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Thehistory ofopera has a relatively short duration within the context of thehistory of music in general: it appeared in 1597, when the first opera,Dafne, byJacopo Peri, was created. Since then it has developed parallel to the various musical currents that have followed one another over time up to the present day, generally linked to the current concept of classical music.

Opera (from the Latinopera, plural ofopus, "work") is a musical genre that combines symphonic music, usually performed by an orchestra, and a written dramatic text—expressed in the form of alibretto—interpreted vocally by singers of differenttessitura:tenor,baritone, andbass for the male register, andsoprano,mezzo-soprano, andcontralto for the female, in addition to the so-calledwhite voices (those of children) or infalsetto (castrato,countertenor). Generally, the musical work containsovertures,interludes and musical accompaniments, while the sung part can be in choir or solo,duet,trio, or various combinations, in different structures such asrecitative oraria. There are various genres, such as classical opera,chamber opera,operetta, musical,singspiel, andzarzuela.^[1] On the other hand, as in theater, there is dramatic opera (opera seria) and comic opera (opera buffa), as well as a hybrid between the two: thedramma giocoso.^[2]

As a multidisciplinary genre, opera brings together music, singing, dance, theater,scenography, performance, costumes, makeup, hairdressing, and other artistic disciplines. It is therefore a work of collective creation, which essentially starts from a librettist and a composer, and where the vocal performers have a primordial role, but where the musicians and the conductor, the dancers, the creators of the sets, costumes and other aspects of the dramatic arts are equally essential. On the other hand, it is a social event, so it has no reason to exist without an audience to witness the show. For this very reason, it has been over time a reflection of the various currents of thought, political and philosophical, religious and moral, aesthetic and cultural, peculiar to the society where the plays were produced.^[3]

Opera was born at the end of the 16th century, as an initiative of a circle of scholars (theFlorentine Camerata) who, discovering thatAncient Greek theater was sung, had the idea of setting dramatic texts to music in an attempt to recreate the ancient dramatic experience. Thus, Jacopo Peri createdDafne (1597), followed byEuridice (1600), by the same author. In 1607,Claudio Monteverdi composedLa favola d'Orfeo, where he added a musical introduction that he calledsinfonia, and divided the sung parts intoarias, giving structure to the modern opera.

The subsequent evolution of opera has run parallel to the various musical currents that have followed one another over time: between the 17th century and the first half of the 18th it was framed by theBaroque, a period in which cultured music was reserved for the social elites, but which produced new and rich musical forms, and which saw the establishment of a language of its own for opera, which was gaining richness and complexity not only in compositional and vocal methods but also in theatrical and scenographic production. The second half of the 18th century sawClassicism, a period of great creativity marked by the serenity and harmony of its compositions, superseded by the works of great figures such asMozart andBeethoven. The 19th century was marked by Romanticism, characterized by the individuality: of the composer, already considered an enlightened genius and increasingly revered; and of the greatest vocalists who became stars in a society where thebourgeoisie increasingly replaced thearistocracy in social preeminence. This century saw the emergence of the musical variants of numerous nations with hardly any musical tradition until then, in what came to be calledmusical nationalism. The century closed with currents such as Frenchimpressionism and Italianverismo. In the 20th century opera, like the rest of music and the arts in general, entered the period of Modernism, a new way of conceiving artistic creation in which new compositional methods and techniques emerged, which were expressed in a great variety of styles. Additionally electronic media (phonography, radio, television) expanded access. The wide musical repertoire of previous periods was still valued, and remained in force in the main opera houses of the world.

During the course of history, within opera there have been differences of opinion as to which of its components was more important, the music or the text, or even whether the importance lay in the singing and virtuosity of the performers, a phenomenon that gave rise tobel canto and to the appearance of figures such as the diva orprima donna. From its beginnings until the consolidation of classicism, the text enjoyed greater importance, always linked to the visual spectacle, the lavish decorations and the complex baroque scenographies;Claudio Monteverdi said in this respect: "the word must be decisive, it must direct the harmony, not serve it." However, since the reform carried out byGluck and the appearance of great geniuses such as Mozart, music as the main component of opera became more and more important. Mozart himself once commented: "poetry must be the obedient servant of music". Other authors, such asRichard Wagner, sought to bring together all the arts in a single creation, which he called "total work of art" (Gesamtkunstwerk).^[4]

Opera has its roots in the various forms of sung or musical theater that have been produced throughout history all over the world. Dramatic representation as well as singing, music, dance and other artistic manifestations are forms of expression consubstantial to human beings, practiced sinceprehistoric times. InAncient Greece, thetheater was one of the favorite spectacles of society. There, the main dramatic genres (comedy andtragedy) were born and the foundations of scenography and interpretation were laid. From various testimonies, it is known that the dramatic representations were sung and accompanied by music, although nowadays hardly any traces ofGreek music are preserved. The main playwrights of the time,Aeschylus,Sophocles andEuripides, laid the foundations of dramatic art, whose influence continues to this day.^[6]

During theMiddle Ages, music and theater were also closely related. They were works of religious character, of two types:liturgical dramas to be performed in the churches, celebrated inLatin; and the so-called "mystery play", theatrical pieces of popular character that were represented in the porches of the churches, in vernacular language. These plays alternated spoken and sung parts, generally in chorus, and were accompanied by instrumental music and, sometimes, popular dances.^[7]

In Japan, thenō theater emerged in medieval times, a type of lyrical-musical drama in prose or verse, with a historical or mythological theme. The narration was recited by a chorus, while the main actors performed gesturally, in rhythmic movements. The representation was performed by three actors, together with a chorus of eight singers, a flute player and three drummers.^[8] In China, the so-calledChinese opera was developed, a type of sung theater, of ritual character, where the music does not accompany the text, but serves only to create atmosphere.^[9]

In theRenaissance, several musical-vocal genres emerged, such as themadrigal,oratorio,intermedio, andballet de cour, which paved the way for the birth of opera. The most immediate was the intermedio (Italian:intermezzo), interludes that were interspersed between the various acts of a theatrical work, which brought together song, dance, instrumental music and scenographic effects, with plots based onGreco-Roman mythology, allegories or pastoral scenes. Its main production center was theMediciFlorence, where opera was born shortly afterwards.^[10]

At the end of the 16th century, inFlorence, a circle of scholars sponsored by CountGiovanni de' Bardi created a society calledFlorentine Camerata, aimed to study and critical discussion of the arts, especially drama and music.^[11] One of its scholars wasVincenzo Galilei —father of the scientistGalileo— a celebrated Hellenist and musicologist, author of a method of tablature forlute and composer of madrigals and recitatives.^[12] In the course of their studies of Ancient Greek theater they found that in Greek theatrical performances the text was sung to individual voices. This idea struck them, since nothing like it existed at the time, at a time when almost all sung music was choral (polyphony) and, in cases of individual voices, occurred only in the religious sphere. They then had the idea of setting dramatic texts of a profane nature to music, which germinated in opera (opera in musica was the name given to it by the Camerata).^{[13][note 1]} Galilei was the main advocate of a single melodic line —themonody— as opposed to polyphony, which he considered to generate an incoherent musical discourse, a theory he expounded inDialogo della musica antica et della moderna (1581). Another of the Camerata's scholars,Girolamo Mei, who was the one who mainly investigated Greek theater, pointed out the emotional affect that individual singing generated in the audience in Greek theatrical performances (De modis musicis antiquorum, 1573).^[14]

Thus, one of the members of the Camerata, the composerJacopo Peri, createdDafne (1597),^[15] with libretto byOttavio Rinuccini, based on the myth ofApollo and Dafne, with a prologue and six scenes; of this work only the libretto and small fragments of the music are preserved. Peri, who was also a singer, representedApollo. This was followed, in 1600, byEuridice —by the same authors— the first surviving complete opera, on the myth ofOrpheus and Eurydice. It was composed on the occasion of the wedding betweenHenry IV of France andMaria de Medici, celebrated in Florence in 1600. Peri playedOrpheus.^[16]

Another member of the Camerata,Giulio Caccini, composed in 1602Euridice, with the same libretto by Rinuccini as his namesake of two years earlier, with prologue and three acts.^[17] He was the author of the first theoretical treatise on the new genre,Le nuove musiche (1602).^[18] His daughter,Francesca Caccini, was a singer and composer, the first woman to compose an opera:La liberazione di Ruggiero dall'isola d'Alcina (1625).^[19]

One of the main novelties of this new form of artistic expression was its secularism, at a time when artistic and musical production was mostly of a religious nature. Another was the appearance of monody, the singing of a single voice, as opposed to medieval and Renaissance polyphony; it was a vocal line accompanied by abasso continuo ofharpsichord orlute.^{[20][note 2]} Thus, the first operas had parts sung by soloists and parts spoken or declaimed in monody, known asstile rappresentativo.^[12]

These first experiences were a great success, especially among the nobility: theMedici became patrons of these performances and, from Florence, they spread to the rest of Italy. TheHouse of Gonzaga ofMantua then commissioned the famous madrigal composerClaudio Monteverdi to write an opera:La favola d'Orfeo in 1607, with libretto byAlessandro Striggio, an ambitious work composed for orchestra of forty-three instruments —including twoorgans—^[21] with prologue and five acts. In this work, libretti were printed for the first time so that the audience could follow the performance.^[22] Monteverdi added a musical introduction which he called "symphony", and divided the sung parts into "arias", giving structure to modern opera.^[23] These arias alternated with therecitative, a musical line that included spoken and sung parts.^[24] He also introduced theritornello, an instrumental stanza repeated between the five acts.^[24] As for the voices, although he left some parts in polyphony, he differentiated the main solo voices: Orpheus was tenor, Eurydice soprano, and Charon bass.^[21] In 1608, Monteverdi premieredL'Arianna, with libretto by Rinuccini, of which the music has not been preserved, except for one fragment: theLamento d'Arianna.^[21]

During the first decades of the 17th century the opera gradually spread: in 1608 was premiered in MantuaLa Dafne, again with Rinuccini's libretto, this time set to music byMarco da Gagliano.^[25] InRome,Rappresentazione di anima e di corpo, byEmilio de' Cavalieri, amelodramma spirituale that is often considered a precedent of opera, was premiered in 1600, and which pointed out some of the variants of Roman opera as opposed to Florentine opera: greater presence of sacred themes, the presence of allegorical characters, and greater use of choirs.^[26] PopePaul V and theBarberini family sponsored the new genre: the Barberini built an auditorium for 3000 people in theirpalace.^[27] They also promoted the creation of a school of operatists, among whomStefano Landi, author ofLa morte d'Orfeo (1619), which as a novelty introduced comic elements. Religious themes were also introduced, as inIl Sant'Alessio (1631), by Landi, with libretto by cardinal Giulio Rospigliosi (future popeClement IX). In this work, Landi introduced the fast-slow-fast structure —calledItalian overture— which would be widely used ever since.^[27]

Another introducer of the monodic style in Rome wasPaolo Quagliati, who adapted old madrigals of his in opera form:Il carro di fedeltà d'amore (1606),La sfera armoniosa (1623).^[28] In the Roman school also stood outLuigi Rossi, who worked for the Barberini. In 1642 he premiered in their theaterIl palazzo incantato, a sumptuous production that was a great success. When in 1644 the Barberini had to go into exile in Paris, Rossi accompanied them, and obtained the protection ofCardinal Mazarin, thus helping to introduce opera in France. There he composed hisOrfeo (1647), with prologue and three acts, a large production that featured numerous visual effects.^[29] Mention should also be made ofDomenico Mazzocchi, impresario as well as composer, who initiated the hiring of singers for opera. He was the author ofLa catena d'Adone (1626).^[30] Another exponent wasMichelangelo Rossi (Erminia sul Giordano, 1633;Andromeda, 1638).^[31]

In Rome it premiered in 1639Chi soffre, speri, byVirgilio Mazzocchi andMarco Marazzoli, considered the first comic opera.^[32]

In these first works one of the first opera singers of recognized talent stood out vocally:Francesco Rasi, a tenor who was already famous before the rise of opera, who participated in the first performances of Peri'sEuridice. In 1598 he entered the service of the Gonzaga of Mantua, for which he performed in this city Monteverdi'sOrfeo in 1607; the following year he participated in Gagliano'sDafne. He was also a composer, author ofCibele ed Ati (1617), whose music has been lost.^[19]

TheBaroque^{[note 3]} it developed during the 17th century. It was a time of great disputes in the political and religious fields, in which a division emerged between theCatholicCounter-Reformationist countries, where the absolutist state was entrenched, and theProtestant countries, of a moreparliamentary sign.^[33]

Baroque music was generally characterized by contrast, violent chords, moving volumes, exaggerated ornamentation, varied and contrasted structure. Despite this, not all baroque music is exaggerated:Bach is an author of harmonic balance,Vivaldi creates simple and radiant melodies. The basis of baroque music is serene and balanced, with ornamentation:arpeggios,mordents,tremolos, sonorous arabesques that are the salt of the baroque musician. It was also at this time that thetempos were introduced to regulate the speed of interpretation:long,adagio,andante,allegro andpresto; or the intensity:forte andpiano.

During this period, the main musical centers were in the monarchic courts, aristocratic circles and episcopal sees. The instrumentation reached heights of great perfection, especially in the violin^[34] The Baroque orchestra was small, usually only a chamber orchestra, or about forty instruments at most. Most werestring instruments, plus some oboes, flutes, bassoons and trumpets. Alongside these was a section for basso continuo, usually composed of one or twoharpsichords with accompaniment by cello, double bass,lute, viola ortheorbo.^[35]

Baroque opera was noted for its complicated and ornate scenography, with sudden changes and complicated lighting and sensory effects. Numerous sets were used, up to fifteen or twenty changes of scenery per performance.^[36] There began a taste for solo voices, mainly treble (tenor, soprano), which led in parallel to the phenomenon of thecastrati. The latter were children who excelled in singing and who werecastrated before entering puberty so that their voice would not change; thus, as adults they maintained a high-pitched voice, close to the female one, but more powerful, flexible and penetrating.^{[22][note 4]} Singing invibrato was also introduced, consisting of fluctuations in timbre, pitch and intensity, which provided greater emotionality to the interpretation.^[37]

In the first half of the 17th century, the rules of operatic librettos were established, which would undergo few variations until almost the 20th century: simple dialogues and conventional language, stanzas of rigorous forms, distinction between "recitative" —declaimed parts that develop the action — and "number" (or "closed piece") — ornamental parts in the form of aria, duet, choir, or other formats.

One of the first countries where opera was introduced after Italy was France, where it was calledtragédie en musique.^[38] In 1645, the first Italian opera, the pastoralLa finta pazza, byFrancesco Sacrati, was performed in Paris.^[39] Two years later Luigi Rossi'sOrfeo was performed, which caused a great sensation.^[40] Pier Francesco Cavalli premiered hisErcole amante in Paris in 1662, at the newly openedTuileries Palace a commission ofCardinal Mazarin for the celebration of the wedding ofLouis XIV with Maria Theresa of Austria. The work was not much liked, as it was in Italian and withcastrati, a strange phenomenon for the French public, more fond ofballets de cour.^[41]

In 1669, the poetPierre Perrin and the composerRobert Cambert created a company to perform operas in the French taste and obtained from King Louis XIV the royal privilege to constitute an academy, theAcadémie Royale de Musique, located in the Jeu de Paume de la Bouteille theater. Both authors produced the operaPomone, the first written in French, premiered in 1671.^[13] However, the following year, Perrin was imprisoned for debt and the royal privilege passed toJean-Baptiste Lully, a composer of Florentine origin (his real name was Giovanni Battista Lulli).^[42] Lully adapted opera to French taste, with choirs, ballets, a richer orchestra, musical interludes and shorter arias.^[43] He developedFrench overture^[13] in a slow-fast-slow structure, unlike the Italian, which became almost autonomous pieces of the operatic ensemble.^[44] On the other hand, he used to accompany the recitative with aharpsichord continuo bass.^[45] At the same time, he gave greater prominence to the text, which provided greater expressiveness to the opera.^[46] Likewise, he adapted the singing to the prosody of the French language, creating a typically Gallic vocality calleddéclamation mélodique.^[47] From 1673 until 1687, the date of his death, he composed one opera per year-most with libretti byPhilippe Quinault-among them:Cadmus et Hermione (1673),Alceste (1674),Atys (1676),Proserpine (1680),Persée (1682),Phaëton(1683),Amadis (1684),Armide (1686) andAcis et Galatée (1686). The most successful wasAlceste, based on a tragedy by Euripides and composed to celebrate the victory of Louis XIV in theFranche-Comté, which included a minor plot with a comic air and some catchy melodies that greatly pleased the public.^[48]

Another exponent wasMarc-Antoine Charpentier, who musicalized some plays byMolière (Le mariage forcé, 1672;Le malade imaginaire [Le malade imaginaire], 1673) and composed several plays for theComédie-Française, such asLes amours de Vénus et d'Adonis (1678),David et Jonathas (1688) andLa noce du village (1692). His masterpiece is the tragedyMédée(Medea, 1693), on a play byPierre Corneille.^[49]

Marin Marais was a composer and performer ofviola da gamba. He worked at the court of Louis XIV and was conductor of the orchestra of the Académie Royale de Musique. He composed four Lullian-style operas:Alcide (1693),Ariane et Bacchus (1695),Alcyone (1706) andSémélé (1709).^[16]

After Lully's operas, and because of the French fondness for ballet, there arose theopera-ballet, a hybrid genre of the two, in which sung parts with music alternated with danced interludes, with generally comic and amorous themes. This genre was introduced byAndré Campra withL'Europe galante (1689), which was followed by numerous works by this author, most notablyLes fêtes vénitiennes (1710).^[13] Campra also produced conventional operas, such asTancrède (1702) andIdoménée (1712).^[50]

In the middle decades of the 17th century the major opera-producing center wasVenice, the first place where music was detached from religious or aristocratic protection to be performed in public places: in 1637 theTeatro San Cassiano was founded (demolished in 1812), the first opera center in the world, located in a palace that belonged to the Tron family.^[51] The first opera performed wasL'Andromeda, byFrancesco Mannelli.^[52] The theater was founded by Domenico Mazzocchi, who after losing papal favor moved from Rome to the Venetian city.^[32][53] As opera became a business, it began to depend more and more on the tastes of the public, since by its attendance at performances it could favor a certain compositional line or relegate it to oblivion.^[54] One of the first consequences was that the public showed more and more taste for high-pitched voices, those of tenors, sopranos andcastrati, while the use of choirs and large orchestras declined, since an accompaniment of few instruments was preferred, between ten and fifteen, generally. As the genre became more popular, more comic elements were introduced and the texts were simplified, to the point where, especially in the arias, the interpretation was more important than the words that were expressed.^[55] After the San Cassiano, the opening of new theaters flourished in Venice:Santi Giovanni e Paolo (1639),San Moisè (1640),Novissimo (1641),San Samuele (1655) and Santi Apostoli (1649).^[52] It was in these theaters that the piazza-like layout surrounded byboxes, typical of opera houses, began.^[56]

In Venice the concept ofbel canto emerged, which became popular especially in the first half of the 18th century and again in the first half of the 19th century in Italy. It is a vocal technique of difficult execution consisting of maintaining a uniform tone passing from one musical phrase to another without pauses, in a sustainedlegato that requires a powerful timbre and harmonic articulation. The main interpreters ofbel canto were thecastrati and theprima donna sopranos.^[57] On the other hand, at this time emerged thearioso, an intermediate song between the recitative and the aria, which over time became closed numbers with a tendency to ornamentation.^[58] Likewise, from the years 1630–1640 theensemble, the conjunction of voices in different numbers, was gaining relevance: duet, trio, quartet, quintet, sextet, septet and octet.^[59]

The Venetian opera was particularly influenced by the Spanish theater of the so-calledGolden Age —especiallyLope de Vega— perceptible in the plot confluence between fantasy and reality —a path started withDon Quixote byCervantes— the abandonment of the Aristotelian units, the coexistence of comic and tragic characters, the relationships between lords and servants, the taste for entanglement and for disguises and cross-dressed characters. In the Venetian operatic milieu these features were calledall'usanza spagnuola.^[58]

Claudio Monteverdi settled in 1613 in Venice, where he was maestro di cappella of theSt. Mark's Basilica.^[23] There he composed twelve operas, the principal of which areIl ritorno d'Ulisse in patria (1640) andL'incoronazione di Poppea (1642).^[21] The latter is considered his best opera, with libretto byGiovanni Francesco Busenello, based on works byTacitus andSuetonius. It was one of the first operas with a historical rather than a mythological plot.^[60]

One of his disciples,Pier Francesco Cavalli, introduced some novelties, such as the use of short arias, in works likeL'Egisto (1643),La Calisto (1651),Statira principessa di Persia (1656) andErcole amante (1662). He was director of the Teatro San Cassiano, with a contract to write one opera a year.^[36] Another exponent wasMarc'Antonio Cesti, who still further reduced the orchestra, as inOrontea (1649) andCesare amante (1651). He performed some operas for the emperorLeopold I (Il pomo d'oro, 1668), thus introducing opera into the Germanic sphere.^[61]Antonio Sartorio was for ten years maestro di cappella at the ducal court ofBrunswick-Lüneburg, until he returned to his native city and was appointed maestro di cappella of St. Mark's Basilica. He is remembered as the introducer of themusical parliament. His major work wasOrfeo (1672), which reaped great success.^[29]Giovanni Legrenzi was director of the Ospedale dei Mendicanti in Venice and maestro di cappella of St. Mark's Basilica. He composed fourteen operas for various Venetian theaters, many of which have been lost. He introduced the heroic-comic genre, as in his operasTotila (1677),Giustino (1683) andI due Cesari (1683).^[62]Pietro Andrea Ziani started in religious music, which he abandoned to devote himself to opera. He succeeded Cavalli as organist of San Marco. His most important works wereL'Antigona delusa da Alceste (1660) andLa Circe (1665). His nephew,Marco Antonio Ziani, was also an operist inNaples andVienna.^[63]

In the vocal field,Anna Renzi, the first soprano to achieve the status ofprima donna, stood out. She playedOctavia, wife ofNero, in Monteverdi'sL'incoronazione di Poppea.^[19] ThecastratoSiface was also popular with the public, and counted among his admirersChristina of Sweden andHenry Purcell.^[19]

Throughout the seventeenth century opera spread throughout Europe, generally under Italian influence. In Germany -then divided into numerous states of varying political configuration-, the pioneer wasHeinrich Schütz, who in 1627 adapted Rinuccini'sDafne,^[13] with a clear Monteverdian influence.^[64] In 1644,Sigmund Theophil Staden composedSeelewig, the first opera in German.^[65] In 1678 theOper am Gänsemarkt in Hamburg opened, becoming the leading operatic city in the Germanic area.^[44] InMunich, the electorFerdinand Maria of Bavaria sponsored opera, to whichJohann Caspar Kerll andAgostino Steffani devoted themselves. The latter inaugurated the Schlossopernhaus inHannover in 1689 withEnrico Leone.^[66]

The leading composer of this period wasReinhard Keiser, the first to write operas entirely in German. He composed several operas that enjoyed great success, such asAdonis (1697),Claudius (1703),Octavia (1705) andCroesus (1710). He was director of the Theater am Gänsemarkt, where he premiered on average about five operas per season; his output is estimated to be between seventy-five and one hundred operas, although only nineteen complete ones survive.^[67] Other authors of the period were:Johann Wolfgang Franck (Die drey Töchter Cecrops, 1679)^[68] andChristoph Graupner (Dido, Königin von Carthage, 1707; Bellerophon, 1708).^[69]

InAustria, EmperorLeopold I of the Holy Roman Empire encouraged opera after hearing Cesti'sIl pomo d'oro (1668). Its performance took place at theHofburg Imperial Palace in Vienna, to which only the court had access.^[70] Most were Italian operas, although Austrian composers were gradually added, most notablyHeinrich Ignaz Biber:Applausi festivi di Giove (1686),Chi la dura la vince (1687),Arminio (1692).^[71] In 1748 theBurgtheater, also located in the Hofburg, was opened. The first public theater was theTheater am Kärntnertor, opened in 1761, which eventually became the official court theater.^[70]

In England there was a precedent for opera, themasque (masque), which combined music, dance and theater in verse.^[72] During thePuritan Revolution ofOliver Cromwell music was banned. Despite this, the first English opera,The Siege of Rhodes (The Siege of Rhodes), was given in 1656, with libretto by playwrightWilliam Davenant and music by five composers:Henry Lawes,Matthew Locke, Henry Cooke, Charles Coleman and George Hudson. Subsequently, the reign ofCharles II saw a revival of theatrical and operatic performances.^[73] The first opera composer of note wasJohn Blow, organist and composer of theChapel Royal. He composed preferably religious and entertainment music for the court and was the author of an opera,Venus and Adonis (1682), a short work that included French-influenced ballets.^[16] Of particular note was his pupil,Henry Purcell, author ofDido and Aeneas (1689), a French-influenced work with short arias and dances.^[74] It was a commission for a college of young ladies, which they were to perform themselves, with a small instrumental ensemble. It is a short work, lasting an hour, but which Purcell resolved brilliantly: its final aria, the so-called "Dido's lament" (When I am laid in earth), enjoys just fame.^[75] He also composed several semi-operas inspired by masquerades, includingdivertissements, songs, choirs and dances, such asDioclesian (1690),King Arthur (1691),The Fairy Queen (1692),Timon of Athens (1694),The Indian Queen (1695), andThe Tempest (1695).^[37] This period saw the life of the playwrightWilliam Shakespeare, whose plays were adapted to opera on numerous occasions from his time to the present day.^[76]

InPoland, opera was sponsored by KingLadislaus IV, who had witnessed an opera performance inTuscany. In 1632 he created a company with Italian singers, who performed several operas inWarsaw. This company premiered the first opera by a Polish author-although written in Italian-,La fama reale (1633), by Piotr Elert.^[77]

In Spain, opera arrived with some delay due to the social crisis caused by theThirty Years' War. The first opera was premiered in 1627 at theAlcázar de Madrid:La selva sin amor, a pastoral eclogue composed by Bernardo Monanni and Filippo Piccinini on a text byLope de Vega; the score is not preserved.^[13]Tomás de Torrejón y Velasco composed in 1659La púrpura de la rosa, with text byPedro Calderón de la Barca, the first opera composed and performed in America, premiered at the Viceroyal Palace ofLima.Juan Hidalgo was the author ofCelos aun del aire matan (1660), also with text by Calderón.^[67]

In the late 17th century, KingFelipe IV sponsored the performance of operettas at theZarzuela Palace in Madrid, giving rise to a new genre: thezarzuela.^[46] The first zarzuelista was Juan Hidalgo, author in 1658 ofEl laurel de Apolo, with text by Calderón, which was followed byNi amor se libra de amor (1662, Calderón de la Barca),La estatua de Prometeo (1670, Calderón de la Barca),Alfeo y Aretusa (1672,Juan Bautista Diamante),Los juegos olímpicos (1673, Agustín de Salazar y Torres),Apolo y Leucotea (1684, Pedro Scotti de Agoiz) andEndimión y Diana (1684, Melchor Fernández de León). Subsequently, the work ofSebastián Durón stood out, with librettos byJosé de Cañizares (Salir el amor del mundo, 1696), and byAntonio Literes(Júpiter y Dánae, 1708).^[78] After the death of Philip IV, the zarzuela moved to the Teatro del Buen Retiro in Madrid.^[79]

In the second half of the 17th century, theNeapolitan School introduced a more purist, classicist style, with simplified plots and more cultured and sophisticated operas. At that time, Naples was a Spanish possession, and the opera had the patronage of the Spanish viceroys, especially conde de Oñate. Among the main novelties, a distinction was made between two types of recitative:secco, a declamatory song with basso continuo accompaniment; andaccompagnato, a melodic song with orchestral music.^[44] In the arias, space was left for vocal improvisations by the singers. Comic characters were eliminated, which gave as a counterpart the inclusion of comicintermezzi which, already in the 18th century, gave rise to theopera buffa.^[80] In 1737, theTeatro San Carlo of Naples, one of the most prestigious in the world, was inaugurated.^[81]

One of its first composers wasFrancesco Provenzale, author ofLo schiavo di sua moglie (1672) andDifendere l'offensore overo La Stellidaura vendicante (1674).^[82] Also considered a precursor of this type of opera isAlessandro Stradella, despite the fact that he composed most of his operas inGenoa:Trespolo tutore (1677),La forza dell'amor patterno (1678),La gare dell'amor eroico (1679).^[83]

Its main representative wasAlessandro Scarlatti, who was chapel master ofChristina of Sweden and of the viceroy of Naples, as well as director of the Teatro San Bartolomeo in Naples.^[83] In his works he introduced numerous novelties: he created the three-part aria (aria da capo), with a theme-variation-theme structure (ABA);^[84] he reduced vocal ornamentations and suppressed the improvisations often performed by the singers; he also reduced the recitatives and lengthened the arias, in a recitative-aria alternation, and added a shorter type of arias (cavatina) to give greater speed to the work, performed by secondary characters;^[85] on the other hand, together with his usual librettist,Apostolo Zeno, he eliminated the comic characters and the interspersed plots, following only the original story. Scarlattian melody was generally simpler than Monteverdi's, but endowed with a special charm, which led Luigi Fait to comment that "with Scarlatti, Italian opera reaches the height of its beauty".^[84] There are 114 known operas by Scarlatti, includingIl Mitridate Eupatore (1707),Tigrane (1715),Il trionfo dell'onore (1718) andGriselda (1721).^[86] His sonDomenico Scarlatti also composed operas:L'Ottavia restituita al soglio (1703),La Dirindina (1715).^[87]

Another outstanding exponent wasGiovanni Battista Pergolesi. He died at the age of twenty-six, but had a successful career. In 1732 he composed his first opera,La Salustia, which failed, andLo frate 'nnamorato, of comic genre, which reaped a notable success. The following year he premieredIl prigionier superbo, in whose intermissions was performed the comic playLa serva padrona, which was more successful than the main work. In 1734 he composedAdriano in Siria, with libretto byPietro Metastasio, in whose intermissions was performed the comic playLivietta e Tracollo, which was more successful than the main work. The following year he premieredL'Olimpiade, still with libretto by Metastasio, and his last work,Il Flaminio, of comic genre, which reaped a notable success.^[88]

Nicola Porpora taught singing – he hadFarinelli andCaffarelli as pupils – and composition – among his pupils isJohann Adolph Hasse. He was one of the first to musicalize librettos by Pietro Metastasio. Among his early operas areAgrippina (1708),Arianna e Teseo (1714) andAngelica (1720). In 1726 he moved to Venice and, in 1733, to London, where he was musical director of theOpera of the Nobility located at theKing's Theatre, where he premieredArianna in Nasso (1733). He later worked inDresden, where he premieredFilandro (1747), as well as Vienna, before returning to Naples, where he died in poverty.^[88]

Other distinguished representatives wereLeonardo Vinci,Leonardo Leo andGiovanni Bononcini. Vinci made his debut at the age of twenty-three withLo cecato fauzo (The false blind man, 1719). In 1722 he composedLi zite 'ngalera (The lovers of the galley), of comic genre. That same year he reaped a great success withPublio Cornelio Scipione, which turned him towards serious opera. In 1724, he renewed his success with Farnace, which took him to Rome and Venice. It was followed byDidone abbandonata andSiroe, re di Persia, both from 1726 and with libretto by Pietro Metastasio. Until his death in 1730 he composed two operas per year, includingAlessandro nell'Indie andArtaserse, both from 1730 and again with librettos by Metastasio.^[89] Leo was an organist and church musician. His first opera wasIl Pisistrate (1714), at the age of nineteen. In 1725 he was appointed organist of the chapel of the viceroy of Naples. His works were more conservative than those of Vinci and Porpora, based largely oncounterpoint. Among them stands outL'Olimpiade (1737), with libretto by Metastasio. He also composed several comic operas, to which he gave respectability for the commitment he put into them.^[90] Bononcini had a great initial success withIl trionfo di Camilla (1696, with libretto bySilvio Stampiglia), which was performed in nineteen Italian cities. In 1697 he settled in Vienna, in the service of the emperor Joseph I, until in 1719 he was hired by theRoyal Academy of Music in London. His works includeGli affetti più grandi vinti dal più giusto (1701),Griselda (1722) andZenobia (1737).^[91] Mention should also be made of:Francesco Feo (L'amor tirannico, 1713;Siface, 1723;Ipermestra, 1724),^[92]Gaetano Latilla (Angelica e Orlando, 1735)^[93] and Francesco Mancini Mancini (L'Alfonso, 1699;Idaspe fedele, 1710;Traiano, 1721).^[94]

The musical production of the first half of the 18th century is usually called late Baroque. The main center of production continued to be Italy, especially Naples and Venice. In 1732 theTeatro Argentina in Rome was inaugurated.^[95] Italian influence spread throughout Europe: Italian companies were established at the Dresden Opera House, at the court of theElector of Saxony and at the Royal Academy of Music in London. The only non-Italian national school was in France.^[96] During this period, scenography developed notably, thanks above all to the ItalianFerdinando Galli Bibbiena —whose work was continued by his sons Antonio andGiuseppe— who introduced theatrical perspective and numerous stage effects.^[71] Between 1700 and 1750 was the era of classicalbel canto, when the stages were dominated bycastrati andprime donne.^[97]

Around the second quarter of the 18th century opera was gradually divided into two contrasting genres: theopera seria and theopera buffa.^[98] The themes of opera seria were generally drawn from classical mythology, with a moralistic component, showing the more virtuous side of the heroes of old age.^[99] Generally, the action was centered on the recitatives and the arias were left for lyrical incursions by the singers, with a preference for theda capo aria, which experienced its golden age.^[100] Serious opera wanted to strip lyrical dramas of the extravagances and convoluted plots used until then, with a more sober style inspired by ancient Greek theater. One of its major theorists wasGiovanni Vincenzo Gravina, co-founder of theAcademy of Arcadia.^[101]

However, the disappearance of comic characters left a certain void in a sector of the public, generally lower class, who liked these characters. To satisfy them,intermezzi were introduced in the intermissions of the plays, which gradually gained success until they became separate works.^[102] A good example wasLa serva padrona by Pergolesi (1733). From then on theseintermezzi became independent and became shows of their own. The opera buffa was of comic genre, intended for a more popular audience, influenced by theCommedia dell'arte. It included arias and recitatives, but with second-rank performers, who sang with their natural voices, withoutcastrati or sopranos. The arias were shorter and the recitatives kept the music, unlike in Spanish zarzuela or Germansingspiel, which included only spoken parts. There were also duets, trios and quartets, absent from opera seria.^[103] In opera buffa a type of rapid, syllabic declamation calledparlando was characteristic. Also frequent was the presence of stuttering, yawning or sneezing.^[104] The music, generally stringed, was simple, of small orchestras, although over time it would be equated with that of opera seria. Eventually, both genres tended to merge, with the appearance of thesemi-serious opera ordramma giocoso.^[105]

Some of the characteristic elements of the opera buffa were: the use of the recitativeaccompagnato, greater use of choir and ensembles, and the use of the cavatina and the ariacon pertichini, a modality based on an aria -generallyda capo – to which were added comments in recitative by characters who watched the scene from outside, generating a form of ensemble. Theintroduzione and thefinale, scenes that usually brought together all the characters of the work, singing in ensemble, also became more relevant.^[106]

In the field of opera seria, a unique phenomenon in the history of opera took place in this period: librettists were more relevant than composers, especially two:Apostolo Zeno andPietro Metastasio.^[101] Zeno was a Venetian historian and librarian who, after dabbling in the field of opera libretti, was always eager to have them considered a literary genre of the first rank. In 1718, he replacedSilvio Stampiglia as imperial poet ofCharles VI, for whom he was also imperial historiographer. He introduced historical themes into opera and, in his plots, always incorporated a code of honor to serve as an example for the public. He wrote thirty-five librettos, some of them in collaboration withPietro Pariati, which were set to music by composers such asAlbinoni,Caldara,Gasparini,Scarlatti andHändel.^[107] A generation younger, Metastasio was directly influenced by Zeno, whom he replaced as imperial poet. In a fifty-year career he wrote twenty-seven librettos that were set to music in some one hundred operas. He was a great reformer of operatic writing, to the point that one often speaks of "metastasian opera" for his works. His librettos were elegant and sophisticated, and he gave greater prominence to the soloists.^[108] Zeno and Metastasio introduced the so-called "doctrine of the affections", whereby every emotion (love, hate, sadness, hope, despair) was expressed by a certain musical form (aria, chorale, instrumental movement).^[109]

Venice remained one of the main operatic centers.Antonio Vivaldi, the main representative of the Italian late-baroque school, stood out. He was chapel master of theOspedale della Pietà in Venice, where he was able to rely on the orphans of the hospice to form a large orchestra, for which he is considered the first great master of orchestral music.^[110] He devoted himself to opera both as a composer and impresario. In 1739 he claimed to have written ninety-four operas, although only about fifty librettos and twenty scores survive. Notable among his works are:Ottone in villa (1713),Orlando finto pazzo (1714),La costanza trionfante degl'amori e degl'odii (1716),Teuzzone (1719),Tito Manlio (1719),Il Giustino (1724),Farnace' (1727),Orlando furioso(1727),Bajazet (1735),Ginevra (1736) andCatone in Utica (1737).^[89]

Tomaso Albinoni was a brilliant composer, famous for hisAdagio, although he also dabbled in opera. Concerned with the harmony of the vocal ensemble, he provided serenity and balance to the slow movements, with special attention to the lower voices.^[111] His works includeZenobia, regina dei Palmireni (1694),Pimpinone (1708) andDidone abbandonata (1724).^[112] Other Venetian composers of the period were:Ferdinando Bertoni (Orfeo ed Euridice, 1776;Quinto Fabio, 1778)^[113] andFrancesco Gasparini (Roderico, 1694;Ambleto, 1705;Il Bajazet, 1719).^[114]

The Neapolitan school also continued, where the split between opera seria and opera buffa took place. Its main representatives in this period wereNiccolò Jommelli andTommaso Traetta. Jommelli premiered his first operas in Naples:L'errore amoroso (1737),Ricimero (1740) andAstianatte (1741). After reaping fame for these works he was appointed chapel master of St. Peter's at the Vatican in 1749 and, four years later, the same position inStuttgart, for theduke of Württemberg. In Germany he composed thirty-three operas, and his style became so Germanized that on his return to his homeland his works were rejected by the public.^[115] Traetta was influenced bygluckian influence, which he combined with his prodigious ability to compose chorales and elegant melodies. His first compositions were for opera houses in Naples andParma (Ippolito e Aricia, 1759;Iphigenia in Tauride, 1763). In 1765 he moved to Venice and, in 1768, to Russia, where he was appointed opera director by EmpressCatherine II. There he composed, among others,Antigone (1772).^[116]

The SpanishDomingo Terradellas (also known in Italian as Domenico Terradeglias) is considered to belong to the Neapolitan school. He studied in Naples, where he was a pupil ofFrancesco Durante. In 1736 he premiered his first opera,Giuseppe riconosciuto. He moved to Rome, where he was chapel master ofSan Giacomo degli Spagnoli and premieredAstarto (1739),Merope (1743) andSemiramide riconosciuta (1746). He then went to London, where he composedMitridate (1746) andBellerofonte (1747). Back in Italy, he premiered inTurinDidone (1750), in VeniceImeneo in Atene (1750) and in RomeSesostri (1751).^[117]

Mention should also be made ofGian Francesco de Majo andDavide Perez. The former began withRicimero, re dei Goti (1759) andL'Almeria (1761). He spent some time inMannheim, where he premieredIphigenia in Tauride (1764), which influencedGluck. Back in Naples, he madeL'Ulisse (1769) andL'eroe cinese (1770).^[118] Perez, of Spanish origin, composed some buffa operas (La nemica amante, 1735), but mainly serious ones:Siroe (1740),Astarto (1743),Merope (1744),La clemenza di Tito (1749),Demofoonte (1752),Olimpiade (1754),Solimano (1757).^[119] Other representatives of the Neapolitan school were:Girolamo Abos (Artaserse, 1746;Alessandro nell'Indie, 1747),^[120]Pasquale Cafaro (La disfatta di Dario, 1756;Creso, 1768),^[121]Ignazio Fiorillo (L'Olimpiade, 1745),^[122]Pietro Alessandro Guglielmi (L'Olimpiade, 1763;Farnace, 1765;Sesostri, 1766;Alceste, 1768),^[123]Giacomo Insanguine (L'osteria di Marechiaro, 1768;Didone abbandonata, 1770)^[124] andAntonio Sacchini (La contadina in corte, 1765).^[125]

From the rest of Italy it is worth mentioningAntonio Caldara. He was maestro de cappella in Mantua and Rome before being appointed vice maestro de cappella of Emperor Charles VI in Vienna, where he remained for about twenty years. He collaborated regularly with the librettists Zeno and Metastasio. His work is notable for its use of large chorales. Among his works stand out:Il più bel nome (1708),Andromaca (1724),Demetrio (1731),Adriano in Siria (1732),L'Olimpiade (1733),Demofoonte (1733),Achille in Sciro (1736) andCiro riconosciuto (1736).^[90] Mention should also be made of the MilaneseGiovanni Battista Lampugnani (Candace, 1732;Antigono, 1736).^[126]

A librettist also stood out in opera buffa:Carlo Goldoni. A lawyer by profession, he worked as a librettist for several Venetian theaters. He wrote about a hundred librettos, in which he incorporated elements of theCommedia dell'arte, the typical Italian popular theater of Renaissance origin. His works featured real characters and everyday events, with simpler plots and witty dialogues that helped to humanize opera. His work influenced composers such asMozart and, later,Rossini andDonizetti.^[108]

Among the composers of opera buffa wereNiccolò Piccinni andBaldassare Galuppi. The former was a prolific composer, author of about one hundred and twenty works. He began his career withLe donne dispettose (1754). His greatest success wasLa Cecchina, ossia la buona figliuola (1760), with libretto by Goldoni based onPamela bySamuel Richardson, which is usually considered the first semi-serious opera. In 1776 he was invited to Paris, where he had a tense rivalry with Gluck: both composed anIphigénie en Tauride, andGluck's opera (1779) was more successful thanPiccinni's (1781).^[127] Piccinni introduced the rondo aria, which had a slow and fast two-part structure, repeated twice.^[128] Galuppi wrote his first opera at the age of sixteen (La fede nell'incostanza, 1722). His first great success was withDorinda in 1729. He composed about a hundred operas, a good part of them written for London:Scipione in Cartagine (1742),Sirbace (1743). In 1749 he composedL'Arcadia in Brenta, with a libretto by Carlo Goldoni, the first opera buffa of great length. It was followed by other comic operas such asIl mondo della luna (1750),Il mondo alla roversa (1750),La diavolessa (1755) andLa cantarina (1756), but Galuppi and Goldoni's most famous joint work was thedramma giocosoIl filosofo di campagna (1754).^[129]

Other authors of opera buffa were:Pasquale Anfossi (La finta giardiniera, 1774;La maga Circe, 1788),^[130]Gennaro Astarita (Il corsaro algerino, 1765;L'astuta cameriera, 1770),^[131] Francesco Coradini (Lo 'ngiegno de le femmine, 1724;L'oracolo di Dejana, 1725),^[132]Domenico Fischietti (Il mercato di Malmantile, 1756),^[133]Giuseppe Gazzaniga (Don Giovanni Tenorio, 1787),^[134]Nicola Logroscino (Il governatore, 1747)^[135] andGiacomo Tritto (La fedeltà in amore, 1764).^[131]

At this time also appeared thepasticcio, an opera composed jointly by several composers. The first wasMuzio Scevola (1721), which consisted of three acts each composed byFilippo Amadei,Giovanni Bononcini andGeorg Friedrich Händel. Generally, rather than collaborating in a single homogeneous whole, mostpasticci were a conglomerate of music, songs, dances, arias and chorales, which could be added successively.^[101]

In the vocal field, at this time it is worth remembering the sopranosFrancesca Cuzzoni,Margherita Durastanti andAnna Maria Strada, and the mezzo-sopranoFaustina Bordoni, who all performed in London for Händel. Bordoni and Cuzzoni maintained a strong rivalry between them, to the point that they came to blows in the performance of Bononcini'sAstianatte in 1727. On the other hand, this was the golden age of thecastrati, among whomGiovanni Carestini,Carlo Broschi "Farinelli",Nicolò Grimaldi "Nicolini",Francesco Bernardi "Senesino" andAntonio Maria Bernacchi stood out. The most famous was Farinelli, who performed all over Europe with great success. He retired at the age of thirty-two, at the height of his fame, and entered the service ofPhilip V of Spain.^[136]

At the beginning of this period the Lulliantragédie-lyrique still predominated, where the taste for ballet stood out. Just as Italian opera tended to have three long acts, French opera had five short ones, with ballets interspersed.^[99] The most prominent operatist of this period wasJean-Philippe Rameau. He held several jobs as organist and chapel master in various French cathedrals, while writing various treatises on music theory. It was not until he was fifty that he composed his first opera,Hippolyte et Aricie (1733), which was followed byLes Indes galantes (1735),Castor et Pollux (1737) andDardanus (1739). After a few years of inactivity, in 1745 he composedLa Princesse de Navarre,Le temple de la gloire —both byVoltaire— and the comic operaPlatée. His last works includeZoroastre (1749) andLes boréades (1763). Rameau's operas enjoyed great popularity, while at the same time sparking intense debates between their defenders and detractors: in 1733 the so-called quarrel of Lullyists and Ramists broke out, between those who advocated maintaining the operatic tradition initiated by Lully and those who viewed with pleasure the new form introduced by Rameau, which placed more emphasis on the music than on the text.^[137] Similarly, in the 1750s the so-called jester's quarrel arose between supporters of Rameau, advocates of French opera seria, and the philosopherJean-Jacques Rousseau and his followers, supporters of Italian opera buffa.^[138]

André Cardinal Destouches was director of theParis Opera from 1728 to 1731. His work influenced Rameau. He was the author of operas such asOmphale (1700),Callirhoé (1712),Télémaque (1714),Les Élémens (1721) andLes Stratagèmes de l'amour (1726).^[139]Henri Desmarets was a chapel master in the FrenchJesuit Order until, accused of the murder of his wife, he settled in Spain, where he served Philip V. He later lived in theDuchy of Lorraine, where his operaLe Temple d'Astrée opened the Nancy Theater in 1708.^[140] Another exponent wasMichel Pignolet de Montéclair (Jephté, 1732).^[141]

The philosopherJean-Jacques Rousseau, who was also an amateur composer, composed an opera,Le devin du village, in 1752. It was of poor quality, but was influential for its introduction of country characters shown as simple and virtuous people, as opposed to the cynical and corrupt nobility, ideals that were echoed in theFrench Revolution.^[108]

In France, opera buffa had its equivalent in theopéra-comique,^[13] a type of simple shows, with contemporary plots, generally of domestic and urban cut, and of conservative tone, in which technical innovations, cultural currents and social aspects in general, as well as the defects and customs of the characters, were ridiculed. It had certain elements in common with the Italian opera buffa, such as the taste for costumes and transvestism, or the characters inspired by theCommedia dell'arte. It was frequent the presence of a type of songs known asvaudeville.^[142] For this type of performances theThéâtre National de l'Opéra-Comique was created. Its main representatives wereFrançois-André Danican Philidor andAndré Ernest Modeste Grétry. The first one started in Italian opera, but when the public did not like it, he switched to comic opera, where he reaped great successes:Blaise le savetier (1759),Le sorcier (1764),Tom Jones (1765),Ernelinde, princesse de Norvège (1767). In his works he introduced extramusical sounds, such as that of a hammer or the braying of a donkey.^[143] Grétry won over audiences with his elegant and expressive melodies. His first success wasLe Huron (1768), which was followed byLucile andLe tableau parlant in 1769. He tried the serious genre withAndromaque (1780), which he did not resolve as well as his comic works. His greatest success wasRichard Cœur-de-lion (1784).^[144]

Otheropéra-comique composers were:Nicolas Dalayrac (Nina, ou La Folle par amour, 1786),^[145]Antoine Dauvergne (Les troqueurs, 1753),^[146]Egidio Romualdo Duni (Ninette à la cour, 1755;La fée Urgèle, 1765),^[147]François-Joseph Gossec (Les Pêcheurs de perles, 1766;Toinin et Toinette, 1767)^[148] andPierre-Alexandre Monsigny (Le Cadi dupé, 1761;Le Roi et le fermier, 1762;Rose et Colas, 1764;Le Déserteur, 1769).^[149]

An indigenous style did not flourish in Germany, and the structure of Italian opera was generally followed.^[150] However, thesingspiel emerged as a minor genre of comic tone, analogous to the Frenchopéra-comique and the Spanish zarzuela, which alternated dialogue with music and song. The earliest example wasCroesus byReinhard Keiser (1711).^[100]

Georg Philipp Telemann performed operas with arias in Italian and recitatives in German. A precocious musician, he composed his first opera at the age of twelve. He was a composer, organist, conductor and creator of the first musical magazine in history,Der getreue Musikmeister. However, his work fell into oblivion and was not recovered until the early 20th century, although his operas today are not performed on the operatic theater circuit.^[151] It is estimated that he composed about fifty operas, although only nine are preserved, includingGermanicus (1704),Pimpinone (1725) andDon Quichotte auf der Hochzeit des Camacho (Don Quixote at Camacho's Wedding, 1761).^[152]

One of the best operatists of the time wasGeorg Friedrich Händel. A disciple ofFriedrich Wilhelm Zachow, in 1703 he settled in Hamburg, where he composed his first opera,Almira, in 1705, at the age of nineteen.^[153] In 1707 he traveled to Rome, Venice and Florence, the latter city where he premiered his first opera,Rodrigo.^[154] Despite his origins, he wrote all his operas in Italian. In 1708 he traveled to Naples, where he made contact with the notable operatic school of that city. In 1710 he premieredAgrippina in Venice, which was a great success.^[155] In his works he brought together Italian and French influences, without lacking his Germanic character.^[156] Shortly thereafter, he returned to his homeland, where he became the chapel master to Prince Elector George of Hanover, who in 1714 becameGeorge I of Great Britain. In 1712 he settled in England, where he developed most of his work, and where he was conductor of the orchestra of the Royal Academy of Music, which was based at theKing's Theatre.^[157] He composed forty-two operas, usually solemn and grandiose works, where he usually incorporated choirs, though not ballets like the French. He had a preference for heroic plots and his protagonists were usually heroes of antiquity, whether historical or mythological, such asTheseus,Jerxes,Alexander the Great,Scipio orJulius Caesar.^[158] His works include:Rinaldo (1711),Amadigi di Gaula (1715),Giulio Cesare in Egitto (1724),Tamerlano (1724),Rodelinda (1725),Admeto (1727),Tolomeo (1728),Orlando (1732),Ariodante (1735),Alcina (1735),Serse (1738) andImeneo (1740).^[153] His regular librettist wasNicola Francesco Haym.^[159]

Other exponents wereJohann Adolph Hasse,Johann Joseph Fux andJohann Mattheson. Hasse studied in Naples with Scarlatti. His first opera wasAntioco (1721), at the age of twenty-two, followed bySesostrate (1726) andLa sorella amante (1729). In 1730 he premiered in VeniceArtaserse, which was innovative for its expressive contrasts that allowed a great showcasing of the singers. That year he was appointed director of the Dresden Opera, where he was one of the main promoters of opera seria.^[143] He left some seventy operas.^[160] Fux was the author of eighteen operas, mostly with librettos byPietro Pariati, though also by Zeno and Metastasio. His greatest success wasCostanza e Fortezza (1723), premiered inPrague at the coronation of Emperor Charles VI as king ofBohemia.^[90] Mattheson was a tenor as well as a composer. He worked as an assistant to other operatists, including Keiser, before composing his own. In 1715 he was appointed director of music at Hamburg Cathedral. His works includeCleopatra (1704).^[90]

In England, too, no national school emerged and the public remained faithful to Italian opera. In 1707, an attempt at English opera,Rosamund, by the musicianThomas Clayton and the writerJoseph Addison, was a resounding failure. In the same year, the operaSemele byJohn Eccles —with a libretto byWilliam Congreve— was not even premiered. Just as in Germany works with recitative in German and arias in Italian were produced, in England the introduction of the English language did not take off either. Thus, the operatic scene was largely dominated by Handel, along with the premiere of Italian productions.^[150] In 1732 theTheatre Royal —also known as Covent Garden— in London, the country's main operatic center, rebuilt in 1809 and 1858; since 1892 it has been called the Royal Opera House.^[161]

However, as time went on, audiences began to tire of Händelian operas, which explains the success ofThe Beggar's Opera (The Beggar's Opera, 1728), a sort of Italian anti-opera with music byJohann Christoph Pepusch and libretto byJohn Gay, a reaction to Händel's somewhat pompous solemnity.^[162] This work inaugurated theballad opera genre, equivalent to the operetta, the Spanish zarzuela or the Germansingspiel. They were works based on ballads and short songs, with folk dances and melodies.^[163] There also emerged theafterpieces, short works performed during the intermissions of theatrical works, in the style of the Italianintermezzi.^[116] Some exponents wereSamuel Arnold (The Maid of the Mill, 1765),^[164]Charles Dibdin (The Waterman, 1774),^[129]Stephen Storace (The Haunted Tower, 1789;The Pirates, 1792)^[116] andWilliam Shield (The Magic Cavern, 1784;The Enchanted Castle, 1786;The Crusade, 1790).^[116]

A last attempt at English opera was led byThomas Arne, composer and producer. He was the author of the comic operaRosamond (1733) and the seriousComus (1738), as well as the masqueradeAlfred (1740), whose songRule, Britannia! became an English patriotic anthem. He subsequently composedArtaxerxes (1762) —in English— andL'Olimpiade (1765) —in Italian— both with libretto by Pietro Metastasio.^[91]

InDenmark, KingFederick V protected opera and welcomed the Italian composerGiuseppe Sarti, author of the first opera in Danish:Gam og Signe (1756).^[165] Prominent among Danish composers wasFriedrich Ludwig Æmilius Kunzen, author ofHolger Danske (Holger the Dane, 1789), while the GermanJohann Abraham Peter Schulz introduced thesingspiel genre in Danish (Høstgildet [Harvest Festival], 1790).^[166]

In Spain, during the reign ofFelipe V, numerous Italian singers and composers settled in the country, among them the famous Farinelli. Among the works produced in these years areJúpiter y Anfitrión (1720), byGiacomo Facco and libretto byJosé de Cañizares; andEl rapto de las sabinas (1735), byFrancesco Corselli.^[13]Fernando VI andBárbara de Braganza were lovers of Italian opera, and favored the stay of composers such as Francesco Coradini and Giovanni Battista Mele.^[167]

With the coming to power of theBourbons zarzuela declined, due to the preference of the new rulers for Italian opera. However, during the reign ofCarlos III it briefly resurfaced, due to the rejection of Italian opera caused by popular discontent with the monarch's Italian ministers. Of particular note was thesainetistaRamón de la Cruz, who defined in his works the so-called casticismo madrileño: among his works it is worth mentioningLas segadoras de Vallecas (1768), with music byAntonio Rodríguez de Hita.^[78] Another exponent wasJosé de Nebra, author ofViento es la dicha de amor (1743) andWhere there is violence, there is no guilt (1744), among others.^[168]

InBarcelona, the marqués de la Mina encouraged opera and sponsored the installation of an Italian company in the Teatro de la Santa Cruz, in which worked the composer Giuseppe Scolari, who premiered some operas such asAlessandro nell'Indie (1750) andDidone abbandonata (1752). There was also a local composer, Josep Duran, author ofAntigono (1760) andTemistocle (1762).^[169]

During this period there was also the genre of thetonadilla, some works of lyrical-theatrical character and of satirical and picaresque sign, which were represented in the theatrical intermissions along withsainetes orentremeses. It occurred mainly in the second half of the 18th century. The first work of this genre wasUna mesonera y un arriero (1757), by Luis de Misón. Other authors were Antonio Guerrero,Blas de Laserna,Pablo Esteve and Fernando Ferandiere.^[170]

InPortugal, opera was supported by KingJohn V, who favored the installation of Italian composers, such asDomenico Scarlatti.^[171] Among the Portuguese composers, it is worth mentioningFrancisco António de Almeida, author of Italian operas:La pazienzia di Socrate (1733) andLa Spinalba, ovvero Il vecchio matto (1739).^[172]

In the second third of the 18th century some voices began to emerge critical of opera seria, which was considered stultified and too much geared to vocal flourishes. The first criticisms came from some writings such asIl teatro alla moda byBenedetto Marcello (1720)^[173] orSaggio sull'opera byFrancesco Algarotti (1755).^[174] It was the time of therococo, which in music gave the so-calledgalant music, calmer than the baroque, lighter and simpler, gentle, decorative, melodic and sentimental. The taste for contrast disappeared and the sonorous gradation was sought (crescendo,diminuendo).^[175] In the so-calledMannheim School,symphonic music developed, with the first large modern orchestra (40 instruments), an initiative of the electorCharles Theodore of Wittelsbach. Its main representative,Johann Stamitz, is considered the first conductor.^[176]

The main center of galant music was the Germanic area (Germany and Austria), where it is known asEmpfindsamer Stil ("sentimental style"). In Germany, it had an early precedent in the late work of Telemann and Mattheson. Its main representative wasJohann Christian Bach, probably the most gifted ofJohann Sebastian Bach's sons. He lived for a time in Italy, where he converted to Catholicism and married an opera singer, a fact that would undoubtedly influence him to approach a genre that neither his father nor his brothers had treated. With a great mastery of instrumental music, he combined the simplicity and clarity of Italian music with Germanic precision. He later settled in England, where he was director of the Theatre Royal in London. His work influenced Mozart, whom he even gave lessons to when the latter traveled to London at the age of eight.^[177] His works include:Artaserse (1760),Catone in Utica (1761),Alessandro nell'Indie (1762),Orione (1762),Lucio Silla (1775),La clemenza di Scipione (1778) andAmadis de Gaule (1779).^[178] Another exponent wasCarl Heinrich Graun, chapel master toFrederick II of Prussia. His operaCleopatra e Cesare opened theStaatsoper Unter den Linden in Berlin in 1742. King Frederick himself wrote the libretto for his operaMontezuma (1755). Generally, his operas followed the Italian style, influenced by Scarlatti.^[175] It is worth mentioning that Frederick II's sister, Wilhelmina of Prussia, was a composer of an opera (Argenore, 1740) and promoted the creation of the Markgräfliches Theater inBayreuth.^[179]

In Austria,Florian Leopold Gassmann, of Czech origin, composed several operas – preferably buffas – for EmpressMaria Theresa:L'amore artigiano (1767),La notte critica (1768),La contessina (1770),Il filosofo innamorato (1771),Le pescatrici (1771).^[114]Ignaz Holzbauer was one of the first Germanic composers to compose operas with recitative instead of dialogue, such asGünther von Schwarzburg (1776), a work admired by Mozart.^[180] The CzechJosef Mysliveček studied in Italy, where he premiered most of his works:Il Bellerofonte (1767),Demofoonte (1775),L'Olimpiade (1778).^[181]

In the Germanic sphere was the golden age ofsingspiel: in 1778, Joseph II renamed the French Theater in Vienna as Deutsches Nationaltheater (nowBurgtheater) and dedicated it to this genre, which premiered withDie Bergknappen (The Miners), byIgnaz Umlauf.^[182] The most prominent composers ofsingspiel wereJohann Adam Hiller (Der Teufel ist los [The Devil is on the loose], 1766;Der Jagd [The Hunt], 1770)^[183] andGeorg Anton Benda (Der Dorfjahrmarkt [The Village Fair], 1775;Romeo und Julie, 1776).^[184] Other exponents were:Karl von Ordonez (Diesmal hat der Mann den Willen [This time the decision is man's], 1778),^[185]Johann André (Erwin und Elmire, 1775),^[186]Christian Gottlob Neefe (Adelheit von Veltheim, 1780),Carl Ditters von Dittersdorf (Doktor und Apotheker [Physician and Pharmacist], 1786),^[187]Anton Eberl (Die Marchande des Modes, 1787),^[186]Paul Wranitzky (Oberon, König der Elfen [Oberon, King of the Elves], 1789),^[188]Johann Friedrich Reichardt (Erwin und Elmire, 1790),^[189]Johann Baptist Schenk (Der Dorfbarbier [The Village Barber], 1796)^[186] andWenzel Müller (Die Teufelmühle [The Devil's Mill], 1799).^[190]

In France, the galant style was already denoted in the work of Rameau and, more fully, inJoseph Bodin de Boismortier (Les Voyages de l'Amour, 1736;Daphnis et Chloé, 1747) andJean-Joseph de Mondonville (Daphnis et Alcimadure, 1754).^[191]

In Italy, gallant music had less incidence, given the presence of the Venetian and Neapolitan schools. Even so, it is denoted in the work of Niccolò Piccinni, Domenico Scarlatti and Baldassare Galuppi, as well as inPietro Domenico Paradisi (Alessandro in Persia, 1738;Le muse in gara, 1740;Fetonte 1747;La Forza d'amore, 1751),Giovanni Marco Rutini (I matrimoni in maschera, 1763;L'olandese in Italia, 1765),^[192]Felice Alessandri (Ezio, 1767;Adriano in Syria, 1779;Demofoonte, 1783) andGiovanni Battista Martini (Don Chisciotte, 1746).^[193]

During this period a reform in opera was introduced that pointed to a change of style that would culminate in classicism. Its architect was the Bohemian-Austrian composerChristoph Willibald Gluck.^[194] He studied inMilan, where he premiered in 1741Artaserse, with a libretto by Metastasio. In 1745 he moved to London, where he unsuccessfully sought Händel's support; he therefore settled in Vienna the following year, until 1770, when he settled in Paris.^[195] Among the reforms introduced by Gluck were: preeminence of the plot over vocal improvisations, with more truthful characters; austere music, without ornamentation; limitation of recitatives, all with orchestral accompaniment; overture, choir and ballet are integrated into the action of the opera; abolition of theda capo in the arias; music at the service of the text, harmonizing both elements.^[196] On the other hand, as opposed to the concept ofclosed numbers of Italian opera, Gluck introduced thetableau ("tableau"), a scenic concept that turned each act into a dramatic-musical unit encompassing soloists, choir, ensembles and ballets, which formed an organic ensemble scene. This concept was especially developed in 19th-century French opera.^[197]

Among his works are:Orfeo ed Euridice (1762),Alceste (1767) andParide ed Elena (1770), premiered in Vienna; andIphigénie en Aulide (1774),Armide (1777),Iphigénie en Tauride (1779) andÉcho et Narcisse (1779), premiered in Paris. His regular librettist was Raniero di Calzabigi.^[198] During his stay in France, the so-called quarrel of Gluckists and Piccinnists (1775–1779) arose between supporters of Gluck's reform and supporters of Italian opera.^[199] Gluck did not limit himself to hisReform-Opern (renewed opera), but made some comic works in the Italian style, such asL'ivrogne corrigé (The Corrected Beodle, 1760) andLa rencontre imprévue (The Unforeseen Encounter, 1764).^[186]

The classical music—not to be confused with the general concept of "classical music" understood as the vocal and instrumental music of cultured tradition produced from the Middle Ages to the present day—^{[note 5]} it meant between the last third of the 18th century and the beginning of the 19th century the culmination of instrumental forms, consolidated with the definitive structuring of the modern orchestra.^[200] Classicism was manifested in the balance and serenity of composition, the search for formal beauty, for perfection, in harmonious and inspiring forms of high values. It sought the creation of a universal musical language, a harmonization between form and musical content. The taste of the public began to be valued, which gave rise to a new way of producing musical works, as well as new forms of patronage.^[201]

Opera continued to enjoy great popularity, although it underwent a gradual evolution in accordance with the novelties introduced by classicism. Along with solo voices there were duos, trios, quartets and otherensembles —even asextet inLe Nozze di Figaro by Mozart-, as well as choirs, although not as grandiose as the baroque ones. The orchestra was enlarged and instrumental music became increasingly prominent in relation to the vocal line.^[202] In 1778 the La Scala Theater ofMilan was inaugurated, one of the most famous in the world, with an auditorium of 2800 spectators.^[203] Similarly, in 1792 the La Fenice Theater in Venice opened, which has also enjoyed great prestige.^[204]

The main composers of classicism wereFranz Joseph Haydn,Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart andLudwig van Beethoven. Haydn, considered the father of the symphony,^[200] was a great innovator in the field of music. Self-taught, in his youth he played in street bands, until he entered the service of PrincePál Antal Esterházy, in whose palace inEisenstadt he lived for thirty years. He created an orchestra close to the modern one, with a correlation between strings and winds. Haydn gave the symphony the so-called "sonata form", in four movements. Opera was not Haydn's main interest, but he composed several for the Esterházy court, usually comic; today they are not usually in the operatic repertoire.^[205] These include:Acide e Galatea (1763),La canterina (1766),Lo speziale (1768),Le pescatrici (1770),L'infedeltà delusa (1773),L'incontro improvviso (1775),Il mondo della luna (1777),La vera costanza (1779),L'isola disabitata (1779),La fedeltà premiata (1781),Orlando paladino (1782),Armida (1784) andL'anima del filosofo (1791).^[109]

The main exponent of classicism was the Austrian Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. He was a child prodigy, who toured Europe with his father between the ages of six and fourteen, becoming acquainted with the main musical currents of the time: Italian and French opera, Gallant music, Mannheim school.^[206] In his nativeSalzburg, he performed in 1767 the sacredsingspielDie Schuldigkeit des ersten Gebots (The Obligation of the First Commandment), at the age of only eleven.^[207] That same year he performed for the university an operetta in Latin,Apollo et Hyacinthus. The following year he composed thesingspielBastien und Bastienne, a parody ofLe devin du village byJean-Jacques Rousseau.^[208] That year he received a commission from the grand duke of Tuscany Leopold – future Holy Roman EmperorLeopold II — for an Italian opera buffa, and producedLa finta semplice. During a stay in Naples he composedMitridate, re di Ponto (1770), his first serious opera, which reaped a notable success, and featured a richer and more elegant orchestration than the Italian operas of the time.^[209] In the following two years he composed twoserenatas, operettas to be performed in a salon:Ascanio in Alba (1771) andIl sogno di Scipione (1772), the latter with libretto by Metastasio. That year he producedLucio Silla, of Gluckian influence.^[210] In 1775 he received a commission from Munich and producedLa finta giardiniera, of comic tone, still in the Baroque style. That year he producedIl re pastore, a pastoral serenade.^[211] Again in Salzburg, between 1779 and 1780 he beganZaide, asingspiel which he left unfinished.Idomeneo, re di Creta (1781) was a new commission from Munich. This work marked his entry into musical maturity and his gradual abandonment of the baroque.^[212]

After the success ofIdomeneo he settled in Vienna, where he was commissioned by Emperor Joseph II to write an opera in German, given the pan-Germanist policy of the monarch. In 1782 he premiered at theBurgtheaterDie Entführung aus dem Serail (The Abduction from the Seraglio), set in a Turkish harem. This work broke completely with the baroque style, especially by breaking with the succession of arias and the inclusion of real characters, who express their feelings. Depending on the plot he introduced various musical styles, such as folk music to accompany the maid, or passages with Turkish music, characterized by its strident percussion.^[213] He employed a denser orchestra, with more wind instruments. He also introduced an aria in two parts, one slower and one faster (cabaletta). At the end he introduced avaudeville, a scene that brings together all the characters on stage, whose text makes a synthesis of what happened in the play.^{[214][note 6]}

After two unfinished buffa operas in 1783 (L'oca del Cairo andLo sposo deluso), it was not until three years later that he received other commissions in 1786:Der Schauspieldirektor (The Theater Director) andLe Nozze di Figaro (The Marriage of Figaro). The latter was an opera buffa with libretto byLorenzo da Ponte, based onLe mariage de Figaro byPierre-Augustin de Beaumarchais. In it he showed his mastery of the vocal ensemble, introducing a sextet in act three.^[215] He also showed admirable psychological skill in the treatment of the characters, as well as in the various emotional qualities of the instruments (clarinet for love, oboe for grief, bassoon for irony).^[216] The following year he producedIl dissoluto punito, ossia il Don Giovanni, also with libretto by Da Ponte, based equally onTirso de Molina'sDon Juan andMolière, commissioned by the Prague State Theater. In this work he combined tragedy and comedy in equal parts.^[217] In 1790 he producedCosì fan tutte (Thus do they all), his last collaboration with Da Ponte, which was considered frivolous and immoral.^[218] His last two operas are from the year of his death (1791):La clemenza di Tito, opera seria with libretto by Metastasio, andDie Zauberflöte (The Magic Flute), asingspiel with libretto byEmanuel Schikaneder. The latter mixed a fairy tale with amasonic allegory, and was one of his most accomplished works.^[219]

Another outstanding composer of classicism wasLudwig van Beethoven, halfway to Romanticism. In 1803 he attempted an opera,Vestas Feuer, with a libretto by Emanuel Schikaneder, but the project remained unfinished. Two years later he made what would be his only opera,Fidelio (1805), asingspiel of political-moral character, a drama of romantic style, based onLéonore, ou l'amour conjugale byJean-Nicolas Bouilly. In this work he denoted the influence of Mozart, especiallyCosì fan tutte andDie Zauberflöte.^[220] Due to the little experience he had in the field of opera, the music of this work was symphonic, with an instrumentation so dense that it demanded great efforts from the singers.^[221] He later made other attempts to compose operas, such as aMacbeth (1808–1811) or a fairy tale entitledMelusine (1823–1824), which he left incomplete.^[222]

In the Germanic sphere mention should likewise be made of:Franz Seraph von Destouches (Die Thomasnacht [The Night of Thomas], 1792;Das Mißverständnis [The Misunderstanding], 1805),^[139]Anton Reicha (Argene, regina di Granata, 1806;Natalie, 1816),^[189]Joseph Weigl (La principessa d'Amalfi, 1794;Die Schweizerfamilie [The Swiss Family], 1809)^[223] andPeter von Winter (Das unterbochene Opferfest [The Interrupted Offering Party], 1796;Der Sturm [The Tempest], 1798;Maometto, 1817).^[224]

In Italy, the work ofGiovanni Paisiello andDomenico Cimarosa was outstanding. Paisiello started in opera buffa (L'idolo cinese, 1767). In 1776 he was invited toSt. Petersburg, where he composedLucinda ed Armidoro (1777),Nitteti (1777) andIl barbiere di Siviglia (1782), on Beaumarchais's play, which would also later be versioned by Rossini. In 1784 he returned to Vienna, where he composedIl re Teodoro in Venezia and, soon after, was appointed chapel master to KingFerdinand IV of Naples, for whom he composed his greatest successNina, o sia La pazza per amore (1789). He composed about eighty operas, in serious and buffo genre, although the latter more dramatic than usual, thus helping to prestige it.^[143] Cimarosa was a prolific composer, who by the age of thirty-five had composed fifteen operas, when in 1787 he was appointed maestro di cappella in St. Petersburg, where he premieredLa vergine del sole (1788) andLa Cleopatra (1789). In 1791 he was appointed chapel master in Vienna, where the following year he reaped his greatest success withIl matrimonio segreto. His final output was some sixty operas, in which he denoted great vital intensity and melodic warmth.^[129]

Antonio Salieri was a pupil of Florian Gassmann, who took him to Vienna in 1766, when he was sixteen. At the age of twenty he composedLe donne letterate (1770), which was a great success, so that in 1774 he was appointed court composer to Emperor Joseph II. In 1784 he was appointed director of the Paris Opera, where he succeeded Gluck. Here he composed several operas in the Gluckian style:Les Danaïdes (1784) andTarare (1787). In 1788 he was appointed chapel master of the Viennese court, in charge of Italian opera. He composed about thirty operas, both serious and buffas, among which stand out:La fiera di Venezia (1772) andFalstaff ossia Le tre burle (1799). He enjoyed great success during his lifetime, but after his death his popularity declined.^[225]

Nicola Antonio Zingarelli was the last great representative of the Neapolitan school. His first success wasMontezuma (1781), which he premiered at the Teatro San Carlo and was later performed by Haydn inEsterháza. He made buffa operas (Il mercato di Monfregoso, 1792;La secchia rapita, 1793) and serious ones (Artaserse, 1793;Giulietta e Romeo, 1796;Oedipus at Colonus, 1802).^[226]

Other exponents were Gaetano Andreozzi (Giulio Cesare, 1789;La principessa filosofa, 1794),^[227]Francesco Bianchi (Il Gran Cid, 1773;La vilanella rapita, 1783;La vendetta di Nino, 1790;Ines de Castro, 1794),^[71]Valentino Fioravanti (Le cantatrici villane, 1798),^[228]Giuseppe Nicolini (Artaserse, 1795;La clemenza di Tito, 1797;Il trionfo del bel sesso, 1799;Il geloso sincerato, 1804;Traiano in Dacia, 1807),^[229]Ferdinando Paër (Griselda, 1796;Camilla, 1799;Achille, 1801;Leonora, 1804;Le Maître de chapelle, 1821),^[230]Silvestro Palma (La pietra simpatica, 1795)^[231] andAngelo Tarchi (Le disgrazie fortunate, 1781;Il guerriero immaginario, 1783).^[232]

At this time emerged in Italy the genre of the farsa, a variant of the opera buffa of smaller format and generally fanciful plot, unrealistic. Cimarosa composed some farces, such asI matrimoni in ballo (1776) andL'impresario in angustie (1786). Some of its main exponents were:Giuseppe Farinelli (Teresa e Claudio, 1801;Pamela, 1802), Pietro Generali (Pamela nubile, 1804) andGiuseppe Mosca (I tre mariti, 1811). It developed until the beginning of the 19th century, when, with the advent of Romanticism, it virtually disappeared, althoughRossini,Donizetti andMayr still produced some farce.^[233]

France experienced a period of transition, as the atmosphere generated by theFrench Revolution favored a certainpre-romanticism in the French lyric genre. Notable in this period arePierre Gaveaux (Léonore, ou l'amour conjugal, 1798)^[234] andRodolphe Kreutzer (Lodoïska, 1791;Astianax, 1801;Aristippe, 1808;Abel, 1809).^[235]

In Spain, the figure ofVicente Martín y Soler stood out internationally. He settled in Italy, where he composed serious and buffa operas, which stood out for the grace of their characters and their beautiful melodies. He was invited to Vienna, where he composed three operas with libretto by Lorenzo da Ponte:Il burbero di buon cuore (1786),Una cosa rara, ossia bellezza ed onestà (1786) andL'arbore di Diana (1787). The most successful,Una cosa rara, displaced Mozart'sLe Nozze di Figaro. In 1787 he was appointed court composer to Catherine II of Russia in St. Petersburg.^[236] Mention should also be made ofJuan Crisóstomo de Arriaga, a child prodigy nicknamed theSpanish Mozart. At the age of thirteen he composed the operaLos esclavos felices (1820), but unfortunately died of consumption at the age of twenty.^[237]Fernando Sor premiered inBarcelona his opera in ItalianTelemaco nell'isola di Calipso (1797). He later settled in France, where he excelled as a composer of guitar music.^[238]Carles Baguer, organist ofBarcelona Cathedral, was the author ofLa principessa filosofa (1791).^[239]

In Portugal, he stood out at this timeMarcos António de Fonseca Portugal. He began with short operas in Portuguese, such asA castanheira (1787). In 1792 he settled in Naples, where he performed serious and buffa operas:Cinna (1793),La confusione nata della somiglianza (1793),La vedova raggiratrice (1794),Lo spazzacamino principe (1794),Le donne cambiate (1797),Fernando nel Messico (1797).^[240]

In Russia, a taste for opera began at this time at the court of the tsars, thanks especially to the support of EmpressCatherine II, who brought numerous composers to St. Petersburg, such as Baldassare Galuppi, Tommaso Traetta, Giovanni Paisiello, Domenico Cimarosa, Giuseppe Sarti and Vicente Martín y Soler.^[241] The first opera written in Russian was by an Italian,Francesco Araja, author ofTsefal i Prokris (Cephalus and Procris, 1755).^[242] Vasili Pashkévich was the pioneer of opera among Russian composers withAnyuta (1772), which was followed byNeschastye ot karety (The Carriage Accident, 1779). He also produced two operas to libretti by Empress Catherine II:Fevey (1786) andFedul s det'mi (Fedul and his sons, 1792).^[243]Dmitri Bortniansky studied in Italy with Galuppi and wrote several operas in Italian:Creonte (1776),Quinto Fabio (1778),Don Carlo (1786).^[244] Yevstignéi Fomín also studied in Italy withfather Martini. With libretto by Catherine II he composedNovgorodskiy bogatyr Boyeslayevich (Boyeslayevich, the hero of Novgorod, 1786).^[245]

InPoland, the reigns ofAugustus II,Augustus III and Estanislaus II saw opera flourish under royal patronage. Numerous Polish nobles hired Italian companies for their palaces. In 1765 the Teatr Narodowy (National Theater) inWarsaw was inaugurated. In 1778 the first opera in Polish,Nedza Uzazesliwiona (Sorrow turned into joy), byMaciej Kamieński, was premiered. After thepartition of Poland, the taste for opera continued, with composers such as Jan Stefani (Krakowiacy Górale [Cracovians and Highlanders], 1794).^[246]

In Sweden, Queen Louise Ulrica encouraged the construction of the Drottningholm Theater, inaugurated in 1766, and invited composers such asFrancesco Uttini, author of the first opera in Swedish,Thetis och Pelée (1773).^[247] KingGustav III was a promoter of the Kungliga Operan (Royal Opera) inStockholm, founded in 1782. Several German composers settled there, such asJohann Gottlieb Naumann, author ofCora och Alonzo (1782) and, in collaboration with King Gustav III,Gustav Wasa (1786); andJoseph Martin Kraus, who was nicknamed theSwedish Mozart, author ofProserpin (1781) andDido och Aeneas (1799).^[248]

InHungary, incorporated into the Austro-Hungarian Empire, opera enjoyed little protection, apart from that exercised by the Esterházy, Haydn's protectors. József Chudy was the author of the first opera in Hungarian, thesingspielPikkó Herceg (Duke Pikkó, 1793, now lost).^[249]

In these years opera was being introduced in North America: in United States, the first performances were given at the John Street Theater in New York, opened in 1767. Among the opera's pioneers wereBenjamin Carr (The Archers, or the Mountaineers of Switzerland [The Archers, or the Mountaineers of Switzerland], 1796) and John Bray (The Indian Princess, 1808).^[250] In Canada, the FrenchJoseph Quesnel was the first author of operas in that country:Colas et Colinette (1805),Lucas et Cécile (1809).^[251]

Among the singers, at this time it is worth remembering: Austrian sopranoCaterina Cavalieri, Salieri's pupil and lover, for whom Mozart wrote the role of Konstanze inDie Entführung aus dem Serail and that of Elvira inDon Giovanni; English sopranoNancy Storace, sister of composer Stephen Storace, for whom Mozart wrote the role of Susanna inLe Nozze di Figaro;Joseph Legros, tenor and composer, who performed roles by Lully, Rameau, Grétry and Gluck; and German tenorAnton Raaff, for whom Mozart wrote hisIdomeneo.^[252]

Between the end of the 18th century and the beginning of the 19th century, the foundations of the contemporary society were laid, marked in the political field by the end of absolutism and the establishment of democratic governments. -an impulse initiated with theFrench Revolution – and, in the economic field, by theIndustrial Revolution and the consolidation ofcapitalism, which would have a response inMarxism and theclass struggle. In the field of art and music, an evolutionary dynamic of styles began to follow one another chronologically with increasing speed, culminating in the 20th century with an atomization of styles and currents that coexist and oppose, influence and confront each other.^[253] Music was a reflection on numerous occasions of these artistic movements, which occurred not only in art and music, but also in literature, theater, dance and other artistic manifestations.^[254]

In music, the most outstanding aspect was the progressive independence of composers and performers from the patronage of the aristocracy and the Church. The new addressee was the public, preferably the bourgeoisie, but also the common people, in theaters and concert halls. The new situation gave the musician greater creative freedom, but also deprived him of the previous security provided by his patrons, as he was subject to the ups and downs of success or failure.^[255]

Opera developed in this century in an increasingly grandiloquent manner, on large stages and with large scenographic stagings, with larger and larger orchestras performing more powerful and sonorous music. This forced vocal performers to increase their singing power, to fill the entire theater and to be heard above the instruments. To this end, new techniques of voice enhancement appeared and new registers emerged, such as the "robust tenor", the "tenore di forza" and the "dramatic soprano".^[256]

In the second half of this century, theoperetta was established as a minor genre of opera, based on a theatrical piece with dances and songs alternating with dialogues, with light music of popular taste. It became established in France as a derivation ofopéra-comique, in small theaters such as theBouffes-Parisiens sponsored by the composerJacques Offenbach. It was also well established in Vienna, where it was nourished by the traditional Germansingspiel.^[44] This type of work gave rise to the current musical.^[257]

During this century numerous innovations and advances were introduced in the scenographic field, especially in lighting: in 1822 thegas light was introduced for the first time at the Paris Opera, in the performance ofAladin ou La lampe merveilleuse byNicolas Isouard; in 1849 theelectric light was premiered inLe Prophète, byGiacomo Meyerbeer.^[258] One of the best scenographers wasPierre-Luc-Charles Cicéri, creator of large and ingenious sets with the latest technologies of the time, as well as special effects, fireworks and other novelties. He invented a moving panorama composed of a curtain that was rolled up on a cylinder and, when unrolled, produced movement effects on the scene.^[259] On the other hand, the pioneer of photographyLouis Daguerre introduced the double-painted sets, which thanks to lighting effects caused a sensation of movement.^[260] The most prestigious theater was – along with La Scala in Milan – theParis Opera, which, after various venues, was located in 1821 in the hall on rue Le Peletier, where it enjoyed the golden age of thegrand-opéra. Destroyed by fire in 1873, two years later theOpéra Garnier, designed by architect Charles Garnier, was inaugurated, with seating for 2600 spectators.^[261]

Romantic music survived for almost the entire century, until the appearance of the musical avant-garde of the 20th century.^[262] It was characterized, as in the rest of the arts, by the predominance of feeling and passion, of the subjectivity and emotionality of the artist, with exaltation of national and popular music. The orchestra was enlarged, to fully satisfy the expressiveness of the artist, the new feelings that nested in him (the sublime, thepathetic). Romanticism emphasized individuality, irrationality as a reaction to enlightened reason. The protagonism was won by the human being and his heroic actions, as opposed to mythological gods and baroquedeus ex machina interventions. A new interest in nature and its sounds arose, which were imitated in numerous compositions: storms, fire, avalanches, volcanic eruptions, etc. The ideal instrument to reflect the romantic passions was the piano, from which numerous virtuosos emerged, such asFranz Liszt andFrédéric Chopin.^[263] Alongside it were gaining importance the percussion instruments —especially timpani andcymbals—, in search of more expressive sounds. New instruments were also incorporated to the orchestra, such as theharp, thepiccolo, thecontrabassoon and theEnglish horn. At the same time, movements that expressed more emotions were sought, such asprestissimo,molto agitato oradagio lamentoso. The figure of the conductor became more important and many composers were at the same time conductors; one of them,Carl Maria von Weber, introduced the baton for conducting.^[264]

This period saw a remarkable development of opera, especially in Italy, where it was the golden age ofbel canto. It stood out for the brilliance of its voices, thecoloratura, the ornamentation, gaining importance the role of the soprano, while for the tenor it became fashionable from 1840 thedo de pecho. Romantic opera had two aspects: the comic – orbuffa – and the dramatic, based on the great romantic literary dramas. The difference between recitative and aria was diluted, predominating thecantabile melody over the rest of the elements.^[196] On the other hand, the romantic opera stood out for its folkloristic taste and the use of themes based on the history and mythology of the country.^[263] A new taste for so-called "gothic" themes also emerged, which in opera gave a variant calledmorte ("death"), provoked by the grim events of the French Revolution; a good example would beLucia di Lammermoor, byGaetano Donizetti.^[265]

In this period the librettos varied in themes and plots, but had few structural transformations, so that conventional language and the simplification of dialogues and situations predominated as in previous eras.^[266] One of the most successful novelists of the period wasWalter Scott, nineteen of whose novels were adapted into sixty-three operas.^[260] Another wasJohann Wolfgang von Goethe, whose texts were set to music in 122 operas, twenty of them on his workFaust. He also personally wrote eight librettos forsingspiel.^[267] Fifty-six operas were also composed on texts byFriedrich von Schiller.^[268] Other writers who also inspired numerous operas wereVictor Hugo andAleksandr Pushkin.^[269]

The germ of romantic opera arose in France, where opera seria and opera buffa tended to converge, at the same time that the Gluckian reform was coming to fruition. The recitatives with harpsichord were discarded and became orchestral. The plots based on the Greco-Latin classics were abandoned to set the new romantic dramas to music, with a preference for medieval settings (bards, troubadours) or popular legends. At this time the so-calledgrand-opéra developed in France, characterized by the exuberance of its large stage productions, with large orchestras and numerous characters, with generally historical and epic themes, aimed at a bourgeois audience.^[270] Theopéra-comique genre also continued, which in 1805 was established at the Salle Feydeau and, in 1840, at the Salle Favart. Here unconventional, new or foreign works were premiered, which were rejected at the more conservative Paris Opera.^[271]

The beginnings of French romantic opera are situated in the post-revolutionary environment. The change of regime entailed the replacement of classical mythological themes, linked to the aristocracy, by new themes and characters based on popular heroism, with a series of works that were called "salvation opera", includingLes rigueurs du cloître (1790) byHenri-Montan Berton andLe siège de Lille (1792) byRodolphe Kreutzer.^[271] However, these propagandist works of the revolution failed to make the public forget that opera was first and foremost entertainment, a fact helped by the work ofÉtienne Nicolas Méhul, who in those years premiered several operas:Euphrosine (1790),Stratonice (1792),Mélidore et Phrosine (1794) andAriodant (1799). In these works, the characters found themselves in random situations that threw them into intense emotions, a fact that would be the neuralgic point of romantic opera.^[272]

Paradoxically, among the first exponents of French romantic opera were two Italian composers established in France:Luigi Cherubini andGaspare Spontini. The former settled in Paris in 1787, when he had already composed thirteen operas in Italy. InDémophon (1788) he began the course of what would become French romantic opera, which he would put on track withLodoïska (1791), where he introduced more real characters and more dramatic situations, with a richer and more powerful orchestration, and effects based on nature, in this case a fire. His masterpiece wasMédée (Medea, 1797), based on a tragedy byPierre Corneille.^[273] Spontini moved to Paris in 1800, where he preferentially cultivated the tragic genre. His first success wasMilton (1804), which was followed byLa vestale (1807). He was the introducer of numerous components of thegrand-opéra, such as large choirs, processions or bands on stage, culminating in hisFernand Cortez (1809), about the Spanish conquistadorHernán Cortés, which included a cavalry charge and fleet fire.^[274]

Cherubini had several pupils, among whomDaniel-François-Esprit Auber andJacques Fromental Halévy stood out. Auber was the master ofopéra-comique, in which he began withLa bergère châtelaine (1820) andEmma (1821). In 1823 he teamed up with the playwrightEugène Scribe, with whom he createdLeicester (1823),La neige (1823),Léocadie (1824),Le Maçon (1825) andFra Diavolo (1830). He also triedgrand-opéra withLa muette de Portici (La muette de Portici, 1828).^[275] Halévy suffered several failures until he had his first success withClari (1828), which he wrote for the Spanish mezzo-soprano María Malibrán. His masterpiece wasLa Juive (La judía, 1835), of whichWagner praised thefeeling of its great lyric tragedy. He alternatedopéra-comique (L'éclair, 1835;Le lazzarone, 1844) withgrand-opéra (Guido et Ginevra, 1838;Charles VI, 1844).^[276]

Among the earliest exponents of French romanticism was alsoFrançois-Adrien Boieldieu. He composed his first opera,La fille coupable (1793), at the age of eighteen. Established in Paris, he triumphed with his comic operas, but he also tried other genres, as inLe Calife of Baghdad (1800), of exotic and oriental taste. After a stay in Russia, on his return he renewed his success withJean de Paris (1812). His greatest success wasLa dame blanche (1825).^[277]

The greatest champion for the beginning of thegrand-opéra was the GermanGiacomo Meyerbeer. He settled in Paris in 1831, when he had his first success withRobert le diable, set in medievalSicily. His masterpiece wasLes Huguenots (1836), about the persecution of French Protestants (Huguenots) in the 16th century, which was notable for its lavish staging. His third major success wasLe Prophète (The Prophet, 1849).^[278]Robert le diable included a ballet – theBallet of the Nuns — in which the dancers, in the role of spirits rising from the tombs, were dressed in whitetulle, which became the classic ballet costume (thetutu); this work is considered the first modern ballet in history.^[279]

Hector Berlioz devoted himself to epic opera. He began five operas, of which he completed only three:Benvenuto Cellini (1838), about the life ofRenaissance sculptor, based on his autobiography;Les troyens (The Trojans, 1856–1858), with a libretto by Berlioz himself based onThe Aeneid byVirgil, a full-length work that was divided into two parts for its premiere; andBéatrice et Bénédict (1862), also written by the composer himself from Shakespeare'sMuch Ado About Nothing.^[280] He was also the author ofLa Damnation de Faust (The Damnation of Faust, 1846), a musical work for orchestra, solo voices and choir usually performed also in opera houses.^[281]

In a second generation —sometimes referred to as late Romanticism—^[282] stood outGeorges Bizet, a composer who died prematurely at the age of thirty-six, so he could only complete six operas, although he projected about thirty. He was a disciple of Halévy, who wrote him his first libretto, the operettaLe Docteur Miracle (1857). He resided for three years in Italy, where he premieredDon Procopio (1859), a comic opera. His next project wasLes pêcheurs de perles (Les pêcheurs de perles, 1863), set inCeylon, which reflected the taste for exoticism of the time. In 1865 he madeIvan IV for the Théâtre Lyrique. In the same theater he premiered two years laterLa jolie fille de Perth (The Beautiful Girl of Perth), based on a play by Walter Scott. Another bet for exoticism wasDjamileh (1872), based on a play byAlfred de Musset, set inEgypt. In 1875 he premiered his masterpiece,Carmen, based on a novel byProsper Mérimée, set in the folkloric Spain of gypsies and bandits. It was anopéra-comique which, however, introduced realistic elements, according to the literary naturalism of the time, a phenomenon that in Italy would give theverismo. He introduced popular Spanish music and dances, such as a seguidilla, as well as ahabanera (L'amour est un oiseau rebelle),^{[note 7]} a genre of Cuban native provenance. Bizet died three months after the premiere.^[283]

Charles Gounod began in church music, until he turned to opera, with a total of twelve works in his career. His first works were of thegrand-opéra genre (Sapho, 1851;La nonne sanglante, 1854), but were not very successful, so he switched toopéra-comique. He chose a play by Molière,Le médecin malgré lui, which he premiered in 1858. It was followed byFaust (1859), his masterpiece. His later works includeMireille (1864) andRoméo et Juliette (1867).^[284]

Ambroise Thomas was a classicist, a fervent detractor of Wagner and "modern" music. He composed nine operas, strictly based on the French tradition. His first success wasLa double échelle (The Double Staircase, 1837). He treated the comic genre withLe songe d'une nuit d'été (The ground of a summer night, 1850), not based on Shakespeare despite the title. He was influenced by Gounod, as seen inMignon (1866) andHamlet (1868).^[285]

Another German,Jacques Offenbach, excelled in the comic genre. He began his musical career as a cellist, until he switched to composition. Endowed with a keen sense of dramatic art and well acquainted with the tastes of the French public, he devoted himself to operetta, for which he rented the Théâtre Marigny, which he renamed Bouffes-Parisiens, where he premiered works by himself and other composers. In 1858 he composedOrphée aux enfers (Orpheus in the underworld), an irreverent reinterpretation of classical Greek myths, which scandalized the puristgrand-opéra public. It was followed byLa belle Hélène (1864) andLa vie Parisienne (1866). WithLes Contes d'Hoffmann (1881) he attempted something more serious, but died during rehearsals.^[286] He counted as librettistsHenri Meilhac andLudovic Halévy, nephew of composer Fromental Halévy – authors also of the libretto of Bizet'sCarmen.^[269] Other exponents of operetta were:Edmond Audran (Le Grand Mogol, 1877;La Mascotte, 1880)^[287] andAlexandre Charles Lecocq (La fille de Madame Angot, 1872;Le petit duc, 1878)^[288]

Camille Saint-Saëns was a child prodigy as a pianist and began composing at the age of six. He was a prolific composer, who wrote thirteen operas, as well as orchestral and vocal music. His first success was with the operettaLa Princesse jaune (The Yellow Princess, 1872). After that he switched togrand-opéra, with which he had his greatest success withSamson et Delilah (1877), based on the biblical story. In 1883 he premieredHenri VIII, about the relationship betweenHenry VIII of England andAnne Boleyn.^[289]

Léo Delibes excelled especially in operetta and ballet. His first success,Deux vieilles gardes (1856), already denoted his facility for composing melodies. His masterpiece wasLakmé (1883), set in colonial India, which was notable for its exoticism.^[290]

Jules Massenet was a pupil of Ambroise Thomas, a fact that turned him towards opera. His first success wasLe roi de Lahore (1877). It was followed byHérodiade (1883) andManon (1884). After receiving a commission from the Paris Opera he composedLe Cid (1885). AfterEsclarmonde (1889) he had several failures, until reaching success again withWerther (1892), on Goethe's work. He enjoyed equal fortune withThaïs (1894), of orientalist taste, whoseMeditation is one of his best known melodies. His next success wasLa Navarraise (1894), which included cannon sounds. His later works includeSapho (1897),Cendrillon (1899),Chérubin (1905) andDon Quichotte (1909).^[291]

Emmanuel Chabrier studied law, but eventually turned to his greatest hobby, music. A great admirer of Wagner, in 1886 he premieredGwendoline, where he used the Wagnerianleitmotif.^[292] He later turned, however, toward light music of comic tone, with which he achieved his greatest success,Le roi malgré lui (The King in spite of himself, 1887).^[293]

Other composers of French Romanticism were:Adolphe Adam (Le Chalet, 1834;Le Postillon de Lonjumeau, 1836;Le toréador, 1849;Si j'étais roi, 1852),^[294]Félicien David (La perle du Brésil, 1851;Lalla-Roukh, 1862;Le Saphir, 1965),^[295]Vincent d'Indy (Le Chant de la cloche, 1886;Fervaal, 1897;L'Étranger, 1903),^[166]Benjamin Godard (Les Bijoux de Jeannette, 1878;Pierre de Zalaméa, 1884;Jocelyn, 1888;La Vivandière, 1893),^[296]Ferdinand Hérold (Zampa, 1831;Le Pré aux Clercs, 1832),^[297]Nicolas Isouard (Cendrillon, 1810;Jeannot et Colin, 1814),^[298]Édouard Lalo (Le Roi d'Ys, 1888),^[299]Jean-François Lesueur (Ossian, ou les Bardes, 1804)^[300] andErnest Reyer (Sigurd, 1882;Salammbô, 1890).^[301]

In Italy, Romanticism had a markedly populist and nationalist component, in which opera was a means of political vindication for theunification of the peninsula, which would take place in 1870.^[302] It was the era of thebel canto, of the showcasing of voices, especially soprano voices. Composers such as Rossini, Bellini and Donizetti were staunch defenders ofbel canto, at a time in Europe in general when the orchestra was becoming more and more prominent.^[303] However, classicalbel canto came to a virtual end with Rossini, while Bellini and Donizetti introduced some innovations, such as the substitution of thecanto fiorito for thecanto declamato, and the reservation of bel canto passages for moments of intensity, as in thecabaletta or the so-calledmadness arias, in any case with less vocal ornamentation.^[304]

The first great name of the period wasGioachino Rossini, a composer between classicism and Romanticism. He studied at theBologna Lyceum. Following in the footsteps of Paisiello and Cimarosa, he enriched the orchestra with more wind instruments. In 1810 he premiered in VeniceLa cambiale di matrimonio, acomic farce in one act, indebted to the Neapolitan opera, but with the new romantic spirit, more dynamic, with a more marked rhythm and with the tonal gradations introduced by the Mannheim school. This work pleased both the traditionalists and the supporters of innovation, who liked its timbral agility and its lively rhythm.^[305] It was followed byL'equivoco stravagante (1811),L'inganno felice (1812),La scala di seta (1812),L'occasione fa il ladro (1812) andIl signor Bruschino (1813). After a serious opera,Ciro in Babilonia (1812), inTancredi, premiered the following year at theLa Fenice theater in Venice, he abandoned the classical schemes and gave the structure of the opera buffa to the serious, with arias,cabalette and recitative with orchestra.^[306] He also introduced changes to the usual structure of opera buffa, inLa pietra del paragone (1812) andL'italiana in Algeri (1813).^[307]Il Turco in Italia (1814) is a theatrical farce, where the librettist appears pretending to write the opera as it unfolds.^[308] That year he composed his last serious opera in the traditional style:Aureliano in Palmira, which still included acastrato in its cast, which added various ornamentations that did not please the composer, so from then on he composed the musical ornaments himself, closing the doors to improvisations by the singers.^[309] With this work, Rossini abandoned the historical and mythological themes typical of traditional opera seria and began to elaborate works of contemporary cut, based on the new romantic literature; a first case would beElisabetta, regina d'Inghilterra (1815).^[310]

In 1816 he premiered at theTeatro Argentina in RomeIl barbiere di Siviglia (The Barber of Seville), based on the play by Beaumarchais, one of his greatest successes, of buffo genre, as well asLa Cenerentola (1817), based on the storyCinderella byCharles Perrault.La gazza ladra(The Thieving Magpie, 1817) was a semi-serious opera, with a romantic plot, but with comic elements; he cultivated the same genre inMatilde di Shabran (1821). WithMosè in Egitto (1818) he elaborated a new hybrid, which he called azione sacrotragica.^[311] In serious genre he elaboratedOtello (1816),La donna del lago (1819),Maometto secondo (1820, reconverted in 1826 intoLe Siège de Corinthe),Zelmira (1822) andSemiramide (1823).^[312] He then began a journey of several years that took him to Vienna, Paris, London and again Paris, where he premieredLe comte Ory (1828) andGuillaume Tell (1829).^[313] In his works, Rossini eliminated the recitative without musical accompaniment, so they were set to music from beginning to end. He introduced the so-called "crescendo Rossini", a gradual crescendo in which the same theme was repeated successively increasing in intensity.^[314] He also introduced choirs, which became fashionable, generally placed between the aria and the cabaletta and between the two parts of the cabaletta. He stopped composing at the age of thirty-six and lived on his earnings ever since.^[315]

The next figures of Romanticism wereVincenzo Bellini andGaetano Donizetti. Bellini produced more sentimental and melancholic works, of dreamlike evocation, with choppy, irregular phrases, the voice floating above the melody.^[316] He is considered the master ofbel canto, for his long, lyrical vocal melodies.^[317] After two operas for which he began to be recognized (Adelson e Salvini, 1825; andBianca e Fernando, 1826), he reaped his first success withIl pirata (1827), performed at La Scala in Milan.^[317] Two failures followed:La straniera (1829) andZaira (1829).^[318] In 1830 he premiered in VeniceI Capuleti e i Montecchi (Capulets and Montagues), a lyric tragedy with libretto byFelice Romani. His following works were fully romantic, with the common plot of the death of one of the lovers and the sublimation of love.^[319]La sonnambula (1831) was a semi-serious opera, based on a script for a pantomime-ballet byEugène Scribe.^[320] From the same year isNorma, his most famous work, with libretto also by Romani, which includes the famous ariaCasta Diva.^[321] In 1833,Beatrice di Tenda did not reap the expected success.^[322] His last work,I Puritani (1835), he composed and premiered in Paris, where it was a great success. He died at the age of thirty-four.^[317]

Donizetti achieved his first success with his eighth opera,Zoraida di Granata (1822), thanks to which he got a contract to compose operas for several theaters in Naples. He then decided to compose generally comic operas, which denoted the influence of Rossini and Bellini, such asL'ajo nell'imbarazzo (1824) andViva la mamma! (1827).^[323] He also tackled the serious genre withEmilia di Liverpool (1824) andIl castello di Kenilworth (1829). WithAnna Boleyn (1830) he had his first international success, and initiated a plot line based on characters of human character —especially women in the role of heroine— treated psychologically. This work opened doors for him to other cities: thus, he composed for MilanL'elisir d'amore (1832), a sentimental comedy with libretto by Felice Romani, where he humanized in the same way the characters of the opera buffa; it includes the ariaUna furtiva lagrima, one of the most famous of the opera.^[324] He then tried his hand at the dramatic genre with the somberLucrezia Borgia (1833), based on a story by Victor Hugo.^[325] It was followed byParisina d'Este (1833),Torquato Tasso (1833) andMaria Stuarda (1834).^[326] Shortly thereafter he was inspired by the Frenchgrand-opéra forLucia di Lammermoor (1835), based on a novel by Walter Scott (with libretto bySalvatore Cammarano). It was followed byIl campanello (1836),Belisario (1836),Pia de' Tolomei (1837),Roberto Devereux ossia il conte d'Essex (1837),Maria di Rudenz (1838) andPoliuto (1838).^[327] He traveled to Paris, where he premieredLa Fille du régiment (1840) andLa favorite (1840), in which he introduced the do de pecho and initiated the golden age of tenors. He went to Vienna, where he was appointedKapellmeister. In 1841 he premieredMaria Padilla and, the following year,Linda di Chamounix. It was followed byMaria di Rohan (1843).^[328] Back in his country he returned to the comic genre withDon Pasquale (1843).^[329] His later works includeCaterina Cornaro (1844) andDom Sébastien, roi de Portugal (1843).^[330] He composed a total of sixty-seven operas. In his works the musical embellishments ofbel canto are present, but he composed vibrant dramatic scenes, where the music enhances the effect of the voice. His melodies were crystalline, lively, with a magnetism that is still valid today.^[331]

At the beginning of Romanticism,Saverio Mercadante andGiovanni Pacini also stood out. Mercadante studied in Naples and was encouraged to compose operas by Rossini. His first success wasL'apoteosi d'Ercole (1819). It was followed byElisa e Claudio (1821) andDonna Caritea, regina di Spagna (1826). In 1827 he settled in Spain, where he premieredIl posto abbandonato that same year. Returning to his country in 1831, he obtained a great success the following year withI normanni a Parigi. In 1837 he premiered in MilanIl giuramento, his masterpiece. After Bellini's death and Donizetti's installation in Paris he was for a few years the most famous composer in his country, with works such asLe due illustri rivali (1838),Elena de Feltre (1838),Il bravo (1839),La Vestale (1840),Il reggente (1843),Leonora (1844) andGli Orazi e i Curiazi (Horatii e Curiatii, 1846).^[332] Pacini scored a major success in 1824 in Naples withAlessandro nell'Indie, which earned him an appointment as director of that city's Teatro San Carlo. His masterpiece wasSaffo (1840). Other works of his wereLa fidanzata corsa (1842),Medea (1843),Lorenzino de' Medici (1845) andBuondelmonte (1845).^[333]

The brothersLuigi andFederico Ricci composed several works both together and separately, and are remembered as the authors of the last traditional opera buffa:Crispino e la comare (1850).^[334]

Late Romanticism was dominated in Italy by the figure ofGiuseppe Verdi. He began in romantic opera with a buffo air, with its recitative-aria-cabaletta structure, with themes generally inspired by medieval Italy. His early work denoted the influence of Rossini and continued the typical forms ofbel canto. However, he gradually evolved towards the forms of the musical drama, de-emphasizing the aria – from which he did not manage to detach himself, as Wagner did – and enhancing the melody.^[335] Verdi's operas had a strong nationalist component, which turned his works into pleas against the foreign occupation of various regions of Italy, a fact that made him a symbol of theRisorgimento, the process that led to the unification of Italy.^[336]

After a first opera that was never performed (Rocester, 1836), withOberto, Conte di San Bonifacio (1839) he had a resounding success at La Scala in Milan. On the other hand, his next work,Un giorno di regno (1840), failed. He repeated the success withNabucco (1842), with which his link with politics began: the plot based on theHebrew captivity in Babylon was compared to the Italians, under foreign domination in a good part of their territories. It includes the famous choirVa, pensiero.^[337] It was followed byI Lombardi alla prima crociata (1843).^[338]Ernani (1844) was his most fully Romantic work, based on a play by Victor Hugo.^[339] The following operas he composed were:I due Foscari (1844),Giovanna d'Arco (1845),Alzira (1845),Attila (1846) andI masnadieri (1847).^[338] InMacbeth (1847) he introduced an ugly-voiced soprano, befitting the character of Lady Macbeth, thus breaking withbel canto.^[340] It was his first work based on Shakespeare, of whom he was a great admirer.^[341] WithLuisa Miller (1849) andStiffelio (1850) he abandoned Romanticism in search of greater realism.^[342]

Next came his three masterpieces:Rigoletto (1851),Il trovatore (1853) andLa Traviata (1853) are more realistic dramas, which stick more to the historical aspect. The former, based on Victor Hugo's playThe King Amuses Himself, revolved around a superstitious jester who is cursed. It includes amotiv orevocative motif, a passage associated with some aspect of the opera, an antecedent of the Wagnerianleitmotif, which appears for example in the famous ariaLa donna è mobile.^[343]Il trovatore was based on a play byAntonio García Gutiérrez about a medieval troubadour. Composed in only thirty days, it contains a wide range of melodies, including the famous gypsy choir with its anvil strikes.^[344]La Traviata was based on Alexandre Dumas'The Lady of the Camellias, a work controversial for having a tubercular courtesan as its protagonist, with which Verdi anticipated fin-de-siècle verismo. It includes the famous duetLibiamo ne' lieti calici, also known as the "toast.".^[345]

His next work wasLes vêpres siciliennes (The Sicilian Vespers, 1855), premiered in Paris, based on a libretto of an opera that Donizetti left unfinished at his death (Le duc d'Albe). It was followed bySimon Boccanegra (1857), also based on a work by García Gutiérrez, an obscure opera that was not liked by the public.^[346]Un ballo in maschera (1859) was inspired by the assassination ofGustav III of Sweden during a masked ball; containing a regicide it was censored in Naples, so he had to premiere it in Rome.^[347]La forza del destino (1862), based on texts byÁngel de Saavedra andFriedrich von Schiller, was commissioned by the Imperial Theater of St. Petersburg, where it was premiered.^[348]Don Carlo (1867) was based on Schiller's dramaDon Carlos, about the tragic fate of first-born son ofPhilip II of Spain.^[349]Aida (1871), set inAncient Egypt, was one of his grandest productions. It was commissioned by the khedive of Egypt,Ismail Pasha, to inaugurate the Royal Opera House inCairo, built to commemorate the opening of theSuez Canal; however, Verdi did not arrive in time and it was not premiered until two years later.^[350] His last two operas were based on Shakespeare plays:Otello (1887) andFalstaff (1893), both with librettos byArrigo Boito. The former was the culmination of his great operas, whileFalstaff — based onThe Merry Wives of Windsor andEnrich IV — he composed as entertainment, his second comic work after the failure ofUn giorno di regno.^[351] Verdi worked with several librettists (Temistocle Solera,Salvatore Cammarano,Francesco Maria Piave,Eugène Scribe), with whom he often had conflicts, as he was very demanding with the texts he set to music. He sometimes wrote his own plots, which he would then pass on to a librettist alone to versify.^[352]

After Verdi, the work of two composers who already foreshadowed a certain change of style that would materialize at the end of the century with verismo was outstanding:Arrigo Boito andAmilcare Ponchielli. Boito was a composer and librettist, author of the librettos of Verdi's last operas. His first opera wasMefistofele (1868), based on Goethe'sFaust, which failed, so he temporarily abandoned composition and devoted himself to writing. However, after some revisions and thanks to Verdi's support, in 1875 he revived it, and this time it was a success. Two years later he beganNerone, on which he worked for forty years until his death. Completed byVincezo Tommasini andArturo Toscanini, it was premiered in 1924.^[353] Ponchielli composed nine operas, although he succeeded with only one,La Gioconda (1876), based on a play by Victor Hugo adapted for libretto by Arrigo Boito. His first work,I promessi sposi (1856), had little success.I Lituani (1874) was well received, but did not remain in the operatic repertoire. He tried orientalism withIl figliuol prodigo (1880) and the comic genre withMarion Delorme (1885).^[354]

Other Italian composers of the period were:Luigi Arditi (I briganti, 1840;Gulnara, 1848;La spia, 1856),^[355]Giovanni Bottesini (Cristoforo Colombo, 1848;Marion Delorme, 1864),^[356]Antonio Cagnoni (Don Bucefalo, 1847;Papà Martin, 1871),^[350]Michele Carafa (Jeanne d'Arc, 1821;Le nozze di Lammermoor, 1829),^[357]Carlo Coccia (Maria Stuarda, 1833;Caterina di Guisa, 1833),^[358]Filippo Marchetti (Ruy Blas, 1869),^[359]Francesco Morlacchi (Il barbiere di Siviglia, 1816;Tebaldo ed Isolina, 1820;La gioventù di Enrico V, 1823),^[360]Carlo Pedrotti (Fiorina, 1851;Tutti in maschera, 1869),^[361]Errico Petrella (Mario Visconti, 1854;Jone, 1858),^[362]Lauro Rossi (I falsi monetari, 1846;Il dominò nero, 1849;La sirena, 1855;Lo zingaro rivale, 1867)^[363] andNicola Vaccai (Giulietta e Romeo, 1825).^[364]

In Germany, musical activity was distributed among the various states into which the nation was divided, until the unification of the country in 1871, which brought greater cultural patronage from the reigning house, theHohenzollern, until then kings ofPrussia. During this century, the hitherto predominant Italian influence was gradually abandoned, especially thanks to the work of Richard Wagner.^[64] In Austria, after the dissolution of theHoly Roman Empire, theAustro-Hungarian Empire was formed, also ruled by theHabsburgs. In 1869 theWiener Staatsoper (Vienna State Opera) opened, which quickly became one of the most active centers of European opera; and, in 1898, theWiener Volksoper (Vienna People's Opera), dedicated to operetta and ballet.^[365]

Carl Maria von Weber is considered the creator of German national opera.^[366] He was director of the Dresden Opera House,^[367] from where he promoted several reforms in opera, such as the arrangement of the orchestra and choir, and a rehearsal schedule that encouraged performers to study the drama rather than the music.^[368] He wrote his first opera at the age of twelve,Der Macht der Liebe und des Weins (The Power of Love and Wine, 1798), which was followed byDas Waldmädchen (The Woodland Girl, 1800, which he later remodeled and retitledSilvana, 1810),Peter Schmoll und seine Nachbarn (Peter Schmoll and His Neighbors, 1803) andAbu Hassan (1811).^[368] His main opera isDer Freischütz (The Poacher, 1821), a theme based on folk legends: the whole action takes place in a forest, with elements alluding to nature, mystery, magic and populism, all the necessary ingredients for a romantic opera. With this opera, Weber created the German national opera and, at the same time, the first fully Romantic opera.^[367] His next opera,Euryanthe (1823), was not so successful. His last opera,Oberon (1826), commissioned in English by the Royal Opera in London, is based on Shakespeare'sA Midsummer Night's Dream. Except in Germany, his operas are not widely performed today, but his overtures still enjoy fair fame as symphonic pieces.^[369]

Notable in early German Romanticism were the works ofJohann Simon Mayr,Ludwig Spohr andHeinrich Marschner. Mayr studied in Italy, where Piccinni encouraged him to compose opera. His first success wasSaffo (1794), which was followed byGinevra di Scozia (1801). His masterpiece wasMedea in Corinto (1813), after which his operas were performed throughout Europe and in New York. His work influenced Rossini.^[370] Spohr first achieved success withFaust (1816), the first operatic adaptation of Goethe's play. Musical director of theFrankfurt Opera, he premiered thereZemire und Azor (1819). He then moved toKassel, where he developed the rest of his career:Jessonda (1823),Der Berggeist (The Spirit of the Mountain, 1825),Pietro Albano (1827),Der Alchymist (The Alchemist, 1830).^[371] Marschner was fortunate that Weber premiered his first opera in Dresden:Heinrich IV und d'Aubigné (1818). After some failures, he reaped a great success withDer Vampyr (1828), based onThe Vampire (1819) byJohn William Polidori, which denotes the influence of Weber'sDer Freischütz. His third success wasHans Heiling (1833), based on a Bohemian legend.^[370]

The AustrianFranz Schubert was one of the most prominent Romantic composers, famous for hislieder. At the age of seventeen he composed the "magic opera"Des Teufels Lustschloß (The demon's pleasure palace, 1814). It was followed by the operettaDie Zwillingsbrüder (The Twin Brothers, 1819). He turned to melodrama withDie Zauberharfe (The Magic Harp, 1820), which was a failure.Alfonso und Estrella (1822) andFierrabras (1823) were never premiered in the composer's lifetime, despite the beauty of their melodies; in general, Schubert's plots tended to fail him, not living up to his music. His greatest success wasDie Verschworenen (The Conspirators, 1823), based onAristophanes'sLysistrata.^[274]

Other famous Romantic composers, such asFelix Mendelssohn,Robert Schumann andFranz Liszt, occasionally dabbled in opera. Mendelssohn composed operas mostly in his youth, withsingspiele such asDie Soldatenliebschaft (The Soldier's Love, 1820),Die beiden Pädagogen (The Two Educators, 1821),Die wandernden Komödianten (The Wandering Comedians, 1822),Der Onkel aus Boston, oder Die beiden Neffen (The Uncle from Boston, or the Two Nephews, 1823) andDie Hochzeit des Camacho (Camacho's Wedding, 1825).^[372] He also composedDie Heimkehr aus der Fremde (The Return of the Stranger, 1829), aliederspiel, a minor genre ofsingspiel based on songs (lieder).^[373] Schumann, who excelled primarily as a symphonic musician, composed a single opera,Genoveva (1850).^[374] Liszt, of Hungarian origin, was in addition to being a composer a virtuoso pianist and conductor. He also produced a single opera,Don Sanche (1825), in one act.^[375] The novelistErnst Theodor Amadeus Hoffmann, also a composer, made severalsingspiele, such asDirna (1809),Aurora (1813) andUndine (1816).^[376]

The following figures of the period wereAlbert Lortzing,Carl Otto Nicolai andFriedrich von Flotow. Lortzing was a composer and conductor, almost self-taught. His first work wasAli Pascha von Janina (1824). In 1837 he premiered two comic operas:Die beiden Schützen (The Two Squires) andZar und Zimmermann (Tsar and Carpenter). From 1839 he composed one opera per year, includingHans Sachs (1841),Der Wildschütz (The Forest Hunter, 1842),Undine (1845) andDer Waffenschmied (The Master Gunsmith, 1846). His work was still largely heir to Mozart.^[377] Nicolai was an organist in Rome, where he became fond of opera. He combined his activity as a composer with that of conductor, mainly at the Vienna Hofoper. His first success wasEnrico II (1839). In 1849 – the year of his death – he achieved his masterpiece:Die lustigen Weiber von Windsor (The Merry Wives of Windsor), based on Shakespeare'shomonymous comedy.^[278] Flotow studied in Paris, so his plays followed the French style. He was famous for his catchy tunes, as inAlessandro Stradella (1844), his first international success. Settling in Vienna, he premieredMartha (1847), his masterpiece, which included the folk songDie letzte rose (The Last Rose). He was aneclectic composer, who brought together the grace of Frenchopéra-comique, Italian lyricism and rich Germanic orchestration.^[378]

In a second generation, the figure ofRichard Wagner stood out. He was a composer, conductor and music critic in theGazette musicale. He gave to the opera heights of great brilliance, with the pretension of making atotal work of art (Gesamtkunstwerk) that united music, poetry, drama, philosophy, scenography and other arts, theory that he embodied in his essayOpera and drama (1851). Wagner disliked the term opera, preferringmusical drama (Musikdrama).^[379] He abandoned thesingspiel for the symphony orchestra, following the model of Giacomo Meyerbeer's grandiloquent opera. He renewed the operatic orchestra, to which he added the Wagnerian tuba. In hisNibelungen tetralogy he went so far as to form an orchestra of one hundred and fifteen instruments.^[380] Such orchestral power presented serious difficulties for the human voice to live up to, so his performers needed special training, which led to the appearance of two new vocal figures: the Wagnerian soprano and the heroic or Wagnerian tenor (heldentenor).^[381] Critical of Italian opera, which he considered contrived and conventional, in his works he suppressed the aria, as well as the concept of "closed numbers", of episodes isolated from the rest, creating instead works of a continuous flow, an integrated whole running from beginning to end with a single musical concept; even the intermissions were connected to the rest of the composition. This system is called "transcomposition" (German:Durchkomposition), and was used by numerous composers since Wagner.^[382] He was so meticulous with his performances that he was the first to darken the hall and focus the spectator's attention on the stage. Likewise, he forbade applause during the performance, which was allowed only at the end.^[379] Another of Wagner's innovations was theleitmotif, a passage where he associated a certain musical motif with a recurring idea (a character, a feeling, an object, a scenic situation).^[196] He developed this concept while composing the first three parts ofThe Ring of the Nibelung and applied it from then on to all his operas.^[383] Wagner wrote his own librettos, so he controlled all aspects of the work.

After a first attempt at an unfinished opera (Die Hochzeit [The Wedding], 1832) and another that he did not premiere (Die Feen [The Fairies], 1833), his first premiere,Das Liebesverbot (The Prohibition of Love, 1836), was a failure. After traveling in Norway, London and Paris, he composedRienzi (1842) andDer fliegende Holländer (The Flying Dutchman, 1843).^[384] This opera began a series of Germanic-themed works generally set in the Middle Ages, with romantic loves featuring a recurring moral: redemption by love through death.^[385] In 1843 he was appointed chapel master in Dresden.^[384] In 1845 he premieredTannhäuser, about a medieval troubadour. It was followed byLohengrin (1850), about the quest for theHoly Grail, the first in which he eliminated arias and recitatives, with continuous melodic scenes.^[386] After participating in theLiberal Revolution of 1849, he was forced into exile, so he settled inZürich (Switzerland).^[384] His next opera,Tristan und Isolde (1865), was a difficult work for the public, where he introduced harmonic dissonances that confused the viewer, with a melody that is lost in infinity.^[387]

His next project was the tetralogyDer Ring des Nibelungen (The Ring of the Nibelung), consisting ofDas Rheingold (Rhine Gold, 1851–1854),Die Walküre (The Valkyrie, 1851–1856),Siegfried (Siegfried, 1851–1857 and 1864–1871) andGötterdämmerung (Twilight of the Gods, 1848–1852 and 1869–1874), which he was able to develop thanks to the patronage ofLudwig II of Bavaria. Based on the medieval epicSong of the Nibelungs, the initial approach for a single opera was extended to four due to the vastness of the plot. Wagner moved away from the legendary tale and adapted it to hisanarchist ideal, in which myth equated to social change, to the universal struggle between reactionary forces and humanist evolution.^{[note 8]} For this he was also inspired by the NordicEddas, from which he took thealliterative versestabreim. The tetralogy took him twenty-six years of work, and its performance brought him serious difficulties because of the enormity of the works: it was not until 1876 that he premiered the complete cycle at the Festspielhaus in Bayreuth, a new theater sponsored by him for the reproduction of his operas.^[388]

He combined this project withDie Meistersinger von Nürnberg (The Master Singers of Nuremberg, 1868), described as a comedy, but not in the ordinary sense of the term, but as an evocation of thebitter human comedy.^[389] His last work wasParsifal (1882), about thecharacter of theArthurian cycle, which was notable for a diaphanous music that anticipated to some extent musicalimpressionism.^[390]

Notable among the latter figures wasPeter Cornelius. He was an admirer of Wagner, but rejected his influence and was determined to find a path of his own. He focused on comic opera, intending to create a new German comic genre more serious and profound than the traditionalsingspiel. Inspired by the traditional Arabian tales ofThe Thousand and One Nights he composed and wroteDer Barbier von Bagdad (The Barber of Bagdad, 1858), which failed. He later made the historical dramaDer Cid (The Cid, 1865).^[391]

It is also worth naming among the composers of romantic opera from the Germanic sphere:Franz Joseph Gläser (Des Adlers Horst [The Eagles' Nest], 1832),^[392]Karl Goldmark (Die Königin von Saba [The Queen of Sheba], 1875),^[393]Conradin Kreutzer (Das Nachtlager in Granada [The Inn at Granada], 1834)^[235] andJohann Peter Pixis (Der Zauberspruch [The Magic Tale], 1822;Bibiana, 1829;Die Sprache des Herzens [The Language of the Heart], 1836).^[394]

In the second half of the century, especially in Austria, there was a revival of operetta, which enjoyed great popularity in Viennese society. Its most prominent representative wasJohann Strauss II, violinist, conductor and composer, a member of a family of musicians famous above all for their specialization inwaltzes. He attempted the serious genre withRitter Pásmán (1892), but was most famous for his operettas:Indigo und die vierzig Räuber (Indigo and the Forty Thieves, 1871),Die Fledermaus (The Bat, 1874),Eine Nacht in Venedig (A Night in Venice, 1883),Der Zigeunerbaron (The Gypsy Baron, 1885) andWiener Blut (Viennese Blood, 1899).^[395] The Austro-HungarianFranz Lehár was a conductor at theTheater an der Wien. He excelled in operetta with a witty, energetic and imaginative style:Wiener Frauen (Viennese Women, 1902),Der Rastelbinder (1902),Die lustige Witwe (The Merry Widow, 1905).^[396]Franz von Suppé, of Croatian origin, was a composer and conductor, author of operettas some of which remembered especially for their overtures:Die Schöne Galathée (The Beautiful Galatea, 1865),Die Leichte Kavallerie (Light Cavalry, 1866),Fatinitza (1876),Boccaccio (1879).^[397] Other exponents were:Carl Millöcker (Der Bettelstudent [The Beggar Student], 1882)^[398]Robert Stolz (Schön Lorchen [The Beautiful Lorchen], 1903),^[399]Oscar Straus (Der tapfere Soldat [The Chocolate Soldier], 1908) andCarl Zeller (Der Vogelhändler [The Bird Seller], 1891).^[400]

In Spain, opera was directly influenced by Italy, to the point that the production of local authors was in Italian. The work ofRamón Carnicer, author of operas of Rossinian influence, although with some Mozartian reminiscence, stood out:Adele di Lusignano (1819),Elena e Costantino (1821),Don Giovanni Tenorio (1822),Elena e Malvina (1829),Cristoforo Colombo (1831),Eufemio di Messina (1832),Ismailia (1838).^[401] Likewise,Marià Obiols was a disciple of Saverio Mercadante and wrote in ItalianOdio ed amore (1837), which he premiered at La Scala in Milan. He was later director of theConservatory of the Liceu de Barcelona and composedLaura Debellan andEdita di Belcourt (1874).^[402]Baltasar Saldoni was the last composer to use librettos by Metastasio:Ipermestra (1848),Cleonice, regina di Siria (1840).^[403] Mention should also be made of:Vicenç Cuyàs (La Fattuchiera, 1838),^[404]Eduard Domínguez (La dama del castello, 1845),^[405]Nicolau Manent (Gualtiero di Monsonís, 1857) andNicolau Guanyabens (Arnaldo di Erill, 1859).^[406]

The English John Fane, founder of theRoyal Academy of Music in London, left works in Italian:Fedra (1824),Il torneo (1829),L'assedio di Belgrado (1830).^[407]

In Russia, where during the reign of Catherine II the taste for Italian opera had predominated, withAlexander I it was French opera that was in vogue. Even so, the ItalianCatterino Cavos, installed in the country, was appointed director of the Imperial Theater of St. Petersburg and premiered several operas, such asIlya Bogatyr (1807) andIvan Susanin (1815). Russian composers include:Stepan Davydov (Lesta, 1803), Alekséi Titov (Yam, ili Pochtovaja stancija [Yam, or the Post Office Station], 1805) and Alekséi Verstovski (Askol'dova mogila [Askold's Tomb], 1835).^[408]

In Poland,Józef Ksawery Elsner, a teacher ofFrédéric Chopin, was the author of some operas, includingAndromeda (1807), composed in honor ofNapoleon Bonaparte.^[409]Karol Kurpiński was director of the Warsaw Opera from 1824 to 1840. He composed more than twenty operas, most notablyZamek na Czorsztynie (The Castle of Czorsztyn, 1819).^[410]

The CzechVojtěch Jírovec (also called in German Adalbert Gyrowetz) developed his work between Vienna, Naples, Paris and London. He composed in ItalianIl finto Stanislao (1818) and, in German,Agnes Sorel (1806),Der Augenartz (The Oculist, 1811) andHans Sachs im vorgerückten Alter (Hans Sachs at an Advanced Age, 1834).^[411]

Among the lyrical interpreters of Romanticism it is worth remembering:^[412][413]

• Isabella Colbran, Spanish mezzo-soprano, Rossini's wife, in many of whose operas she performed, considered one of the first "divas"
• Giovanni Davide, Italian tenor, for whom Rossini wrote some roles
• Gilbert Duprez, French tenor, first figure of the Paris Opera for twelve years
• Cornélie Falcon, French mezzo-soprano of short but brilliant career
• Manuel del Pópulo Vicente García, Spanish tenor and composer, interpreter of Rossini's works, father of María Malibrán, mezzo-soprano
• Julián Gayarre, Spanish tenor with a wide international career
• Giulia Grisi, Italian soprano of international success
• Jenny Lind, Swedish soprano andprima donna, one of the most famous of the century
• Jean-Blaise Martin, French baritone who for his register of one octave more in falsetto gave name to the so-calledbaritone Martin
• Giuditta Pasta, Italian soprano considered one of the best exponents ofbel canto
• Adelina Patti, Italian soprano and diva, considered the best of the last quarter of the 19th century
• Fanny Persiani, Italian soprano ideal in heroine roles
• Jean de Reszke, Polish tenor of attractive physique perfectly suited to romantic roles
• Giovanni Battista Rubini, Italian tenor of sweet, but powerful voice
• Ludwig Schnorr von Carolsfeld, German tenor, the firstheldentenor Wagnerian
• Wilhelmine Schröder-Devrient, German soprano who was noted for her sentimentality
• Henriette Sontag, German soprano of whom Rossini said she had the purest voice^{[citation needed]}
• Teresa Stolz, Czech soprano who excelled especially in Verdi roles
• Francesco Tamagno, Italian tenor famous for his C de pecho
• Enrico Tamberlick, Italian tenor with a powerful voice and vibrant tone
• Giovanni Battista Velluti, the lastcastrato of renown

In the second half of the 19th century—especially since theliberal revolutions of 1848—numerous nations that had not previously excelled in music experienced a musical renaissance, enhanced by the nationalist sentiments associated with Romanticism and political liberalism. In general, most of these compositions were linked to musical Romanticism, though often with a national component based on the folk and popular tradition of each of these countries.^[414] Most plots were historical and national—Rimsky-Korsakov devoted thirteen of his fifteen operas to Russian themes—and vernacular languages were introduced into the operatic texts. Several of these nations did not enjoy political autonomy at the time, so that opera —and culture in general— were identity factors of national vindication. These movements lasted in many cases until the beginning of the 20th century.^[415]

TheRussian music was noted for the colorful timbres, the preference for brass instruments, the tendency to theminor mode and a melancholic and expressive spirit, as well as a strong orientalist influence, especially Arabic and Chinese. They also liked ballets and folk dances.^[416] In the 19th century Russian opera went through three phases: during the absolutist reign ofNicholas I, opera was to serve monarchical propaganda, as in Glinka's work; during the reign ofAlexander II, in which certain reforms were introduced, opera presented a more popular component and tended to social realism, whose paradigm wasBoris Godunov by Músorgski; the third, with the return to autocracy ofAlexander III, coincides with the work of Tchaikovsky. On the other hand, in Russia arose theopéra dialogué, a genre of recitative singing occasionally elevated to arioso, but renouncing the aria, choruses and ensembles.^{[417][note 9]}

The seat of the Imperial Opera was at the Bolshoi Kamenny Theater inSt. Petersburg, opened in 1783, until 1862 when it was moved to theMariinsky Theater.^[418] In 1825, theBolshoi Theatre in Moscow opened.^[419] In the business field, it is also worth noting the productions staged bySergey Diaghilev^[420] and the Theater of the Arts founded in 1898 byVladimir Nemirovich-Danchenko andKonstantin Stanislavski, great innovators in the fields of acting and scenography.^[421][422]

Mikhail Glinka is considered the "father of Russian music."^[423] His first hit wasZhizn za tsaryá (A Life for the Tsar, 1836), the story of a Russian folk hero,Ivan Susanin. It featured French and Italian influences, but introduced distinctly Russian melodies, based on folk folklore, as in the use of thebalalaika. In 1842 he premieredRuslan and Liudmila, on a poem byAleksandr Pushkin, which inaugurated the genre of the so-called Russian "magical opera".^[424]

Aleksandr Dargomizhski, a friend of Glinka's, was similarly committed to creating a national opera grounded in Russian folklore. His first opera,Esmeralda (1840), was based onThe Hunchback of Notre Dame byVictor Hugo. His masterpiece wasRusalka (1856), with lyrical melodies based on the patterns of the Russian language. He left unfinished his last opera,Kámenni gost (The Stone Guest), on a tragedy by Aleksandr Pushkin, which was completed by Cui and Rimski-Kórsakov, and premiered in 1872.^[391]

The next impulse came from a group of composers known asThe Five, interested in composing a specifically Russian music. It consisted of Mili Balákirev, Aleksandr Borodín,César Cui, Modest Músorgski and Nikolái Rimski-Kórsakov, although the former did not venture into opera. Borodin was a chemist and practiced music as a hobby. He completed only one opera,Bogatyri (1867), and left unfinished what would be his masterpiece,Kniaz Igor (Prince Igor, 1869–1870, completed between 1874 and 1887 and premiered in 1890).^[425] César Cui was an engineer by profession. He was the author of several operas, such asKavkazski plénnik (The Prisoner of the Caucasus, 1883) andKot v sapogaj (Puss in Boots, 1915), not performed in the current operatic repertoire.^[426] Modest Músorgski, of aristocratic origin, began a military career, which he abandoned to devote himself to music. Between 1868 and 1869 he composed his masterpiece,Boris Godunov, based on a text by Aleksandr Pushkin, in which he introduced his characteristic declamatory style based on Russian colloquial language. Between 1872 and 1880 he composedJovánschina (The Jovanski Case), which was completed by Rimsky-Kórsakov.^[427] Both are operas of difficult performance, so they are often offered only in their orchestral version.^[428] His last opera wasSoróchinskaya yármarka (The Sorochinets Fair, 1876–1881), of comic genre, which he also left unfinished.^[429] Rimsky-Korsakov was a naval officer and amateur composer. He was a pupil of Balakirev, and was noted for his mastery of the orchestra and his evocative harmonies, despite which he did not triumph much in the West. After operas likeSnegúrochka (The Snow Maiden, 1882),Mlada (1892),Noch péred Rózhdestvom (Christmas Night, 1895),Mozart and Salieri (1898),Sadkó (1898),Tsárskaya nevesta (The Tsar's Bride, 1899),Tsare Saltane (Tsar Saltan, 1900) andSkazániye o nevídimom grade Kítezhe (The Invisible City of Kítezh, 1907), his greatest success wasZolotoi Petushok (The Golden Cockerel, 1909), based on a play by Pushkin, premiered after his death.^[430][431]

Another outstanding exponent wasPyotr Tchaikovsky, a character tormented by his homosexuality and with a tendency to depression, but of great sensitivity as a composer. His first opera wasVoivode (1868), of which he was not satisfied. WithOpríchnik (The guard, 1874) andKuznets Vakula (Vakula the blacksmith, 1876) he began his personal dramatic style, characterized by lyrical music, dances and folk melodies, with a certain orientalist taste. With these parameters he composedEvgeni Onegin (1879), his masterpiece. It was followed byOrleanskaya deva (The Maid of Orleans, 1881),Mazepa (1884),Charodeyka (The Sorceress, 1887),Píkovaya dama (The Lady in Spades, 1890) andIolanta (1891).^[432] Tchaikovsky was the most Europeanist of the Russian composers of the period, as well as the most Romantic – he is often referred to asthe last Romantic.^[433]

Other exponents were: Aleksandr Aliabiev (Burya, 1835;Rusalka, 1843),^[174]Anton Arensky (Son na Volge, 1891;Raphael, 1894),^[434] Mikhail Ippolytov-Ivanov (Ruth, 1887),^[435]Anton Rubinstein (The Demon, 1875)^[436] and Aleksandr Serov (Judith, 1863;Rogneda, 1865).^[437]

InUkraine, belonging to Russia until 1991,Mykola Lysenko was the leading Ukrainian-language composer:Natalka Poltavka (1889),Taras Bulba (1890). His work was admired by Tchaikovsky and Rimsky-Korsakov, but was not widely disseminated because he refused to have it translated into Russian.^[438]

In the 19th century,Bohemia (present-dayCzech Republic) andSlovakia were part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The liberal revolutions of this period – especially that of 1848 – awakened the yearning for independence in these regions, which was stifled. It was not until the end ofWorld War I that the state ofCzechoslovakia, now divided between the Czech Republic and Slovakia, was formed.^[439] Czech opera started from the Germansingspiel, with a popular and folkloric component.^[440] Its first exponent wasFrantišek Škroup, author of the first opera in Czech:Dráteník (The Boilermaker, 1829).^[441]

The father of Czech nationalism wasBedřich Smetana. Director of thePrague National Theater, he showed great gifts for orchestration and dramatization, and adapted the cadences of the Czech language to music. For this reason he is considered the first Czech national composer, a circumstance somewhat diluted, however, by his strong Wagnerian influence. His first opera wasBraniboři v Čechách (The Brandenburgers in Bohemia, 1866). His main success wasProdaná nevěsta (The Sold Bride, 1866), of comic genre. It was followed byDálibor (1868),Tajemství (The Secret, 1878),Libuše (1881) andČertova stěna (The Devil's Wall, 1882).^[442]

Antonín Dvořák was an outstanding symphonist, author of ten operas that continued the path begun by Smetana. He began with comic works, such asŠelma sedlák (The Sly Peasant, 1877). His masterpiece wasRusalka (1901), with libretto by fellow composerJaroslav Kvapil, a lyrical love story far removed from the explosive realist dramas that triumphed at the time.^[290]

Zdeněk Fibich combined traditional Czech music with the influence of Wagner, Weber and Schumann. He set to music works by Schiller,Byron and Shakespeare, as well as from Greek (Hippodamia, 1889) and Czech mythology (Šárka, 1897).^[443]

Leoš Janáček can be considered a late representative of Czech nationalism, although his work already enters modernity and, because of the quality of his works, he can be considered a universal composer. A native ofMoravia, he incorporated in his works the folk melodies typical of that region, with a preference for simple plots about ordinary people. His first success wasJenůfa (1904), a story of rural atmosphere. After a few years of unsuccessful plays, his greatest successes came in the 1920s:Káťa Kabanová (1921),Příhody lišky bystroušky (The Cunning Fox, 1924) andVěc Makropulos (The Makropoulos Case, 1926), inspired by his obsessive love for the young Kamila Stösslová. He died while working on his last work,Z mrtvého domu (From the House of the Dead, 1928).^[444]

Other composers were:Karel Bendl (Černohorci [The Montenegrins], 1881;Karel Škréta, 1883),^[445]Eduard Nápravník (Nizhegorodski, 1868;Harold, 1886;Dubrovski, 1895;Francesca da Rimini, 1902),^[446]Vítězslav Novák (Karlstejn, 1916;Lucerne [The Lantern], 1923)^[447] andOtakar Ostrčil (Vlasty Skon [The Death of Vlasta], 1904;Honzovo království [The Kingdom of Johnny], 1934).^[448]

Hungary was part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire during the 19th century and did not achieve independence until after the First World War. His political ties brought him into close contact with the operatic environment of Vienna, the capital of the empire. In 1884 theOperaház (National Opera) inBudapest was inaugurated. The first surviving Hungarian opera isBéla Király Futása (The Flight of King Béla, 1822), by József Ruzitska. Other pioneers were András Bartay (Csel [The Trick], 1839) andFranz Doppler (Benyovszky, 1847).^[449]

Ferenc Erkel is considered the father of Hungarian national opera. He was a conductor and pianist as well as a composer and, in 1853, founded theBudapest Philharmonic Orchestra. His first opera wasBátori Mária (1840), followed byHunyadi László (1844). In these works he incorporated folk dances (csárdás,verbunkos) and adapted the recitatives to the inflections of the Hungarian language. His greatest success wasBánk bán (1861), where he incorporated the címbalo, the Hungarian zither. Of his later works,Brankovics György (1874) stands out.^[284]

Wagnerism influenced the work ofÖdön Mihalovich, founder of the Budapest Wagner Society and author ofToldi szereime (Toldi's Love, 1893), clearly reminiscent of Wagner.^[450]

Later,Béla Bartók combined his own style with traditional Hungarian folk melodies, to which he adapted the asymmetrical patterns of his country's language. He composed a single opera,A kékszakállú herceg vara (The Castle of Barbazul, 1918), based on a play byMaurice Maeterlinck, one-act with prologue.^[451]

Zoltán Kodály triumphed in 1926 withHáry János (1926), which was followed bySzékely fond (The Spinners, 1932) and thesingspielCzinka Panna (1948).^[452] Other members of the Hungarian national school were:Emil Ábrányi (Monna Vanna, 1907;Paolo és Francesca, 1911;Don Quixote, 1917),^[120]Imre Kálmán (Die Csárdásfürstin [The Gypsy Princess], 1915;Gräfin Maritza, 1924;Die Zirkusprinzessin[The Circus Princess], 1926)^[453] andMihály Mosonyi (Szép Ilonka[The Beautiful Elena], 1861).^[454]

Poland belonged at this time to Russia. The pioneer of modern Polish opera wasStanisław Moniuszko. He composed several operettas until he moved to the big genre withHalka (1847), his greatest success. In this, as in almost all his works, he showed the relations between the Polish nobility and the townspeople as victims of their cruelty. In his works he introduced Polish folk dances, such as themazurka or thepolonaise.^[455] After him, for a time the Wagnerian influence was felt, as in the work of Władysław Żeleński (Konrad Wallenrod, 1885) andLudomir Różycki (Meduza, 1912).^[456]

After Poland's independence, which occurred after World War I,Karol Szymanowski was the main architect of a Polish national music. He lived inZakopane, in theTatra Mountains, where he studied the syncopated rhythms played there. His first work wasHagith (1913), which denoted German, French and Russian influences. His masterpiece wasKról Roger (King Roger, 1924), an evocative, richly nuanced and colorfully orchestrated work, somewhat influenced byMaurice Ravel'sDaphnis et Chloé.^[457] Other composers were:Ignacy Jan Paderewski (Manru, 1901),^[333]Henryk Opieński (Maria, 1905) andWitold Maliszewski (Syrena, 1927).^[456]

InDenmark, there had been some operas in Danish since the late 18th century, but it was with the advent of Romanticism that Danish opera germinated, with composers such asChristoph Ernst Friedrich Weyse (Festen på Kenilworth [Kenilworth Castle], 1836),Johan Peter Emilius Hartmann (Ravnen [The Raven], 1832;Korsarerne [The Privateers], 1835),Niels Gade (Mariotta, 1850),Peter Heise (Drot og Marsk [King and Marshal], 1878),August Enna (Keksen [The Witch], 1892),^[458]Carl Nielsen (Saul og David, 1902;Maskarade, 1906)^[166] andPaul von Klenau (Gudrun auf Island [Gudrun in Iceland], 1924).^[459]

In Sweden, after the presence of German composers in the beginnings of Swedish opera in the late 18th century, the 19th century saw the emergence of the first national authors, such asKurt Atterberg, author ofHärvard Harpolekare (Härvard the Harpist, 1919),Bäckahästen (1925),Fanal (1934),Aladdin (1941) andStormen (1948);^[460]Franz Adolf Berwald (Ein ländliches Verlobungsfest in Schweden, [A Country Wedding in Sweden], 1847);^[113] andIvar Hallström (Den bergtagna [The Bride of the Mountain King], 1874).^[113]

Norway belonged to Denmark until 1814, and to Sweden until 1905. The first Norwegian opera wasFjeldeventyret (An Adventure of the Countryside, 1824), byWaldemar Thrane. For his part,Martin Andreas Udbye was the author of the operaFredkulla (1858) and some operettas. Other exponents were:Ole Olsen (Stig Hvide, 1876;Lajla, 1893;Stallo, 1902),Catharinus Elling (Kosakkerne [The Cossacks], 1897),Johannes Haarklou (Marisagnet [The Legend of Mary], 1910) andChristian Sinding (Der heilige Berg [The Holy Mountain], 1914).^[461]

Finland was tied to Sweden until 1808, when it was annexed by Russia, until it became independent after World War I. The first autochthonous works were written byFinland. The first native works were written in Swedish:Kung Carls jakt (The Hunt for King Charles, 1880), byFredrik Pacius;Jungfrun i tornet (The Girl in the Tower, 1896), byJean Sibelius. The first works in Finnish appeared after independence, with composers such asOskar Merikanto (Pojhan neiti [The Girl from Botnia], 1908) and his sonAarre Merikanto (Juha, 1922), as well asLeevi Madetoja (Pohjalaisa [The Botnians of the East], 1924).^[462]

TheNetherlands came into contact with opera thanks to French or Italian traveling companies. The first Dutch opera author wasJohannes Bernardus van Bree, author ofSapho (1834) andLe Bandit (1840). In general, opera has been of little interest to Dutch composers. Of note is the operaHalewijn byWillem Pijper (1933).^[463]

Belgium became independent from the Netherlands in 1830. Precisely, it was the operaLa muette de Portici byDaniel Auber, based on theNeapolitan uprising against the Spanish in 1647, that prompted the population torise and proclaim independence. Early Belgian composers includeAlbert Grisar (Le Mariage impossible, 1833;L'Eau merveilleuse, 1839),François-Auguste Gevaert (Quentin Durward, 1858) andCésar Franck (Hulda, 1894).Paul Gilson wrote in Flemish:Prinses Zonneschijn (1903).^[464]Jan Blockx reflected the folklore of his country in his plays:Herbergprinses (The Inn Princess, 1896),De Bruid der zeen (The Bride of the Sea, 1901),De kapel (The Chapel, 1903).^[465]

In United Kingdom we cannot speak of an opera of nationalist vindication in the political sense that it had in other countries, but there were attempts to create an English opera alien to Italian, French or German influences. In the field of serious opera this initiative did not take off, despite attempts by authors such asHenry Rowley Bishop,George Alexander Macfarren and the IrishMichael Balfe. Bishop was director of Covent Garden, author of the operaAladdin (1826).^[466] Macfarren was director of the Royal Academy of Music; he composed, among others,An Adventure of Don Quixote (1846) andKing Charles II (1849).^[467] Balfe, composer, singer and violinist, was first baritone inPalermo, where he premiered his first opera,I rivali di se stessi (1830). In 1835 he returned to England and joined the effort to create an English national opera. He composed twenty-nine operas, includingThe Siege of La Rochelle (1835),The Maid of Artois (1836) andThe Bohemian Girl (1843).^[353]

Two other Irish composers developed their work in London, like Balfe:William Vincent Wallace andCharles Villiers Stanford. The former traveled in several countries until he settled in London, where he achieved an early success with the Italianate operaMaritana (1845). After several works of lesser acclaim he producedThe Amber Witch (1861),Love's Triumph (1862) andThe Desert Flower (1864).^[468] Stanford studied in London and Germany. He was the author of several operas in English:Shamus O'Brien (1896),Much Ado About Nothing (1908),The Traveling Companion (1925).^[469] Also worth mentioning among British composers are:Granville Bantock (Caedmar, 1893;The Seal Woman, 1924),^[470]John Barnett (The Mountain Sylph, 1834;Fair Rosamond, 1837),^[471]Julius Benedict (The Lily of Killarney, 1862),^[445]Isidore de Lara (Messaline, 1899;Naïl, 1912)^[472] andEthel Smyth (The Boatswain's Mate, 1916).^[473]

In the field of comedic opera, however, there was more fortune, in keeping with the long-standing success ofballad opera, which was renewed by a new type of operetta produced by the tandemArthur Sullivan (composer)—W. S. Gilbert (playwright), which inaugurated a genre calledSavoy opera — after the theater where they were performed.^[257] Their collaboration began withThespis (1871) and they had a first success withTrial by Jury (1875). Their best works wereThe Mikado (1885) andThe Gondoliers (1889), which already reflected their disagreements, until soon after they parted ways. Sullivan tried his hand at serious opera withIvanhoe (1891), on Walter Scott's play.^[474]

In Ireland, during the 19th century, mostly Italian opera triumphed, as well as some in English. Composers such as Michael Balfe, Vincent Wallace and Charles Stanford settled in London and wrote in English. It was not until the 20th century that operas were composed in Irish, the first of which was byRobert O'Dwyer (Eithne, 1910). Later of note wasGeoffrey Molyneux Palmer (Sruth na Maoile [Moyle's Sea], 1923).^[475]

In the United States the fondness for European opera grew throughout the 19th century. In 1883 the Metropolitan Opera House opened in New York City, the most prestigious theater in the country, which in 1966 moved to a new building atLincoln Center.^[476] In the 19th century Italian opera predominated, despite attempts at English-language operas such as those byGeorge Frederick Bristow (Rip van Winkle, 1855) andSilas Gamaliel Pratt (Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra, 1882). In the 20th century, influences of popular music, especiallyjazz were gradually introduced.^[477]Frederick Converse was the author ofThe Pipe of Desire (1906), the first American opera presented at the Metropolitan.^[478]Scott Joplin, a colored musician exponent ofragtime rhythms, was the author of the operaTreemonisha (1911).^[479] The following year,Horatio Parker premieredMona, which passed without much significance.^[480]

Virgil Thomson was the author of what is considered the first great American opera,Four Saints in Three Acts (1928), with libretto byGertrude Stein. The two collaborated again inThe Mother of Us All (1947), based on the life of the feministSusan B. Anthony. His third and final opera wasLord Byron (1972).^[481]Henry Kimball Hadley studied inBoston and Vienna, and was conductor of theSeattle Symphony. His operas includeSafie (1909),Azora (1917) andCleopatra's Night (1919). In 1933 he premieredA Night in Old Paris on radio.^[482]

George Gershwin combined classical music with elements of American popular music, especially jazz and blues. In 1922 he premiered the jazz-operaBlue Monday, which was not very successful. His next project wasPorgy and Bess (1935), a folk-opera incorporating jazz and blues rhythms, with a libretto by his brother,Ira Gershwin, andDuBose Heyward. It was not very well received initially, although over time it grew in prestige until it was considered one of the best American operas.^[483]

The currentBaltic republics had a period of independence between 1918 and 1940, to be then absorbed by theSoviet Union, until they became independent again in 1991. InEstonia, the first opera in the local language wasSabina (1906), byArtur Lemba. Notable in the interwar period wasEvald Aav, author ofVikerlased (The Vikings, 1928).^[484]

Latvia was in the Germanic cultural sphere, so this influence predominated in the origin of its operatic tradition. In 1919 theLatvian National Opera (Latvijas Nacionālā Opera) opened inRiga, where the Latvian operaBanjuta byAlfrēds Kalniņš premiered in 1920. His son Jānis Kalniņš was the author ofHamlet (1936). Other exponents of Latvian opera were the brothersJānis Mediņš (Uguns un nakts [Fire and Night], 1921) and Jāzeps Mediņš (Vaidelote [The Vestal], 1927).^[485]

Lithuania, closer to Poland, received like Poland the initial influence of Italian opera. In 1922 the Lithuanian National Theater (Lietuvos Tautas Teatras) was founded inVilnius. The first Lithuanian opera wasBirutė (1906) byMikas Petrauskas. Subsequent highlights includedAntanas Račiūnas' (Trys talismanai [Three Talismans], 1936) andJurgis Karnavičius (Gražina, 1932).^[486]

Bulgaria became independent from theOttoman Empire in 1885. In 1908 theNaroden Teatar (National Theater) inSofia was founded. The first opera in Bulgarian wasShiromakhinya (The Poor Woman, 1910), byEmanuil Manolov. The main architect of the Bulgarian national opera was Georgi Atanasov, a pupil ofPietro Mascagni in Italy. He was the author ofBorislav (1911),Gergana (1917),Zapustyalata vodenitsa (The Abandoned Mill, 1923) andTsveta (The Flower, 1923). Other exponents wereIvan Ivanov, author ofKamen i Tsena (The Stone Pyramid, 1911); Dimitar Hadjigeorgiev (Takhin Begovitsa, 1911); andPancho Vladigerov (Tsar Kalojan, 1936).^[487]

Romania gained independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1878, after which it joined European cultural life. The closeness of Romanian – a language of Latin origin – to Italian favored the spread of Italian opera.^[488] Among the pioneers wasCiprian Porumbescu, author of the operettaCrai nou (New Moon, 1880). LaterNicolae Bretan (Luceafărul, 1921) and, mainly,George Enescu, trained in France, where he was a pupil ofGabriel Fauré andJules Massenet. In 1917 he composed his operaŒdipe (Oedipus), whose manuscript he lost during a trip, so he had to rewrite it and finally premiered it at the Paris Opera in 1936. It was a grandiloquent work, requiring three groups of timpani and machinery to simulate wind.^[489]

Croatia was an integral part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, until theKingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (since 1929,Yugoslavia) was formed in 1918. It became independent in 1991.^[490] In 1895, the National Theatre inZagreb opened.^[491] The first composer to write in his language wasVatroslav Lisinski:Ljubav i zloba (Love and malice, 1846).^[492] Later,Krešimir Baranović was the author of comic operas, such asNevjesta od Cetingrada (The Bride of Cetingrada, 1942).^[493] Other authors were:Blagoje Bersa (Der Eisenhammer [The Iron Hammer], 1911;Der Schuster von Delft [The Shoemaker of Delft], 1914),^[494]Jakov Gotovac (Ero s onoga svijeta [Ero from the Otherworld], 1935)^[148] andIvan Zajc (Nikola Šubić Zrinjski, 1876).^[495]

Slovenia had the same historical development as Croatia. In 1892, theLjubljana Opera was founded. The first opera in Slovenian is due to Jakob Frančišek Zupan (Belin, 1782), now lost.^[496] Throughout the 19th century some Slovene composers occasionally devoted themselves to opera, with poor results. In the transition to the 20th century,Risto Savin stood out (Lepa Vida [Beautiful Life], 1907).^[497]

InSerbia, under Ottoman rule, opera was not introduced until the last quarter of the 19th century. It became independent in 1882, to become part after World War I of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, later Yugoslavia. In 1894 the National Theater (Pozorište Narodno) ofBelgrade was founded. The pioneer of Serbian opera wasPetar Konjović (Koštana, 1931).^[498]

Greece became independent from the Ottoman Empire in 1830. Soon several Italian companies were established and a taste for opera began. In 1888 theGreek Opera was founded inAthens, since 1939 Royal Opera and, nowadays, National Opera. An early pioneer in the genre wasSpyridon Xyndas, who composed some operas in Italian and one in Greek (O ypopfisios vouleftis [The Parliamentary Candidate], 1867). Subsequent highlights includedManolis Kalomiris (O Protomastoras [The Master Builder], 1916), Dionysios Lavrangas (Ta dyo adelfia, [The Two Brothers], 1900;Dido, 1909) andTheophrastos Sakellaridis (O Vaftistikos [The Godson], 1918).^[499]

In theOttoman Empire (present-dayTurkey) there was presence of Italian companies since the end of the 18th century. The first Turkish opera premiered at the Vienna Volksoper in 1918:Kenan çobanları, by Vedî Sabra. With the process of Europeanization initiated byKemal Atatürk in the 1920s, opera became more widespread in the country: in 1929,Köyde bir facia, byCemal Reşit Rey was premiered; in 1934,Ahmet Adnan Saygun received an official commission for an opera for the visit ofshah of Persia, for which he composedÖzsoy.^[500]

InArmenia, whose territory was divided between Turkey and Russia, opera enjoyed great popularity. The first Armenian opera was due to Tigran Chukhachean (Arshak Erkrod, 1868). Subsequently, Armen Tigranian (Anusha, 1912) andAlexander Spendiaryan (Almast, 1928) stood out.^[501]

In Georgia, Italian opera was introduced in the mid-19th century. The first Georgian composer of some renown wasMeliton Balanchivadze, author ofDaredžan Tsviery (Daredžan the Sly, 1898). Later,Zakharia Paliashvili (Abesalom da Eteri, 1919) andIona Tuskiya, author ofRodina (Homeland, 1939) stood out.^[502]

InAzerbaijan there was a traditional genre of sung music, themugam. Opera was introduced in the late 19th century: the first Azerbaijani operaLeyli and Medzhnun (1908), byUzeyir Hajibeyov, is considered to be the first Azerbaijani opera. In 1910 theTagiyev's Theater (nowAzerbaijan State Academic Opera and Ballet Theater) inBaku opened, which promoted local opera, led byMüslüm Maqomayev (Shah Ismail, 1919).^[503]

InPortugal, Italian opera predominated during the 19th century, with few local productions. In 1793, theTeatro São Carlos in Lisbon was inaugurated. The first prominent composer wasJosé Augusto Ferreira Veiga (L'elisir di giovinezza, 1876;Dina la derelitta, 1885).^[240] In atardo romanticismo he emphasizedAlfredo Keil (Dona Branca, 1883;Irene, 1893;Serrana, 1899).^[504]

In Spain it is not possible to speak of nationalism as such: a Spanish nationality was not claimed against a foreign dominator, no patriotic identities or lost cultural essences were asserted, no formulas from the past were sought, neither popular legends nor traditional folklore were resorted to. On the other hand, the different regional modalities of popular music were used (Andalusian,Asturian, Aragonese,Catalan, Basque, Galician), together with a certain orientalist influence fashionable in Europe and considered here as more genuine because of theAndalusian past of theIberian Peninsula.^[505] During practically the first half of the century the influence of Italian opera, especially Rossinian opera, continued. Some composers followed that line, such asBaltasar Saldoni andHilarión Eslava. In 1832 theTeatro Principal inValencia was inaugurated, in 1847 theGran Teatro del Liceo inBarcelona and, in 1850, theTeatro Real inMadrid.^[13]

The pioneer of opera in Spain wasFelipe Pedrell, one of the fathers—withFrancisco Asenjo Barbieri—of modern Spanish musicology. In his first works, some of them in Italian, he showed the influence of Italian opera, as inL'ultimo abenzerraggio (The last abenzerrage, 1874),Quasimodo (1875) andCleopatra (1878). Later he denoted Wagnerian influence:I Pirinei (The Pyrenees, 1902),La Celestina (1904).^[506]

Other pioneers wereRuperto Chapí andTomás Bretón. Chapí studied in Paris thanks to a scholarship obtained after composing the short operaLas naves de Cortés (1874). In 1876 he premieredLa hija de Jefté at the Teatro Real. From then on he devoted himself mainly to zarzuela, but still composed several operas, such asRoger de Flor (1878),Circe (1902) andMargarita la tornera (1909).^[507] Bretón studied in Italy and Vienna. He began with the short operaGuzmán el Bueno (1878), which was followed byLos amantes de Teruel (1889),Garín (1892),La Dolores (1895) andRaquel (1900).^[508] In some of his works he introduced Spanish folk music, such as asardana inGarín and ajota inLa Dolores.^[509]

Among the great composers of the period areIsaac Albéniz,Enrique Granados andManuel de Falla. Albéniz began in zarzuela, until he signed a contract with an English banker to write operas, the fruit of which wereThe Magic Opal (1893),Henry Clifford (1895),Pepita Jiménez (1896) andMerlin (1897–1902), the latter on a cycle based onKing Arthur of which he only made this first title.^[510] Granados achieved fame with his piano pieces. In 1898 he premiered his operaMaría del Carmen, close to zarzuela. Later, he adapted several compositions for piano in his operaGoyescas (1916), which he premiered at the Metropolitan in New York.^[511] Falla, one of the best modern Spanish composers, combined musical nationalism —with some influence of the NorwegianEdvard Grieg— withimpressionism, which he met during a stay in France.^[512] Although he was not very prolific in opera, he left two notable works:La vida breve (1913) andEl retablo de Maese Pedro (1923). He began an adaptation ofLa Atlántida byJacinto Verdaguer, which was completed byErnesto Halffter and premiered in 1962 asAtlántida.^[513]

Other exponents were:Enric Morera, who began in opera withLa fada (1897), in Wagnerian style. In 1906 he premiered two works at the Liceo de Barcelona,Bruniselda andEmporium, followed byTitaina (1912) andTassarba (1916).^[514]Amadeo Vives was a pupil of Pedrell and, together withLluís Millet, founder of theOrfeó Català. In 1897 he premiered his first opera,Artús, followed byEuda d'Uriac (1900),Colomba (1910),Maruxa (1914) andBalada de Carnaval (1919).^[515]Jesús Guridi was a professor of organ at the Madrid Conservatory. He composed two operas:Mirentxu (1910, in Basque) andAmaya (1920).^[516]Jaume Pahissa, a pupil of Enric Morera, wrote several operas in Catalan, such asGal-la Placídia (1913),La morisca (1919),Marianela (1923) andLa princesa Margarida (1928).^[517]Joaquín Turina met Falla and Albéniz in Paris, through whose influence he turned to Spanish national music, with a certain impressionist influence. His most relevant opera isJardín de Oriente (1923).^[518]

Also worth mentioning are:Conrado del Campo (Fantochines, 1923; Lola, la piconera, 1950),^[519]Óscar Esplá (La bella durmiente, 1909),^[520]Joan Lamote de Grignon (Hesperia, 1907),^[521]Juan Manén (Giovanna di Napoli, 1903; Acté, 1904),^[522]Manuel Penella Moreno (El gato montés, 1917;Don Gil de Alcalá, 1932),^[523]Emilio Serrano (Doña Juana la Loca, 1890; Irene de Otranto, 1891)^[524] andEduard Toldrà (El giravolt de maig, 1928).^[170]

In this century thezarzuela resurfaced again, recovered by the new romantic taste and the nationalist revival. In 1856, a group of composers formed byFrancisco Asenjo Barbieri,Joaquín Gaztambide,José Inzenga,Rafael Hernando andCristóbal Oudrid created the Sociedad Artística to promote the genre and promoted the creation of theTeatro de la Zarzuela in Madrid (1856).^[525] It was then differentiated into "género grande" and "género chico", the former divided into three acts and the latter composed of only one. It included sung and spoken parts, as well as popular dances, with a generally costumbrista theme —especially casticista— and comic tendency.^[78] It developed especially in the third quarter of the century, the era of the "género grande", three-act plays influenced by the Frenchbuf parisien.^[526] Among its exponents are:Cristóbal Oudrid (Buenas noches, señor don Simón, 1852;El postillón de La Rioja, 1856),^[527]Emilio Arrieta (El grumete, 1853;Marina, 1855;La suegra del Diablo, 1867;Las fuentes del Prado, 1870),^[528]Joaquín Gaztambide (Catalina, 1854;Los magiares, 1857;El juramento, 1858),^[134]Francisco Asenjo Barbieri (Los diamantes de la corona, 1854;Pan y toros, 1864;El barberillo de Lavapiés, 1874;El diablo cojuelo, 1878)^[529] andRuperto Chapí (La tempestad, 1883;La bruja, 1887;El rey que rabió, 1891).^[507]

Towards the end of the century the "género chico" was more fashionable, one-act plays, with more recitative, with a certain influence of Viennese operetta.^[526] Of note are:Tomás Bretón (La verbena de la Paloma, 1884),^[508]Federico Chueca (La Gran Vía, 1886;El año pasado por agua, 1889;Agua, azucarillos y aguardiente, 1897),^[530]Ruperto Chapí (La Revoltosa, 1897;El puñao de rosas, 1902),^[507]Manuel Fernández Caballero (El dúo de La africana, 1893;Gigantes y cabezudos, 1898),^[531]Gerónimo Giménez (El baile de Luis Alonso, 1896;La boda de Luis Alonso, 1897;La tempranica, 1900),^[532]Amadeo Vives (La balada de la luz, 1900;Bohemios, 1903;Doña Francisquita, 1923),^[515]José Serrano Simeón (La Reina mora, 1903;Moros y cristianos, 1905;La canción del olvido, 1916;Los claveles, 1929;La dolorosa, 1930),^[533]Vicente Lleó Balbastre (La corte de Faraón, 1910),^[534]Pablo Luna (Molinos de viento, 1910;Los cadetes de la reina, 1913;El asombro de Damasco, 1916;El niño judío, 1918),^[535]José María Usandizaga (The Swallows 1914),^[536]Francisco Alonso (La linda tapada, 1924;Las Leandras, 1931),^[537]Jacinto Guerrero (Los gavilanes, 1923;El huésped del sevillano, 1926;La rosa del azafrán, 1930),^[123]José Padilla Sánchez (La bien amada, 1924),^[230] the tandemJuan Vert-Reveriano Soutullo (La leyenda del beso, 1924;La del Soto del Parral, 1927;El último romántico, 1928),^[538]Jesús Guridi (El caserío, 1926;La meiga, 1928;Peñamariana, 1944),^[516]Federico Moreno Torroba (Luisa Fernanda, 1932)^[514] andPablo Sorozábal (La del manojo de rosas, 1934;La tabernera del puerto, 1936;La eterna canción, 1945;Los burladores, 1948;La ópera del mogollón, 1954).^[238] It is also worth mentioningCançó d'amor i de guerra (1926), byRafael Martínez Valls, zarzuela written in Catalan.^[539]

After theSpanish Civil War, zarzuela was in decline, until its virtual disappearance in the 1960s. Today, the classics of the genre are still performed, but there is no new production.^[526]

Latin American opera underwent a gradual evolution over time: during the colonial period, Italian or Spanish operas were performed; after the independence of the colonies, native works began to be produced, but which followed the rules of Italian opera; over time, local elements were added, generally with a folkloric or popular air; finally, works of a universal character began to be produced.^[13]

InArgentina, opera was carried by Italian companies, after the country's independence. In 1857, theTeatro Colón in Buenos Aires was opened. One of the first local composers wasArturo Berutti, author ofPampa (1897) andYupanqui (1899). In 1908,Héctor Panizza had a great success withAurora. In 1916,Felipe Boero composedTucumán to commemorate the centenary of independence; another work of his wasEl Matrero (1929), considered the Argentine national opera.^[540] Other authors were: Pascual De Rogatis (Huémac, 1916),^[540]Constantino Vicente Gaito (Petronio, 1919;Ollantay, 1926),Floro Ugarte (Saika, 1920) andAthos Palma (La novia del hereje, 1935).^[540]

In Brazil, when the Portuguese court moved to the new continent in 1808, due to the Napoleonic invasion, it brought with it a taste for Italian opera. Gradually, local composers emerged, among them Carlos Gomes, the first Latin American composer to triumph in Europe (Joana de Flandres, 1863;Il Guarany, 1870;Salvator Rosa, 1874;Maria Tudor, 1878;Lo Schiavo, 1889), who, however, wrote in Italian, in a late-Verdian style.^[541] The first attempts in Portuguese were by composers such asFrancisco Braga (O contractador de diamantes, 1901) andOscar Lorenzo Fernández (Malazarte, 1921).^[542]

InColombia, the first production wasEster (1874), byJosé María Ponce de León. In Chile,Telésfora (1841), byAquinas Ried.^[543]

Cuba began in the operatic tradition while a Spanish colony. Throughout the 19th century, Italian opera triumphed above all. In 1875,Laureano Fuentes Matons composed the first Cuban opera,La hija de Jefté. Later,Ignacio Cervantes (Los Saltimbanquis, 1899) andEduardo Sánchez de Fuentes (El náufrago, 1901). There were also composers of zarzuelas, such asErnesto Lecuona (María la O, 1930;El cafetal, 1930) andEliseo Grenet (Niña Rita, 1927;La virgen morena, 1928).^[544]

InGuatemala, Italian opera was introduced in the early 19th century. In 1859 the Teatro Carrera, later called Nacional and, since 1886, Colón, was inaugurated. The first local opera wasLa mora generosa (1850), byJosé Escolástico Andrino. Already in the 20th century,Jesús Castillo (Quiché Vinak, 1924) stood out.^[545]

Mexico had an operatic tradition from its colonial past: a Mexican opera,La Parténope (1711), byManuel de Sumaya, was produced as early as the 18th century. The opera tradition was centered inMexico City (Palacio de Bellas Artes, inaugurated in 1934) and cities such asGuanajuato andGuadalajara.^[546] In the early 19th century Italian opera predominated, until the second half saw the first local productions with authors such asMelesio Morales (Romeo and Juliet, 1863;Ildegonda, 1866;Gino Corsini, 1877),Aniceto Ortega (Guatemotzin, 1871),Felipe Villanueva (Keofar, 1892),Ricardo Castro (Atzimba, 1900) andGustavo Campa (El rey poeta, 1901).^[547]

InNicaragua,Luis Abraham Delgadillo was outstanding:Final de Norma (1930),Mabaltayán (1942).^[543]

InPeru, European cultural life was closely followed in the 19th century. The first opera in the country wasAtahualpa (1875), by the Italian Carlo Enrico Pasta. Subsequently,José María Valle Riestra (Ollanta, 1900) andErnesto López Mindreau (Nueva Castilla, 1926) stood out.^[548]

InUruguay, theTeatro Solís in Montevideo, the country's main operatic center, was opened in 1856.^[549] Among its composers were:Tomás Giribaldi (La Parisina, 1878),Alfonso Broqua (Tabaré, 1888),León Ribeiro (Colón, 1892;Liropeya, 1912),Manuel M. Ponce (El patio florido, 1913) andCarlos Pedrell (Ardid de amor, 1917;La guitarra, 1924).^[536]

InVenezuela, it is worth mentioning:José Ángel Montero (Virginia, 1873) andReynaldo Hahn (Le Marchand de Venise, 1935).^[543]

Italianverismo —also known asGiovane Scuola (Young School)— sought to reflect reality, with more popular plots, in rural andproletarians environments, where the protagonists were ordinary characters. This movement grew out of the naturalista literature initiated in France byÉmile Zola, which had as exponents in ItalyGiovanni Verga andLuigi Capuana.^[550] Verist composers denoted the influence of Verdi and Wagner, although they broke with the Romantic tradition. The music was continuous, transcomposed in the Wagnerian style,^{[note 10]} withoutcabaletta and with arias without a fixed standard. They eliminated overtures, but addedintermezzi, of a showy orchestration of dramatic tone.^[551] The voice was taken to the limit of its expressive possibilities. In verismo, leading roles were even given to villains and reprehensible characters, such as murderers, pimps, prostitutes and other characters of low extraction.^[552] However, over time, the didactic message that verismo sought to convey drifted into sensationalist plots, which together with colorful and gimmicky orchestration reflected the new tastes of the public.^[550]

The beginning of the success of verismo was with two operas:Cavalleria rusticana byPietro Mascagni andPagliacci byRuggero Leoncavallo. Mascagni worked as a conductor with various companies throughout Italy until 1888, when he entered a musical competition organized by the publisher Edoardo Sanzogno with the one-act operaCavalleria rusticana (premiered in 1890), with which he won the competition and reaped an enormous success. Based on a play by Giovanni Verga, it was notable for its ordinary characters driven by violent passions. He did not repeat such success with his following plays:L'amico Fritz (1891),I Rantzau (1893) andGuglielmo Ratcliff (1895).^[553] Leoncavallo composed his first opera at the age of nineteen (Chatterton, 1876). Following a commission from the publisherGiulio Ricordi, he undertook a trilogy in the Wagnerian style, which he never completed. After a time in which he devoted himself mainly to writing, the success ofCavalleria rusticana encouraged him again and he composed his greatest success,Pagliacci (1892), a tragic story about four itinerant actors, with libretto written by himself. His next works were not so successful:I Medici (1893),La bohème (1897) andZazà (1900).^[554]

The most outstanding composer of this trend wasGiacomo Puccini. A pupil of Ponchielli, he had a great instinct for suggestive melodies and passionate plots, as well as for combining music and drama in perfect harmony, always with the voice as the central axis of his composition. An admirer of Wagner, he used theleitmotiv in several of his works.^[555] He had a first success withLe Villi (The Willis, 1884), but for various reasons his next operatic work,Edgar (1889), which was not well received, was delayed. He did achieve great success withManon Lescaut (1893), which brought him fame and fortune. In collaboration with librettistsGiuseppe Giacosa andLuigi Illica he created his three most relevant operas:La Bohème (1896),Tosca (1900) andMadama Butterfly (1904). The former, about Parisian bohemian life, blended tragedy, passion and humor, along with seductive music that greatly pleased audiences. Toscapresented an equally tragic plot enhanced by musical dissonances and twisted harmonies, with one of the most complex female roles ever sketched. Her ariaE lucevan le stelleis one of the opera's most famous, also known as the Farewell to Life.Madama Butterflyis set in Japan, in keeping with the exotic taste of the time. Although it was not well received at its premiere, over time its tonal coloring and harmonic language have been appreciated. It includes the famous ariaUn bel dì, vedremo.^[556]

In 1910 he premiered in New YorkLa fanciulla del West (The Girl from the West). AfterLa rondine (La golondrina, 1917), his next project wasIl trittico (The Triptych), a set of three operas to be performed in a single session:Il tabarro (The tabard),Suor Angelica andGianni Schicchi (1918). His last opera wasTurandot, on which he worked between 1920 and the year of his death (1924), and which was completed byFranco Alfano and premiered in 1926. In this work he synthesized his musical style: conjunction of drama and music, real characters of great emotional force and music of great symphonic intensity. It includes the famous ariaNessun dorma.^[557]

Other prominent composers of verismo wereUmberto Giordano,Alfredo Catalani andFrancesco Cilea. Giordano began in Sanzogno's competition with the one-act operaMarina (1889). It was followed byMala vita (1892) andRegina Diaz (1894). He achieved his greatest success withAndrea Chénier (1896), with libretto by Luigi Illica. He repeated success withFedora (1898), which was followed by a series of failures, until he renewed fame withLa cena delle beffe (The Supper of Mockery, 1924).^[443] Catalani evolved from an early Wagnerian influence towards verismo. His first opera,La falce (1875), was to a libretto by Arrigo Boito. It was followed byElda (1880), transformed ten years later intoLoreley. His greatest success wasLa Wally (1892), in a Germanizing style, with libretto by Luigi Illica.^[558] Cilea abandoned law for music. He achieved an early success withGina (1889), which was followed byLa tilda (1892),L'arlesiana (1897) and his masterpiece,Adriana Lecouvreur (1902), a mixture of tragedy and comedy,^[559] in which he combined verismo with a certain bel canto.^[560]

Otros exponentes fueron:Franco Alfano (Resurrection, 1904),^[561]Alberto Franchetti (Christopher Columbus, 1892;Germany, 1902),^[562]Franco Leoni (The Oracle, 1905;Francesca da Rimini, 1914),^[563]Giacomo Orefice (Chopin, 1901;The Moses, 1905)^[564] andAntonio Smareglia (Istrian Wedding, 1895;The Moth, 1897).^[565]

Close to verismo, but with a more personal style isErmanno Wolf-Ferrari. A student of Arrigo Boito, he was an inconstant composer, who seemed not to find his own style. He made veristic works, as well as serious and comic operas, among which stand out:Cenerentola (1900),Le donne curiose (1903),I quatro rusteghi (1906),Il segreto di Susanna (1909) andL'amore medico (1913), which have not lasted in the operatic repertoire.^[566]

In the 1910s this style evolved towards a so-called post-Verismo, characterized by the strong influence of the writerGabriele D'Annunzio and a stronger link toItalian nationalism.^[567] Prominent in this current wereItalo Montemezzi andRiccardo Zandonai. The former, a largely self-taught composer and conductor, had great success with his first two operas,Giovanni Gallurese (1905) andL'amore dei tre re (1913). He later producedLa nave (1918),La notte di Zoraima (1931) andL'incantesimo (1943).^[568] Zandonai attracted the attention of the publisher Ricordi withLa coppa del re (1907), so he commissioned an opera,Il grillo del focolare (1908), based on a Dickens short story. His first great success wasFrancesca da Rimini (1914), based on an episode of theDivine Comedy byDante. He developed a more original style inGiulietta e Romeo (1922), which was followed byI cavalieri di Ekebù (1925). He left his last opera,Il bacio unfinished.^[569] Mention should also be made ofAlfredo Casella, a composer of cosmopolitan style who was also influenced by post-Romantic and impressionism, author ofLa donna serpente (1929).^[570]

Outside Italy, the veristic influence is denoted in the work of the FrenchGustave Charpentier. He was a pupil of Massenet and, in 1887, won the Rome prize. It was in that city that he was infected by the verist atmosphere and composed his most famous opera,Louise (1900), the love story of two young people fromMontmartre, with libretto bySaint-Pol-Roux.^[571] Also in France,Alfred Bruneau set to music several texts by Émile Zola, such asLe rêve (1891),L'Attaque du moulin (1893),Messidor (1897),L'Ouragan (1901) andL'Enfant roi (1905).^[572]Henry Février was the author ofMonna Vanna (1909), on a text byMaurice Maeterlinck, a semi-Viverist work of symbolist inspiration.^[573]

In Germany,Eugen d'Albert was a prolific composer, author of some twenty operas, includingDie Abreise (The Departure Journey, 1898) andTiefland (1903), the latter based onLowland byÁngel Guimerá.^[574][112]

The CzechJosef Bohuslav Foerster started in a veristic style with his first two operasDebora (1893) andEva (1899). Later he was the author ofJessika (1905), based on Shakespeare'sThe Merchant of Venice, as well asNepřemožení (The Invincibles, 1919),Srdce (The Heart, 1923) andBloud (The Klutz, 1936).^[575]

The GreekSpyridon Samaras was the author of operas in Italian in the veristic style:La martire (1894),La furia domata (1895),Rhea (1908).^[576]

Between the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries there was the post-Romanticism, which as its name suggests was an evolution of Romanticism based on more modern premises, but maintaining the same spirit that characterized that movement. The main influence of this style was Wagner, so it is sometimes also called post-Wagnerism.

Its main representative wasRichard Strauss, who was noted for his harmonic creativity and mastery of orchestration. Under Wagner's influence he started in opera withGuntram (1894) andFeuersnot (The Need for Fire, 1901), which failed. On the other hand, he enjoyed public favor withSalome (1905), based on the play of the same name byOscar Wilde, despite the scandal caused by the erotic charge of the plot. Since then he began a collaboration with the Austrian playwrightHugo von Hofmannsthal, who wrote most of his librettos. Their first joint work wasElektra (1909), which was followed byDer Rosenkavalier (The Knight of the Rose, 1911),Ariadne auf Naxos (1912),Die Frau ohne Schatten (The Woman Without a Shadow, 1919),Die ägyptische Helena (The Egyptian Helen, 1928) andArabella (1933). He later counted onStefan Zweig forDie schweigsame Frau (The Silent Woman, 1935) and onJoseph Gregor forFriedenstag (Day of Peace, 1938),Daphne (1938) andDie Liebe der Danae (Danae's Love, 1940). His last opera wasCapriccio (1942).^[577] In these works he introduced a new harmonic language that crossed traditional tonal boundaries, with passionate sounds that could include screams and other guttural sounds, thus anticipating laterexpressionism.^[578]

Other exponents wereEngelbert Humperdinck,Alexander von Zemlinsky andHans Pfitzner. Humperdinck was a gifted student, who in 1881 met Wagner, who took him on as an assistant for the production ofParsifal. However, his production was oriented towards a simpler line, as inHänsel und Gretel (1893), his first and most successful opera, based on the fairy tale by theBrothers Grimm. He chose the same authors for his next project,Die sieben Geißlein (The Seven Children, 1898), which was not so successful. After several more failures, he succeeded withKönigskinder (The King's Children, 1910), more Wagnerian in style.^[396] Zemlinsky devoted himself to opera as both composer and conductor. His first success wasEs war einmal (Once upon a time, 1899), which he performedGustav Mahler at the Vienna Hofoper. In 1906 he composedDer Traumgörge (Görge the Dreamer), which was not premiered until forty years later. It was followed by his two greatest hits,Eine florentinische Tragödie (A Florentine Tragedy, 1917) andDer Zwerg (The Dwarf, 1922), both one-acts. In 1932,Der Kreidekreis (The Chalk Circle) was banned by theNazis, after which he went into exile in the United States, where he died in anonymity.^[579] Pfitzner was influenced by Schumann and Wagner, noticeable in his early operas:Der arme Heinrich (Poor Heinrich, 1893) andDie Rose vom Liebesgarten (The Rose in the Garden of Love, 1900). His greatest success wasPalestrina (1917), a major work on the position of the artist in society. His next works,Von deutscher Seele (Of the German Soul, 1921) andDas dunkle Reich (The Dark Kingdom, 1929), expressed his ideas about a "pure" German music.^[580]

The AustrianErich Wolfgang Korngold was considered a child prodigy, and aroused the admiration of Mahler, Puccini and Strauss. His first operas wereDer Ring des Polykrates (The Ring of Polycrates, 1916),Violanta (1916) andDie Tote Stadt (The Dead City, 1920), of late romanticism.Das Wunder der Heliane (The Miracle of Heliane, 1927) was a work of a certain eroticism with a score conceived on an epic scale that creates great difficulty for the performers. With the establishment of theAnschluss in 1938, he emigrated to the United States, where he composed film scores and won two Oscars.^[581]

In the Germanic field it is also worth mentioning:Wilhelm Kienzl (Der Evangelimann [The Evangelist], 1895),^[582]Max von Schillings (Moloch, 1900;Mona Lisa, 1915),^[583]Siegfried Wagner —son of Richard Wagner— (Der Bärenhäuter [The Bearskin], 1899;Der Kobold [The Goblin], 1904;Der Schmied von Marienburg [The Blacksmith of Marienburg], 1923)^[584] andHugo Wolf (Der Corregidor, 1895).^[585]

The BritishRutland Boughton attempted to establish an "English-style Wagnerism", with operas such asThe Immortal Hour (1922),Alkestis (1922),The Queen of Cornwall (1924) andThe Lily Maid (1934).^[356] Similarly,Joseph Holbrooke sought to transfer toCeltic mythology the Wagnerian universe, through the trilogyThe Cauldron of Annwyn (1912–1929), consisting ofThe Children of Don (1912),Dylan, Son of the Wave (1914) andBronwen (1929).^[586]

In France,Gabriel Fauré showed a clear Wagnerian influence in his operaPénélope (1913).^[587]Jean Nouguès was the author ofQuo Vadis? (1909), onHenryk Sienkiewicz's novel, a work of an ambitious staging that includedcircus animals.^[588]

In Italy,Luigi Mancinelli showed a clearly Wagnerian style, although with a more cosmopolitan component, not as Germanized as that of other followers of the German composer. His two best works wereEro e Leandro (1897) andPaolo e Francesca (1907).^[589]

Like hispictorial homologue,impressionism arose in France, with a desire to modernize musical conception, which developed between the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th. As in painting, it was intended to capture the sensations that the artist produced the surrounding world, with a basis of reality, but interpreted subjectively.^[590] Influenced by symbolist poetry (Verlaine,Baudelaire,Mallarmé), they also sought a new language confronting both the formal purism of classicism and the passionate violence of Romanticism. To this end,Claude Debussy, its main representative, resorted to a scale of tones not used until then, whole tones and complex intervals from the ninth onwards, as well as intervals of parallel fourths and fifths.^[591]

Claude Debussy began several operatic projects that he left unfinished-a couple on stories byEdgar Allan Poe and one onCid entitledRodrigue et Chimène—until he found a project that fascinated him:Pelléas et Mélisande (1902), on a work byMaurice Maeterlinck. It was his only opera, but a masterpiece. Despite its simple plot – a love rivalry between two brothers and a young girl – Debussy created a profound and moving work, evocative and suggestive, that is still novel today.^[592] With this work he initiated the genre ofliterary opera (Literaturoper), a type of opera based on literary texts respected in their integrity which, while they can be reduced, cannot be altered in their essence, and which are declaimed in the style of the Russianopéra dialogué and presented in transcomposed form.^[593]

In France,Maurice Ravel andPaul Dukas also stood out. Ravel was a convinced anti-Wagnerian, who eagerly searched for his own style. He was very meticulous and nonconformist in his work, so he continually revised his works, which explains his scarce production. With a Basque mother, he felt great attraction for Spanish culture, which is evident in his first opera,L'heure espagnole (La hora española, 1911), a one-act comic work, with sound effects of machines and clocks. His next opera wasL'enfant et les sortilèges (1925), with a libretto byColette.^[594] Dukas initially accused Wagnerian influence, as denoted inHorn et Riemenhild (1892) andL'arbre de science (1899), which he left unfinished. He completed only one opera,Ariane et Barbe-bleu (1907), based on the text by Maurice Maeterlinck, where he mixed Wagnerian chromaticism with the pentatonic scale used by Debussy.^[489]

The ItalianOttorino Respighi attempted to combine impressionism with traditional music, especially Baroque.^[595] His first two operas were of comic genre:Re Enzo (1905) andSemirâma (1910). He subsequently producedBelfagor (1923),La campana sommersa (1927),La Fiamma (1934) andLucrezia (1937).^[596]

BritishFrederick Delius approached impressionism departing from Wagnerian influence. He only turned to opera early in his career:Koanga (1904),A Village Romeo and Juliet (1907),Fennimore and Gerda (1919).^[597]

The SwissErnest Bloch brought together the influence of Debussy with that of Richard Strauss. He produced a single opera,Macbeth (1910). In 1916 he emigrated to the United States, where he began an opera that he left unfinished,Jezebel^[465]

At the turn of the century they stood out vocally:Mattia Battistini, Italian baritone with a high-pitched, crystalline voice, adjusted to what was calledbaritenor at the time;Enrico Caruso, Italian tenor, one of the most famous of all time, with a flexible tone that allowed him a great variety of roles;Fyodor Chaliapin, Russian bass who performed both the repertoire of his country and Rossini, Bellini and Verdi;Emmy Destinn, Czech soprano who excelled in roles by Puccini and Strauss;Geraldine Farrar, American soprano with great stage presence; the same nationality had the sopranoMary Garden, who excelled in the leading role of Debussy'sPelléas et Mélisande;Hipólito Lázaro, Spanish tenor of the Verist repertoire;Victor Maurel, French baritone admired by Verdi, who gave him several roles;Nellie Melba, Australian soprano of great virtuosity;Claudia Muzio, Italian soprano who excelled in tragic roles, mainly in Verist operas;Elisabeth Schumann, German soprano of high and delicate voice, interpreter of Mozart, Wagner and Strauss;Francisco Viñas, Spanish tenor of wide register who could sing both lyric and heroic tenor; andGiovanni Zenatello, Italian tenor of great facility for the highest register.^[598]

The 20th century saw a great revolution in music, motivated by the profound political and social changes that took place during the century. The transforming, experimental and renovating interest of the artistic avant-gardes was translated into a new musical language, at the same time that a technical renovation took place, motivated by the appearance of new technologies, such as electronic music. All this resulted in new compositional methods and new sound ranges, which were adapted to the new musical movements that were happening in the course of the century.^[599] The new music composed in this century broke radically with the past and sought a new language, breaking the scheme of traditional musical discourse: if necessary, harmony, melody and tonality were broken. Many of these innovations caused bewilderment, especiallyatonality, in a public accustomed to a hierarchy of notes where a fundamental note dominated; in atonality, each note has equal relevance to the others. For this reason, contemporary music has not enjoyed great public success and has often been confined to a closed circle of intellectuals.^[600]

Opera in the twentieth century maintained the previous repertoire, which continued to be successfully performed in the best theaters and auditoriums of the world, while, at the production level, although there was a copious and excellent production, the innovations produced in this field did not enjoy great success among the majority public. The composers' eagerness to experiment provoked harsh criticism and controversy, if not even censorship or political persecution: in theSoviet Union,Stalin forcedShostakovich to adhere to the regime's cultural guidelines after attending a performance ofLady Macbeth of Mtsensk in 1936; inNazi Germany, avant-garde composers were classified asdegenerate musicians, and many had to go into exile.^[601][602] During this century, there was even experimentation with the traditional operatic repertoire through avant-garde productions, more modern scenographies and contemporary adaptations of classical operas, as was the trend in the 1920s at theKroll Opera in Berlin or as carried out byWieland Wagner —grandson of the composer— at theBayreuth Festival.^[603] On the other hand, in this period the fascination with opera singers continued and even increased, sometimes becoming highly popular phenomena, such as the so-calledTres Tenores (Luciano Pavarotti,José Carreras andPlácido Domingo).^[603] It is worth noting that the technical advances that allowed voice recording popularized this genre domestically:Enrico Caruso, for example, was one of the singers who was most lavish in recording his performances, thus increasing his popularity.^{[note 11]} Other media that contributed to the diffusion of opera were radio, cinema and television.^[604][605] in 1951, the first television opera,Amahl and the Night Visitors, byGian Carlo Menotti, was composed.^[606]

This century saw numerous novelties in the field of scenography: from verismo emerged a more sober and realistic trend in stage representation, whose pioneers wereAndré Antoine, founder of theThéâtre Libre in Paris, andOtto Brahm, at the head of the Freie Bühne in Berlin.Max Reinhardt, director of the Deutsches Theater, introduced numerous innovations, such as three-dimensional sets and the use of lighting to create atmosphere. Another innovator wasAlfred Roller, who teamed up withGustav Mahler, conductor at the Vienna Hofoper, both of whom strove to integrate the stage performance with the musical drama as a unified whole.^[607]

At the beginning of this century emerged thechamber opera, a minor modality of the genre composed of one-act works, with few characters and a reduced orchestra, a format similar to the género chico of the Spanish zarzuela. Examples would beL'heure espagnole byRavel (1911),Arlecchino byBusoni (1917) andHistoire du soldat by Stravinski (1918).^[44] In Vienna, the Kammeroper, dedicated to this genre, was founded in 1953.^[608] The English composerBenjamin Britten went so far as to found his own chamber opera orchestra, the English Opera Group. On the other hand, the traditional operetta genre evolved into the musical, a revamped genre that relied more on popular music and dance, in centers such as the West End theaters in London or the Broadway theaters in New York.^[609][610] Other media that contributed to the diffusion of opera were radio, cinema and television.^{[604][note 12]} in 1951, the first television opera,Amahl and the Night Visitors, byGian Carlo Menotti, was composed.^[606]

Another phenomenon of relevance in this century was the proliferation of opera festivals, which counted on the example of theBayreuth Festival (1876). In 1901 the Munich Festival appeared, followed by theSavonlinna (1912), Verona (1913),Salzburg (1920),Florence (Maggio Musicale Fiorentino, 1933),Glyndebourne (1934),Ravinia (1936),Edinburgh (1947),Aldeburgh (1948),Aix-en-Provence (1948),Santander (1952), Spoleto (1958),Tanglewood (1970) and Peralada (1987), among the most famous.^[611]

In an article published by Opera Holland Park, the opera directorElla Marchment explained that for every hour of a performance, an opera director will complete 150 hours of preparation and rehearsals; or 2.5 hours of work for every minute of onstage time.^[612]

Theexpressionism emerged at the beginning of the century as a style fundamentally concerned with the inner expressiveness of the individual, in its psychological deepening, as opposed to the dominant naturalism at the turn of the century, which in opera gave the verismo. In this current, interpersonal relationships, emotionality and the psychic states of the characters were especially valued. On a literary level, its referents wereFranz Kafka,James Joyce and the German playwrightsErnst Toller,Frank Wedekind andGeorg Kaiser. For expressionist authors, art was a form of expression, not entertainment, so they were more concerned with the message they wanted to convey than with style or musical or plot device.^[607]