Sieur de Vincennes built a second fur trading post at Vincennes. French Canadian settlers, who had left the earlier post because of hostilities, returned in larger numbers. In a period of a few years, British colonists arrived from the East and contended against the Canadians for control of the lucrative fur trade. Fighting between the French and British colonists occurred throughout the 1750s as a result.
The Native American tribes of Indiana sided with the French Canadians during theFrench and Indian War (also known as theSeven Years' War). With British victory in 1763, the French were forced to cede to the British crown all their lands in North America east of the Mississippi River and north and west of thecolonies.
The tribes in Indiana did not give up: they capturedFort Ouiatenon andFort Miami duringPontiac's Rebellion. The British royal proclamation of 1763 designated the land west of theAppalachians for Native American use, and excluded British colonists from the area, which the Crown called "Indian Territory".
In 1775, theAmerican Revolutionary War began as the colonists sought self-government and independence from the British. The majority of the fighting took place near the East Coast, but the Patriot military officerGeorge Rogers Clark called for an army to help fight the British in the west.[28] Clark's army won significant battles and took overVincennes andFort Sackville on February 25, 1779.[29]
During the war, Clark managed to cut off British troops, who were attacking the eastern colonists from the west. His success is often credited for changing the course of the American Revolutionary War.[30] At the end of the war, through theTreaty of Paris, the British crown ceded their claims to the land south of the Great Lakes to the newly formed United States, including Native American lands.
Left: A map showing extent of the treaty lands. Right: One of the first maps of Indiana (made 1816, published 1817) showing territories prior to the Treaty of St. Mary's which greatly expanded the region. Note the inaccurate placement ofLake Michigan.
By 1810, the frontier had been defined by theTreaty of Fort Wayne (1809), adding much of the southwestern lands around Vincennes and southeastern lands adjacent to Cincinnati, to areas along the Ohio River as part of U.S. territory. Settlements were military outposts such as Fort Ouiatenon in the northwest and Fort Miami (laterFort Wayne) in the northeast, Fort Knox and Vincennes settlement on the lower Wabash. Other settlements includedClarksville (across fromLouisville),Vevay, andCorydon along the Ohio River, theQuaker Colony inRichmond on the eastern border, and Conner's Post (laterConnersville) on the east central frontier. Indianapolis would not be populated for 15 more years, and central and northern Indiana Territory remained wilderness populated primarily by indigenous communities. Only two counties in the extreme southeast,Clark andDearborn, had been organized by European settlers. Land titles issued out of Cincinnati were sparse. Settler migration was chiefly via flatboat on the Ohio River westerly, and by wagon trails up the Wabash/White River Valleys (west) andWhitewater River Valleys (east).
In 1810, theShawnee tribal chiefTecumseh and his brotherTenskwatawa encouraged other indigenous tribes in the territory to resist European settlement. Tensions rose and the U.S. authorized Harrison to launch a preemptive expedition againstTecumseh's Confederacy; the U.S. gained victory at theBattle of Tippecanoe on November 7, 1811. Tecumseh was killed in 1813 during theBattle of Thames. After his death, armed resistance to United States control ended in the region. Most Native American tribes in the state were laterremoved to west of theMississippi River in the 1820s and 1830s after U.S. negotiations and the purchase of their lands.[33]
Corydon, a town in the far southern part of Indiana, was named the second capital of the Indiana Territory in May 1813 in order to decrease the threat of Native American raids following the Battle of Tippecanoe.[31] Two years later, a petition for statehood was approved by the territorial general assembly and sent to Congress. AnEnabling Act was passed to provide an election of delegates to write aconstitution for Indiana. On June 10, 1816, delegates assembled at Corydon to write the constitution, which was completed in 19 days.Jonathan Jennings was elected the fledgling state's first governor in August 1816. PresidentJames Madison approved Indiana'sadmission into the union as thenineteenth state on December 11, 1816.[29] In 1825, the state capital was moved from Corydon toIndianapolis.[31]
Indiana's Capitol Building inCorydon served as the state's seat of government from 1816 until 1825.[34]
1950 postal issue of Harrison commemorating Indiana's 150th anniversary of statehood
Many Europeanimmigrants went west to settle in Indiana in the early 19th century. The largest immigrant group to settle in Indiana wereGermans, as well as many immigrants fromIreland andEngland. Americans who were primarilyethnically English migrated from the Northern Tier ofNew York andNew England, as well as from the mid-Atlantic state ofPennsylvania.[35][36] The arrival of steamboats on the Ohio River in 1811, and theNational Road at Richmond in 1829, greatly facilitated settlement of northern and western Indiana.
Following statehood, the new government worked to transform Indiana from afrontier into a developed, well-populated, and thriving state, beginning significant demographic and economic changes. In 1836, the state's founders initiated a program, theIndiana Mammoth Internal Improvement Act, that led to the construction of roads,canals, railroads and state-funded public schools. The plans bankrupted the state and were a financial disaster, but increased land and produce value more than fourfold.[37] In response to the crisis and in order to avert another, in 1851, a secondconstitution was adopted. Among its provisions were a prohibition on public debt, as well as the extension ofsuffrage to African-Americans.
During theAmerican Civil War, Indiana became politically influential and played an important role in the affairs of the nation. Indiana was the first western state to mobilize for the United States in the war, and soldiers from Indiana participated in all the war's major engagements. The state provided 126 infantry regiments, 26 batteries of artillery and 13 regiments of cavalry to theUnion.[38]
In 1861, Indiana was assigned aquota of 7,500 soldiers to join theUnion Army.[39] So many volunteered in the first call that thousands had to be turned away. Before the war ended, Indiana had contributed 208,367 men. Casualties were over 35% among these men: 24,416 lost their lives and over 50,000 more were wounded.[40] The only Civil War conflicts fought in Indiana were theNewburgh Raid, a bloodless capture of the city; and theBattle of Corydon, which occurred duringMorgan's Raid leaving 15 dead, 40 wounded, and 355 captured.[41]
After the war, Indiana remained a largely agricultural state. Post-war industries included mining, including limestone extraction; meatpacking; food processing, such as milling grain, distilling it into alcohol; and the building ofwagons,buggies, farm machinery, and hardware.[42] However, thediscovery of natural gas in the 1880s in northern Indiana led to an economic boom: the abundant and cheap fuel attractedheavy industry; the availability of jobs, in turn, attracted new settlers from other parts of the country as well as from Europe.[43] This led to the rapid expansion of cities such asSouth Bend, Indianapolis, andFort Wayne.[42]
The early decades of the 20th century saw Indiana develop into a leadingmanufacturing state with heavy industry concentrating in the north.[35] In 1906 theUnited States Steel Corporation created a new industrial city on Lake Michigan,Gary, named afterElbert Henry Gary, its founding chairman. With industrialization, workers developed labor unions (their strike activities induced governorJames P. Goodrich to declare martial law in Gary in 1919)[44] and aSocialist Party.[45] RailroaderEugene Debs ofTerre Haute, the Socialist candidate received 901,551 votes (6.0% of the national vote) in the 1912 presidential election.[46] Suffrage movements also arose to enfranchise women.[43]
In its earlier years, Indiana was a leader in the automobile boom. Beginning its production inKokomo in 1896,Haynes-Apperson was the nation's first commercially successful auto company.[47] The importance of vehicle and parts manufacture to the state was symbolized by the construction in 1909 of theIndianapolis Motor Speedway.[48]
In the 1920s, state politics was heavily influenced by the rise of theIndiana Klan. First organized in 1915 as a branch of theKu Klux Klan, it appealed to white Protestants alarmed by social and economic trends, including changes induced by immigration from southern and central Europe.[49] In the name of defending "hundred-per-cent Americanism", the Klan sought exclude from public life "Bolsheviks,Catholics,Jews,Negroes,bootleggers,pacifists,evolutionists, foreigners, and all persons it considered immoral".[50]
By 1925 the Klan had 250,000 members, an estimated 30% of native-born white men.[51][52] By 1925 over half the elected members of theIndiana General Assembly, thegovernor of Indiana, and many other high-ranking officials in local and state government were members of the Klan. Politicians had also learned they needed Klan endorsement to win office.[53] That year, "Grand Dragon"D.C. Stephenson, who had begun to brag "I am the law in Indiana",[54] was charged and convicted for the rape and murder ofMadge Oberholtzer, a young schoolteacher. Denied pardon, in 1927 Stephenson gave theIndianapolis Times lists of people the Klan had paid. Partly as a result of compounded scandal, membership collapsed.[55]
Throughout the 1930s,New DealDemocrats topped the polls[56] and "the Klan was political poison".[57] During those years, Indiana, like the rest of the nation, was affected by theGreat Depression: businesses were shuttered and farm income collapsed. The numbers seeking employment, shelter and relief were augmented by out-of-stateDust Bowl migrants. Swept into office in the nation-wide landslide forFranklin Roosevelt in 1932, Democratic governorPaul V. McNutt, called on Hoosiers to "prove that government may be a great instrument of human progress",[56] and struggled to build a state-funded welfare system to help overwhelmed private charities. He reorganised state government, greatly enlarging his executive powers, introduced state income tax and endedProhibition. On several occasions, he declaredmartial law to put an end to worker strikes.[58]
World War II helped lift Indiana's economy, as the war required steel, food and other goods the state produced.[59] Roughly 10% of Indiana's population joined the armed forces, while hundreds of industries earned war production contracts and began making war material.[60] Indiana manufactured 4.5% of total U.S. military armaments during World WarII, ranking eighth among the 48 states.[61] The expansion of industry to meet war demands helped end the Great Depression.[59][62]
With economic recovery, the Republican supremacy in the state was restored.[63] Industry became the primary employer, a trend that continued into the 1960s.Urbanization during the 1950s and 1960s led to substantial growth in the state's cities. The auto, steel and pharmaceutical industries topped Indiana's major businesses. Indiana's population continued to grow after the war, exceeding five million by the 1970 census.[64]
In the early 1960s, Democrats briefly returned to state office, and under the administration ofMatthew E. Welsh the state adopted its first sales tax of 2%.[65] Indiana schools weredesegregated in 1949. In 1950, theU.S. Census Bureau reported Indiana's population as 95.5% white and 4.4% black.[66] Governor Welsh also worked with the General Assembly to pass the IndianaCivil Rights Bill, granting equal protection to minorities in seeking employment.[67]
Beginning in 1970, a series of amendments to thestate constitution were proposed. With adoption, theIndiana Court of Appeals was created and the procedure of appointing justices on the courts was adjusted.[69]
The1973 oil crisis created a recession that hurt the automotive industry in Indiana. Companies such asDelco Electronics andDelphi began a long series of downsizing that contributed to high unemployment rates in manufacturing inAnderson,Muncie, andKokomo. The restructuring anddeindustrialization trend continued until the 1980s when the national and state economy began to diversify and recover.[70]
With a total area (land and water) of 36,418 square miles (94,320 km2), Indiana ranks as the 38th largest state in size.[71] The state has a maximum dimension north to south of 250 miles (400 km) and a maximum east to west dimension of 145 miles (233 km).[72] The state's geographic center (39° 53.7'N, 86° 16.0W) is inMarion County.[73]
The average altitude of Indiana is about 760 feet (230 m) above sea level.[77] The highest point in the state isHoosier Hill inWayne County at 1,257 feet (383 m) above sea level.[71][78] The lowest point at 320 feet (98 m) above sea level is inPosey County, where theWabash River meets theOhio River.[71][73] The resultingelevation span, 937 feet (286 m), is the narrowest of any non-coastal U.S. state. Only 2,850 square miles (7,400 km2) have an altitude greater than 1,000 feet (300 m) and this area is enclosed within 14 counties. About 4,700 square miles (12,000 km2) have an elevation of less than 500 feet (150 m), mostly concentrated along the Ohio and lower Wabash Valleys, fromTell City andTerre Haute toEvansville andMount Vernon.[79]
The state includes two natural regions of the United States: the Central Lowlands and theInterior Low Plateaus.[80] Thetill plains make up the northern and central regions of Indiana. Much of its appearance is a result of elements left behind byglaciers. Central Indiana is mainly flat with some low rolling hills (except where rivers cut deep valleys through the plain, like at the Wabash River and Sugar Creek) and soil composed of glacial sands, gravel and clay, which results in exceptional farmland.[75] Northern Indiana is similar, except for the presence of higher and hillierterminal moraines and hundreds ofkettle lakes. Innorthwest Indiana there are various sand ridges and dunes, some reaching nearly 200 feet in height; most of them are atIndiana Dunes National Park. These are along the Lake Michigan shoreline and also inland to theKankakee Outwash Plain.
Southern Indiana is characterized by valleys and rugged, hilly terrain, contrasting with much of the state. Here, bedrock is exposed at the surface. Because of the prevalentIndiana limestone, the area has many caves, caverns, and quarries.
Major river systems in Indiana include the Whitewater, White, Blue, Wabash, St. Joseph, and Maumee rivers.[81] According to the Indiana Department of Natural Resources, as of 2007, there were 65 rivers, streams, and creeks of environmental interest or scenic beauty, which included only a portion of an estimated 24,000 total river miles within the state.[82]
There are about 900 lakes listed by the Indiana Department of Natural Resources.[87] To the northwest, Indiana bordersLake Michigan, one of five lakes comprising theGreat Lakes, the largest group of freshwater lakes in the world.Tippecanoe Lake, the deepest lake in the state, reaches depths at nearly 120 feet (37 m), whileLake Wawasee is the largest natural lake in Indiana.[88] At 10,750 acres (summer pool level),Monroe Lake is the largest lake in Indiana.[89]
In the past, almost all of Indiana had ahumid continental climate (Dfa), with cold winters and hot, wet summers;[90] only the extreme southern portion of the state lay within thehumid subtropical climate (Cfa), which receives more precipitation than other parts of Indiana.[75] But as of the 2016 update, about half the state is now classified as humid subtropical. Temperatures generally diverge from the north and south sections of the state. In midwinter, average high/low temperatures range from around 30°F/15°F (−1°C/−10°C) in the far north to 41°F/24°F (5°C/−4°C) in the far south.[91]
In midsummer there is generally a little less variation across the state, as average high/low temperatures range from around 84°F/64°F (29°C/18°C) in the far north to 90°F/69°F (32°C/21°C) in the far south.[91] Indiana's record high temperature was 116°F (47°C) set on July 14, 1936, atCollegeville. The record low was −36°F (−38°C) onJanuary 19, 1994 atNew Whiteland.[92] Thegrowing season typically spans from 155 days in the north to 185 days in the south.[citation needed]
While droughts occasionally occur in the state, rainfall totals are distributed relatively equally throughout the year. Precipitation totals range from 35 inches (89 cm) near Lake Michigan in northwest Indiana to 45 inches (110 cm) along the Ohio River in the south, while the state's average is 40 inches (100 cm). Annual snowfall in Indiana varies widely across the state, ranging from 80 inches (200 cm) in the northwest along Lake Michigan to 14 inches (36 cm) in the far south.Lake effect snow accounts for roughly half the snowfall in northwest and north central Indiana due to the effects of the moisture and relative warmth of Lake Michigan upwind. The mean wind speed is 8 miles per hour (13 km/h).[93]
In a 2012 report, Indiana was ranked eighth in a list of the top 20 tornado-prone states based onNational Weather Service data from 1950 through 2011.[94] A 2011 report rankedSouth Bend 15th among the top 20 tornado-prone U.S. cities,[95] while another report from 2011 rankedIndianapolis eighth.[96][d][e]Despite its vulnerability, Indiana is not part ofTornado Alley.[97]
Indiana is one of 13 U.S. states that are divided into more than one time zone. Indiana'stime zones have fluctuated over the past century. At present, most of the state observesEastern Time; six counties near Chicago and six near Evansville observeCentral Time.[100] Debate continues on the matter.[101]
Indianapolis is the capital of Indiana and its largest city.[103][g] Indiana's four largest metropolitan areas areIndianapolis,Fort Wayne,Evansville, andSouth Bend.[104] The table below lists the state's twenty largest municipalities based on the 2020 United States census.[105]
The state's population density was 181.0 persons per square mile, the 16th-highest in the United States.[103] As of the 2010 U.S. census, Indiana's population center was northwest of Sheridan, inHamilton County (+40.149246, −086.259514).[103][109][h]
In 2005, 77.7% of Indiana residents lived in metropolitan counties, 16.5% lived in micropolitan counties and 5.9% lived in non-core counties.[110]
In 2018, the top countries of origin for Indiana's immigrants wereMexico,India,China,Myanmar, and thePhilippines.[113] The city of Fort Wayne in particular is home to one of the largest communities of Burmese immigrants in the country.[114]
German is the largest ancestry reported in Indiana, with 18.8% of the population reporting that ancestry in the census. Persons listing themselves asAmerican (7.2%) and those ofEnglish ancestry (11.1%) are also numerous, as areIrish (9.8%) andPolish (2.6%).[120] Most of those citing American ancestry are actually of European descent, including many ofEnglish descent, but have family that has been in North America for so long, in many cases since the earlycolonial era, that they identify simply as American.[121][122][123][124] In the 1980 census 1,776,144 people claimed German ancestry, 1,356,135 claimed English ancestry and 1,017,944 claimed Irish ancestry out of a total population of 4,241,975 making the state 42% German, 32% English and 24% Irish.[125]
The state is home to a growing Hispanic population, making up 7.8% of the total population. The largest Hispanic ancestry in the state is Mexican (5.3%), making up a large majority of the Hispanic population.[126]
The majority (62%) of the state'sAfrican American population is concentrated in Marion and Lake counties, in and around the cities ofIndianapolis andGary.[127]
Population density in Indiana as of the 2020 U.S. census
Map of counties in Indiana by racial plurality, per the 2020 U.S. census
Non-Hispanic White
50–60%
60–70%
70–80%
80–90%
90%+
Population growth since 1990 has been concentrated in the counties surrounding Indianapolis, with four of the five fastest-growing counties in that area:Hamilton,Hendricks,Johnson, andHancock. The other county isDearborn County, which is nearCincinnati,Ohio. Hamilton County has also grown faster than any county in the states bordering Indiana (Illinois,Michigan,Ohio andKentucky), and is the 20th-fastest growing county in the country.[128]
With a population of 829,817,Indianapolis is the largest city in Indiana and the 12th-largest in the United States, according to the 2010 census. Three other cities in Indiana have a population greater than 100,000:Fort Wayne (253,617),Evansville (117,429) andSouth Bend (101,168).[129] Since 2000,Fishers has seen the largest population rise amongst the state's twenty largest cities with an increase of 100%.[130] Other cities that have seen extensive growth since 2000 areGreenwood (81%),Noblesville (39.4%),Carmel (21.4%),Columbus[131] (12.8%) andLawrence (9.3%).
Gary andHammond have had the largest population declines regarding the 20 largest cities since 2000, with a decrease of 21.0% and 6.8% respectively.[130]Evansville (−4.2%),Anderson (−4.0%) andMuncie (−3.9%) have also had declines.[132]
Since 2016, data for births ofWhite Hispanic origin are not collected, but included in oneHispanic group; persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.
Based on population estimates for 2011, 6.6% of the state's population is under the age of five, 24.5% is under the age of 18, and 13.2% is 65 years of age or older.[144] From the 2010 U.S. census demographic data for Indiana, the median age is 37.[145]
As of the2010 census, Indiana's median household income was $44,616, ranking it 36th among the United States and the District of Columbia.[146] In 2005, the median household income for Indiana residents was $43,993. Nearly 498,700 Indiana households had incomes between $50,000 and $75,000, accounting for 20% of all households.[147]
Hamilton County's median household income is nearly $35,000 higher than the Indiana average. At $78,932, it ranks seventh in the country among counties with fewer than 250,000 people. The next highest median incomes in Indiana are also found in the Indianapolis suburbs; Hendricks County has a median of $57,538, followed by Johnson County at $56,251.[147]
Although the largest single religious denomination in the state is Catholic (747,706 members), most Hoosiers are members of various Protestant denominations. The largest Protestant denomination by number of adherents in 2010 was theUnited Methodist Church, with 355,043.[149] A study by the Graduate Center at theCity University of New York found 20% are Catholic, 14% belong toBaptist churches, 10% are other Christians, 9% areMethodist, and 6% areLutheran. The study found 16% are affiliated withno religion.[150]
Indiana has a constitutional democratic republican form of government with three branches: the executive, including an elected governor and lieutenant governor; the legislative, consisting of an electedbicameral General Assembly; and the judicial, the Supreme Court of Indiana, the Indiana Court of Appeals and circuit courts.
TheGovernor of Indiana serves as the state's chief executive and has the authority to manage the government as established in the Constitution of Indiana. The governor and thelieutenant governor are jointly elected to four-year terms, with gubernatorial elections running concurrently with United States presidential elections (1996, 2000, 2004, 2008, etc.).[161] The governor may not serve more than two consecutive terms.[161] The governor works with theIndiana General Assembly and theIndiana Supreme Court to govern the state and has the authority to adjust the other branches. The governor can call special sessions of the General Assembly and select and remove leaders of nearly all state departments, boards and commissions. Other notable powers include calling out theIndiana Guard Reserve or theIndiana National Guard in times of emergency or disaster, issuing pardons or commuting the sentence of any criminal offenders except in cases of treason or impeachment and possessing an abundant amount of statutory authority.[161][162][163]
The lieutenant governor serves as the President of the Senate and ensures the senate rules are acted in accordance with by its constituents. The lieutenant governor votes only when needed to break ties. If the governor dies in office, becomes permanently incapacitated, resigns or is impeached, the lieutenant governor becomes governor. If both the governor and lieutenant governor positions are unoccupied, the Senate President pro tempore becomes governor.[164]
The Indiana General Assembly is composed of a 50-memberSenate and 100-memberHouse of Representatives. The Senate is theupper house of the General Assembly and the House of Representatives is thelower house.[161] The General Assembly has exclusive legislative authority within the state government. Both the Senate and the House can introduce legislation, with the exception that the Senate is not authorized to initiate legislation that will affect revenue. Bills are debated and passed separately in each house, but both houses must pass them before they can be submitted to the Governor.[165] The legislature can nullify a veto from the governor with a majority vote of full membership in the Senate and House of Representatives.[161] Each law passed by the General Assembly must apply without exception to the entire state. The General Assembly has no authority to create legislation that targets a particular community.[165][166] The General Assembly can manage the state's judiciary system by arranging the size of the courts and the bounds of their districts. It also can oversee the activities of the executive branch of the state government, has restricted power to regulate the county governments within the state, and has exclusive power to initiate the method to alter the Indiana Constitution.[165][167]
TheIndiana Supreme Court is made up of five judges with aCourt of Appeals composed of 15 judges. The governor selects judges for the supreme and appeals courts from a group of applicants chosen by a special commission. After serving for two years, the judges must acquire the support of the electorate to serve for a 10-year term.[161] In nearly all cases, the Supreme Court does not haveoriginal jurisdiction and can hear only cases petitioned to it after being heard in lower courts. Local circuit courts are where most cases begin with a trial and the consequence is decided by the jury. The Supreme Court has original and sole jurisdiction in certain areas including the practice of law, discipline or disbarment of Judges appointed to the lower state courts, and supervision over the exercise of jurisdiction by the other lower courts of the State.[168][169]
The state is divided into 92counties, which are led by a board of county commissioners. 90 counties in Indiana have their owncircuit court with a judge elected for a six-year term. The remaining two counties, Dearborn and Ohio, are combined into one circuit. Many counties operatesuperior courts in addition to the circuit court. In densely populated counties where the caseload is traditionally greater, separate courts have been established to solely hear either juvenile, criminal, probate or small claims cases. The establishment, frequency and jurisdiction of these additional courts vary greatly from county to county. There are 85 city and town courts in Indiana municipalities, created by local ordinance, typically handling minor offenses and not consideredcourts of record. County officials elected to four-year terms include an auditor, recorder, treasurer, sheriff, coroner and clerk of the circuit court. All incorporated cities in Indiana have a mayor and council form of municipal government. Towns are governed by a town council and townships are governed by a township trustee and advisory board.[161][170]
U.S. News & World Report ranked Indiana first in the publication's inaugural 2017 Best States for Government listing. Among individual categories, Indiana ranked above average in budget transparency (#1), government digitization (#6), and fiscal stability (#8), and ranked average in state integrity (#25).[171]
In a 2020 study, Indiana was ranked as the 10th hardest state for citizens to vote in.[172]Abortion is illegal in Indiana with limited exceptions.[173]
Indiana is home to several current and formermilitary installations. The largest of these is theNaval Surface Warfare Center Crane Division, approximately 25 miles southwest ofBloomington, which is the third-largest naval installation in the world, comprising approximately 108 square miles of territory.[174] Located inside NSWC Crane is Constitution Grove, a 64,000-acre forest containing approximately 120 old-growthwhite oak trees selected for the maintenance of theUSS Constitution, the world's oldest commissioned warship still afloat.[175]
From 1880 to 1924, a resident of Indiana was included in all but one presidential election. Indiana RepresentativeWilliam Hayden English was nominated for vice president and ran with Winfield Scott Hancock in the1880 election.[176] Former Indiana GovernorThomas A. Hendricks was elected vice president in 1884. He served until his death on November 25, 1885, under PresidentGrover Cleveland.[177] In 1888, former Senator from IndianaBenjamin Harrison was elected president and served one term. He remains the only President from Indiana. Indiana SenatorCharles W. Fairbanks was elected vice president in 1904, serving under PresidentTheodore Roosevelt until 1909.[178] Fairbanks made another run for vice president withCharles Evans Hughes in 1916, but they both lost toWoodrow Wilson and former Indiana GovernorThomas R. Marshall, who served as vice president from 1913 until 1921.[179] Not until 1988 did another presidential election involve a native of Indiana when SenatorDan Quayle was elected vice president and served one term withGeorge H. W. Bush.[75] GovernorMike Pence was elected vice president in 2016 and served one term withDonald Trump.
Indiana has long been considered aRepublican stronghold.[180][181] It was through the Republican Party that in the mid-1920s the 250,000 memberIndiana Klan exerted its influence in theIndiana General Assembly, where more than half the elected representatives were Klansmen, and in the governor's office.[53] The party suffered accordingly when theMadge Oberholtzer scandal discredited the Klan leadership.[54] A further opening was created for the Democrats when the state shared in the country's disillusion with theDepression-era administration ofPresident Hoover. In 1932,Franklin D. Roosevelt won the state with 55% of the vote. The ascendancy of theNew Deal Democrats, however, was temporary. In 1940, Indiana was one of only 10 states to support RepublicanWendell Willkie.[75]
On 14 occasions the Republican candidate has defeated the Democrat by a double-digit margin in the state, including six times where a Republican won the state by more than 20 percentage points.[182] Roosevelt's victory in 1932 was one of only five occasion since 1900 in which the state has favored aDemocrat for president. The first wasWoodrow Wilson with 43% of the vote in 1912; the last, by a narrow margin of 50% to 49%. wasBarack Obama in 2008.[183]
RepublicanDonald Trump carried the state in2016, in2020 and again in2024. Despite his loss in the national vote, his largest margin was in 2020. On a turnout of 64.58%, he defeatedJoe Biden by a margin of 57% to 41%.[184]
While only five Democratic presidential nominees have carried Indiana since 1900, 11 Democratswere elected governor during that time. BeforeMitch Daniels became governor in 2005, Democrats had held the office for 16 consecutive years. Indiana elects two senators and nine representatives to Congress. The state has 11 electoral votes in presidential elections.[182] Seven of thedistricts favor the Republican Party according to the CPVI rankings; there are seven Republicans serving as representatives and two Democrats.
Historically, Republicans have been strongest in the eastern and central portions of the state, while Democrats have been strongest in the northwestern part of the state. Occasionally, certain counties in the southern part of the state will vote Democratic.Marion County, Indiana's most populous county, supported the Republican candidates from 1968 to 2000, before backing the Democrats in the 2004, 2008, 2012, 2016 and 2020 elections. Indiana's second-most populous county,Lake County, strongly supports the Democratic party and has not voted for a Republican since 1972.[182]
In 2005, the Bay Area Center for Voting Research rated the most liberal and conservative cities in the United States on voting statistics in the 2004 presidential election, based on 237 cities with populations of more than 100,000. Five Indiana cities were mentioned in the study. On the liberal side,Gary was ranked second andSouth Bend came in at 83. Among conservative cities,Fort Wayne was 44th,Evansville was 60th andIndianapolis was 82nd on the list.[185] Republicans also currently holdsupermajorities in both chambers of theIndiana General Assembly and have dominated thegovernorship since 2005.
The last decades of the 19th century began what is known as the "golden age of Indiana literature", a period that lasted until the 1920s.[186]Edward Eggleston wroteThe Hoosier Schoolmaster (1871), the first best-seller to originate in the state. Many more followed, includingMaurice Thompson'sHoosier Mosaics (1875) andLew Wallace'sBen-Hur (1880). Indiana developed a reputation as the "American heartland" after the publication of several widely read novels, beginning withBooth Tarkington'sThe Gentleman from Indiana (1899),Meredith Nicholson's The Hoosiers (1900), and Thompson'sAlice of Old Vincennes (1900).[186]James Whitcomb Riley, known as the "Hoosier Poet" and the most popular poet of his age, wrote hundreds of poems with Hoosier themes, includingLittle Orphant Annie. A unique art culture also began to develop in the late 19th century, beginning theHoosier School of landscape painting and theRichmond Group of impressionist painters. The painters, includingT. C. Steele, whose work was influenced by southern Indiana's colorful hills, were known for their use of vivid colors.[186] Prominent musicians and composers from Indiana also reached national acclaim, includingPaul Dresser, whose most popular song, "On the Banks of the Wabash, Far Away", was later adopted as the official state song.[187]
As of 2013[update] Indiana has produced moreNational Basketball Association (NBA) players per capita than any other state. Muncie has produced the most per capita of any American city, with two other Indiana cities in the top ten.[188] It has a rich basketball heritage that reaches back to the sport's formative years. The NBA'sIndiana Pacers play their home games atGainbridge Fieldhouse; they began play in 1967 in theAmerican Basketball Association (ABA) and joined the NBA when the leaguesmerged in 1976. AlthoughJames Naismith developed basketball inSpringfield,Massachusetts in 1891, high school basketball was born in Indiana. In 1925, Naismith visited an Indiana basketball state finals game along with 15,000 screaming fans and later wrote "Basketball really had its origin in Indiana, which remains the center of the sport." The 1986 filmHoosiers is inspired by the story of the 1954 Indiana state championsMilan High School. Professional basketball playerLarry Bird was born inWest Baden Springs and was raised inFrench Lick. He went on to lead theBoston Celtics to the NBA championship in 1981, 1984, and 1986.[189]
Indiana has had great sports success at the collegiate level.
In men's basketball, theIndiana Hoosiers have won five NCAA national championships and 22Big Ten Conference championships. ThePurdue Boilermakers were selected as the national champions in 1932 before the creation of the tournament, and have won 26 Big Ten championships. The Boilermakers along with the Notre Dame Fighting Irish have both won a national championship in women's basketball.
Lake Michigan's beaches, popular with tourists, are juxtaposed with heavy industry.Indiana is the fifth largest corn-producing state in the U.S., with over a billion bushels harvested in 2013.[190]
In 2017, Indiana had a civilian labor force of nearly 3.4million, the 15th largest in the United States. Indiana has an unemployment rate of 3.4%, lower than the national average.[191] The total gross state product in 2016 was $347.2billion.[192] A high percentage of Indiana's income is from manufacturing.[193] According to theBureau of Labor Statistics, nearly 17% of the state's non-farm workforce is employed in manufacturing, the highest of any state in the U.S.[194] The state's five leading exports were motor vehicles and auto parts, pharmaceutical products, industrial machinery, optical and medical equipment, and electric machinery.[195]
Despite its reliance on manufacturing, Indiana has been less affected by declines in traditionalRust Belt manufacturers than many of its neighbors. The explanation appears to be certain factors in the labor market. First, much of the heavy manufacturing, such as industrial machinery and steel, requires highly skilled labor, and firms are often willing to locate where hard-to-train skills already exist. Second, Indiana's labor force is primarily in medium-sized and smaller cities rather than in very large and expensive metropolises. This makes it possible for firms to offer somewhat lower wages for these skills than would normally be paid. Firms often see in Indiana a chance to obtain higher than average skills at lower than average wages.[196]
Northwest Indiana has been the largest steel producing center in the U.S. since 1975 and accounted for 27% of American-made steel in 2016.[199]
Indiana is home to the international headquarters and research facilities of pharmaceutical companyEli Lilly in Indianapolis, the state's largest corporation, as well as the world headquarters of Mead Johnson Nutritionals in Evansville.[200] Indiana ranks fifth among all U.S. states in total sales and shipments of pharmaceutical products and second in the number of biopharmaceutical related jobs.[201]
Indiana is in the U.S.Corn Belt andGrain Belt. It has a feedlot-style system raising corn to fatten hogs and cattle. Along with corn,soybeans are also a major cash crop. Its proximity to large urban centers, such asIndianapolis and Chicago, assure dairying, egg production, and specialty horticulture occur. Other crops include melons, tomatoes, grapes, mint, popping corn, and tobacco in the southern counties.[202] Most of the original land was not prairie and had to be cleared of deciduous trees. Many parcels of woodland remain and support a furniture-making sector in southern Indiana.
In 2011,CEO magazine ranked Indiana first in the Midwest and sixth in the country for best places to do business.[203]
Indiana has a flat stateincome tax rate of 3.23%. Many of the state's counties also collect income tax. The statesales tax rate is 7% with exemptions for food, prescription medications and over-the-counter medications.[205] In some jurisdictions, an additional Food and Beverage Tax is charged, at a rate of 1% (Marion County's rate is 2%), on sales of prepared meals and beverages.[206]
Property taxes are imposed on both real and personal property in Indiana and are administered by the Department of Local Government Finance.[207] Property is subject to taxation by a variety of taxing units (schools, counties, townships, municipalities, and libraries), making the total tax rate the sum of the tax rates imposed by all taxing units in which a property is located. However, a "circuit breaker" law enacted on March 19, 2008, limits property taxes to 1% of assessed value for homeowners, 2% for rental properties and farmland, and 3% for businesses.
Indiana does not have a legal requirement to balance the state budget either in law or its constitution. Instead, it has a constitutional ban on assuming debt. The state has aRainy Day Fund and for healthy reserves proportional to spending. Indiana is one of six U.S. states to not allow aline-item veto.[208]
Since 2010, Indiana has been one of a few states to holdAAA bond credit ratings with theBig Three credit rating agencies, the highest possible rating.[209]
Indiana's power production chiefly consists of the consumption of fossil fuels, mainly coal. It has 24 coal power plants, including the country's largest coal power plant,Gibson Generating Station, across the Wabash River fromMount Carmel, Illinois. Indiana is also home to the coal-fired plant with the highest sulfur dioxide emissions in the United States, theGallagher power plant, just west of New Albany.[211]
In 2010, Indiana had estimated coal reserves of 57 billion tons, and state mining operations produced 35 million tons of coal annually.[212] Indiana also has at least 900 million barrels of petroleum reserves in theTrenton Field, though they are not easily recoverable. While Indiana has made commitments to increasing the use of renewable resources such as wind, hydroelectric, biomass, or solar power, progress has been very slow, mainly because of the continued abundance of coal in southern Indiana. Most of the new plants in the state have beencoal gasification plants. Another source is hydroelectric power.
Wind power has been growing rapidly. Estimates in 2006 raised Indiana's wind capacity from 30 MW at 50 m turbine height to 40,000 MW at 70 m, and to 130,000 MW at 100 m, in 2010, the height of newer turbines.[213] By the end of 2011, Indiana had installed 1,340 MW of wind turbines.[214] In 2020, this total had more than doubled to 2,968 MW.[215]
Indianapolis International Airport serves the greater Indianapolis area. It opened in November 2008 and offers a midfield passenger terminal, concourses, air traffic control tower, parking garage, and airfield and apron improvements.[216]
A $3 billion project extending I-69 is underway. The project was divided into six sections, with the first five sections (linkingEvansville toMartinsville) now complete. The sixth and final phase from Martinsville to Indianapolis is under construction. When complete, I-69 will traverse an additional 142 miles (229 km) through the state.[218]
Most Indiana counties use a grid-based system to identify county roads; this system replaced the older arbitrary system of road numbers and names, and (among other things) makes it much easier to identify the sources of calls placed to the9-1-1 system. Such systems are easier to implement in the glacially flattened northern and central portions of the state. Rural counties in the southern third of the state are less likely to have grids and more likely to rely on unsystematic road names (for example, Crawford, Harrison, Perry, Scott, and Washington Counties).
There are also counties in the northern portions of the state that have never implemented a grid or have only partially implemented one. Some counties are also laid out in an almost diamond-like grid system (e.g., Clark, Floyd, Gibson, and Knox Counties). Such a system is also almost useless in those situations as well. Knox County once operated two different grid systems for county roads because the county was laid out using two different survey grids, but has since decided to use road names and combine roads instead.
Notably, the county road grid system of St. Joseph County, whose major city is South Bend, uses perennial (tree) names (i.e. Ash, Hickory, Ironwood, etc.) in alphabetical order for north–south roads and presidential and other noteworthy names (i.e., Adams, Edison, Lincoln Way, etc.) in alphabetical order for east–west roads. There are exceptions to this rule in downtown South Bend and Mishawaka. Hamilton County's east–west roads continue Indianapolis's numbered street system from 96th Street at the Marion County line to 296th street at the Tipton County line.
Barges are a common sight along theOhio River. Ports of Indiana manages three maritime ports in the state, two located on the Ohio.
Indiana annually ships more than 70 million tons of cargo by water each year, which ranks 14th among all U.S. states.[220] More than half of Indiana's border is water, which includes 400 miles (640 km) of direct access to two major freight transportation arteries: the Great Lakes/St. Lawrence Seaway (via Lake Michigan) and the Inland Waterway System (via the Ohio River). ThePorts of Indiana manages three major ports which includeBurns Harbor,Jeffersonville, andMount Vernon.[221]
Established in 1864,Shortridge High School in Indianapolis is Indiana's oldest free public high school.[222]
Indiana's 1816 constitution was the first in the country to implement a state-fundedpublic school system. It also allotted one township for a public university.[223] However, the plan turned out to be far too idealistic for a pioneer society, as tax money was not accessible for its organization. In the 1840s,Caleb Mills pressed the need for tax-supported schools, and in 1851 his advice was included in the new state constitution. In 1843 the Legislature ruled that African Americans could not attend the public schools, leading to the foundation ofUnion Literary Institute and other schools for them, funded by donations or the students themselves.[224] The Indiana General Assembly authorized separate but equal schools for Black students in 1869, and in 1877 language in the law changed to allow for integrated schools.[224]
Although the growth of the public school system was held up by legal entanglements, many public elementary schools were in use by 1870. Most children in Indiana attend public schools, but nearly ten percent attend private schools andparochial schools.[225] About half of all college students in Indiana are enrolled in state-supported four-year schools.
Indiana public schools have gone through several changes throughout Indiana's history. Modern, public school standards, have been implemented all throughout the state. These new standards were adopted in April 2014. The overall goal of these new state standards is to ensure Indiana students have the necessary skills and requirements needed to enter college or the workforce upon high school graduation.[226] State standards can be found for nearly every major subject taught in Indiana public schools. Mathematics, English/Language Arts, Science, and Social Studies are among the top, prioritized standards. In 2022, theIndiana Department of Education reported that the state's overall graduation rate was 86.7%, down one percent from 2021.[227]
The rate of Indiana high school students attending college fell to 53% in 2022, a significant decline from 65% in 2017.[228][229] Indiana's college-going rates have fallen further than most states'.[230][231][232] Trends reveal widening gaps for ethnic minorities and low-income families.[231]
Indiana has a strong vocational school system.Charles Allen Prossor, known as the father ofvocational education in the United States, was fromNew Albany. TheCharles Allen Prosser School of Technology is named in his honor. There are vocational schools in every region of Indiana, and most Indiana students can freely attend a vocational school during their high school years and receive training and job placement assistance in trade jobs. The International Union Of Operating Engineers (IUOE) has seven local unions in Indiana, offering apprenticeship and training opportunities.[233] According to the Electrical Training Alliance website, there are ten electrical training centers in Indiana.[234]
The state's community college system,Ivy Tech Community College of Indiana, serves nearly 200,000 students annually, making it the state's largest public post-secondary educational institution and the nation's largest singly accredited statewide community college system.[235] In 2008, the Indiana University system agreed to shift most of its associate (2-year) degrees to the Ivy Tech Community College System.[236]
The state has several universities ranked among the best byU.S. News & World Report. The University of Notre Dame ranks among the top 20, Purdue University among the top 50, and Indiana University Bloomington among the top 100.[238][239][240]Indiana University–Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) has recently made it into the top 200U.S. News & World Report rankings. Butler, Valparaiso, and the University of Evansville are ranked among the top ten in the Regional University Midwest Rankings. Purdue's engineering programs are ranked fourth in the country.[241] In addition, Taylor University is ranked first in the Regional College Midwest Rankings andRose-Hulman Institute of Technology has been considered the nation's top undergraduate engineering school for 25 consecutive years.[242][243][244][245][246] In 2023, the University of Notre Dame had theseventh largest endowment among private postsecondary institutions in the U.S. (11th overall).
^An earlier use of the name dates to the 1760s, when it referenced a tract of land under control of the Commonwealth of Virginia, but the area's name was discarded when it became a part of that state. SeeHodgin, Cyrus (1903)."The Naming of Indiana"(PDF transcription).Papers of the Wayne County, Indiana, Historical Society.1 (1):3–11. RetrievedJanuary 23, 2014.
^A portion of the Northwest Territory's eastern section became the state ofOhio in 1803. TheMichigan Territory was established in 1805 from part of the Indiana Territory's northern lands and four years later, in 1809, the Illinois counties were separated from the Indiana Territory to create theIllinois Territory. SeeJohn D. Barnhart; Dorothy L. Riker (1971).Indiana to 1816: The Colonial Period. The History of Indiana. Vol. I. Indianapolis: Indiana Historical Bureau and the Indiana Historical Society. pp. 311–13, 337, 353, 355, 432.
^In a 2008 report, Indiana was listed as one of the most tornado-prone states, ranking sixth, while South Bend was ranked the 14th most tornado-prone U.S. city, ahead of cities such asHouston, Texas, andWichita, Kansas. SeeMecklenburg, Rick (May 1, 2008)."Is Indiana the new Tornado Alley?". SouthBendTribune.com. Archived fromthe original on January 17, 2013. RetrievedAugust 13, 2012.
^In a published list of the most tornado-prone states and cities in April 2008, Indiana came in first and South Bend ranked 16th. SeeHenderson, Mark (May 2, 2008)."Top 20 Tornado Prone Cities and States Announced".WIFR. Archived fromthe original on November 9, 2008. RetrievedAugust 17, 2009.
^"Indiana State Song".in.gov. Indiana Historical Bureau. December 7, 2020. RetrievedNovember 6, 2022.The song entitled, "On the Banks of the Wabash, Far Away," words and music by Paul Dresser, be and is hereby established as the state song of Indiana. (Ind. Code § 1-2-6-1)
^"Indiana State Poem".in.gov. Indiana Historical Bureau. December 7, 2020. RetrievedNovember 6, 2022.The poem of Arthur Franklin Mapes, Kendallville, Indiana, the title and text of which are set forth in full as a part of this section, is hereby adopted as Indiana's official poem. (Ind. Code § 1-2-5-1)
^"Indiana State Bird".in.gov. Indiana Historical Bureau. December 7, 2020. RetrievedNovember 6, 2022.The bird commonly known as the Red Bird or Cardinal (Richmondena Cardinalis Cardinalis) is hereby adopted and designated as the official state bird of the state of Indiana. (Ind. Code § 1-2-8-1)
^ab"Indiana State Tree and Flower".in.gov. Indiana Historical Bureau. December 7, 2020. RetrievedNovember 6, 2022.The tulip tree (liriodendron tulipifera) is hereby adopted and designated as the official state tree, and the flower of the peony (Paeonie) is hereby adopted and designated as the official state flower of the state of Indiana. (Ind. Code § 1-2-8-1)
^"Say's Firefly".in.gov. Indiana Department of Natural Resources. January 26, 2021. RetrievedNovember 6, 2022.Say's Firefly became Indiana's state insect when legislation proclaiming it as such was signed by Gov. Eric Holcomb on March 23, 2018.
^ab"Indiana State River and Stone".in.gov. Indiana Historical Bureau. December 7, 2020. RetrievedNovember 6, 2022.The river commonly known as the Wabash River is adopted and designated as the official river of the state of Indiana. (Ind. Code § 1-2-11-1) (...) The regal type rock 'Limestone' which is found and quarried in south and central Indiana from the geologic formation named the Salem Limestone, is hereby adopted as the official stone of the State of Indiana. (Ind. Code § 1-2-9-1)
^Hodgin, Cyrus (1903)."The Naming of Indiana"(PDF transcription).Papers of the Wayne County, Indiana, Historical Society.1 (1):3–11. RetrievedJanuary 16, 2014.
^Cyrus Hodgin,"The Naming of Indiana".Papers of the Wayne County, Indiana Historical Society.1 (1):3–11. 1903. RetrievedJuly 23, 2018.
^Bodenhamer, David (1994)The Encyclopedia of Indianapolis, Indiana University Press, Bloomington, p. 879
^abMoore, Leonard Joseph (1991).Citizen klansmen : the Ku Klux Klan in Indiana, 1921-1928. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.ISBN0-8078-6349-1.OCLC45727836.
^abLutholtz, M. William (1991).Grand dragon : D.C. Stephenson and the Ku Klux Klan in Indiana. West Lafayette, Ind.: Purdue University Press.ISBN1-55753-010-6.OCLC22629874.
^Lutholtz, M. William (1991).Grand Dragon: D. C. Stephenson and the Ku Klux Klan in Indiana. West Lafayette, Indiana: Purdue University Press.ISBN1-55753-046-7.
^abMadison, James; Sandweiss, Lee Ann (2014).Hoosiers and the American Story. Indianapolis: Indiana Historical Society. p. 231.ISBN9780871953636.
^Logan, Cumings, Malott, Visher, Tucker & Reeves, p. 70
^Logan, William N.; Edgar Roscoe Cumings; Clyde Arnett Malott; Stephen Sargent Visher; et al. (1922).Handbook of Indiana Geology. Indiana Department of Conservation. p. 257.
^Lieberson, Stanley; Santi, Lawrence (1985). "The Use of Nativity Data to Estimate Ethnic Characteristics and Patterns".Social Science Research.14 (1): 31–56 [pp. 44–46].doi:10.1016/0049-089X(85)90011-0.
^Lieberson, Stanley;Waters, Mary C. (1986). "Ethnic Groups in Flux: The Changing Ethnic Responses of American Whites".Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science.487 (79): 79–91 [pp. 82–86].doi:10.1177/0002716286487001004.S2CID60711423.
^abcFurlong, Patrick J. (2000). "INDIANA". In Farmington, Gale (ed.).Encyclopedia of the United States in the Nineteenth Century. Michigan.{{cite encyclopedia}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
Bodenhamer, David J.; Barrows, Robert Graham; Vanderstel, David Gordon (1994).The Encyclopedia of Indianapolis.Indiana University Press.ISBN978-0-253-31222-8.
Gray, Ralph D (1995).Indiana History: A Book of Readings. Indiana University Press.ISBN978-0-253-32629-4.
Indiana State Chamber of Commerce (2005).Here is Your Indiana Government.
Indiana State Chamber of Commerce (2007).Here is Your Indiana Government.
Indiana Writer's Project (1973) [1937].Indiana: A Guide To The Hoosier State. American Guide Series.
Jackson, Marion T., ed. (1997).The Natural Heritage of Indiana. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.ISBN978-0-253-33074-1.
Logan, William Newton; Cumings, Edgar Roscoe; Malott, Clyde Arnett; Visher, Stephen Sargent; Tucker, William Motier; Reeves, John Robert (1922).Handbook of Indiana Geology. William B. Burford.
Madison, James H.Hoosiers: A New History of Indiana. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 2014.
Madison, James H. (1990).The Indiana Way: A State History. Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press and Indiana Historical Society.ISBN978-0-253-20609-1.
Moore, Edward E (1910).A Century of Indiana. American Book Company.
Skertic, Mark; John J. Watkins (2003).A Native's Guide to Northwest Indiana.
Taylor, Robert M., ed. (1990).Indiana: A New Historical Guide. Indianapolis: Indiana Historical Society.ISBN978-0-87195-048-2.
Taylor, Robert M., ed. (2001).The State of Indiana History 2000: Papers Presented at the Indiana Historical Society's Grand Opening. Indianapolis: Indiana Historical Society.
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