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Contradanza (also calledcontradanza criolla,danza,danza criolla, orhabanera) is the Spanish and Spanish-American version of thecontradanse, which was an internationally popular style of music and dance in the 18th century, derived from theEnglish country dance and adopted at the court ofFrance. Contradanza was brought to America and there took on folkloric forms that still exist inBolivia,Mexico,Venezuela,Colombia,Peru,Panama andEcuador.

InCuba during the 19th century, it became an important genre, the first written music to be rhythmically based on anAfrican rhythm pattern and the first Cuban dance to gain international popularity, the progenitor ofdanzón,mambo andcha-cha-cha, with a characteristic "habanera rhythm" and sung lyrics.

Outside Cuba, the Cuban contradanza became known as thehabanera – the dance ofHavana – and that name was adopted in Cuba itself subsequent to its international popularity in the later 19th century,^[1] though it was never so called by the people who created it.^[2]

The contradanza was popular in Spain and spread throughout Spanish America during the 18th century. According to musicologist Peter Manuel, it may be impossible to resolve the question of the contradanza's origin, as it has been pointed out by Cuban musicologist Natalio Galán in humorously labeling the genre as "anglofrancohispanoafrocubano" (English-French-Spanish-African-Cuban).^[3]

The most conventional consensus in regard to the origin of this popular Cuban genre was established by novelistAlejo Carpentier, in his book from 1946,La Música en Cuba. In the book, he proposes a theory that signals the French contredance, supposedly introduced in Cuba by French immigrants fleeing the Haitian Revolution (1791–1803), as the prototype for the creation of the creolized Cuban contradanza.^[4] However, according to other important Cuban musicologists, such as Zoila Lapique and Natalio Galán, it is quite likely that the contradanza had been introduced to Havana directly from Spain, France or England several decades earlier.^[5]

The earliest Cuban contradanza of which a record remains is "San Pascual Bailón", which was written in 1803.^[6][7] Certain characteristics would set the Cuban contradanza apart from the contredanse by the mid-19th century, notably the incorporation of the African cross-rhythm called thetresillo.^[8]

The habanera is also slower and as a dance more graceful in style than the older contradanza but retains thebinary form ofclassical dance, being composed in two parts of 8 to 16 bars each, though often with anintroduction.^[9][10] An early identifiable contradanza habanera, "La Pimienta", an anonymous song published in an 1836 collection, is the earliest known piece to use the characteristic habanera rhythm in the left hand of the piano.^[11]

The contradanza, when played as dance music, was performed by anorquesta típica composed of two violins, two clarinets, a contrabass, a cornet, a trombone, anophicleide,paila and agüiro.^[12] But the habanera was sung as well as danced.

During the first half of the 19th century, the contradanza dominated the Cuban musical scene to such an extent that nearly all Cuban composers of the time, whether composing for the concert hall or the dance hall, tried their hands at the contradanza.^[12] Among themManuel Saumell (1817–1870) is the most noted.^[13]

The New Orleans born pianist/composerLouis Moreau Gottschalk (1829–1869) wrote several pieces with the rhythm, gleaned in part from his travels through Cuba and the West Indies: "Danza" (1857), "La Gallina, Danse Cubaine" (1859), "Ojos Criollos" (1859) and "Souvenir de Porto Rico" (1857) among others.

It is thought that the Cuban style was brought by sailors toSpain, where it became popular for a while before the turn of the twentieth century. TheBasque composerSebastian Yradier's "La Paloma" ("The Dove"), achieved great fame in Spain and America. The dance was adopted by all classes of society and had its moment in English and French salons.

It was so well established as a Spanish dance thatJules Massenet included one in the ballet music to his operaLe Cid (1885).Maurice Ravel wrote aVocalise-Étude en forme de Habanera, and a habanera forRapsodie espagnole (movement III, originally a piano piece written in 1895),Camille Saint-Saëns'Havanaise for violin and orchestra is still played and recorded today, as isEmmanuel Chabrier'sHabanera for orchestra (originally for piano).Bernard Herrmann's score forVertigo (1958) makes prominent use of the rhythm as a clue to the film's mystery.

Habanera rhythmClaveCarmen bass line

InAndalusia (especiallyCádiz),Valencia andCatalonia, the habanera is still popular. "La Paloma", "La bella Lola" or "El meu avi" ("My Grandfather") are well known.^[14] From Spain, the style arrived in the Philippines where it still exists as a minor art-form.^[15]

In the 20th century, the habanera gradually became a relic form in Cuba, especially after the success of theson. However, some of its compositions were transcribed and reappeared in other formats later on:Eduardo Sánchez de Fuentes'Tú is still a much-loved composition.^[16] The music and dance of thecontradanza/danza are no longer popular in Cuba but are occasionally featured in the performances of folklore groups.

Top: habanera rhythm (tresillo-over-twoBottom: Verticalhemiola (three-over-twoThe two alternating

The habanera rhythm's time signature is²
₄. An accented upbeat in the middle of the bar lends power to the habanera rhythm, especially when it is as a bass[17]ostinato in contradanzas such as "Tu madre es conga".^[18]Syncopated cross-rhythms called thetresillo and thecinquillo, basic rhythmiccells in Afro-Latin andAfrican music, began the Cuban dance's differentiation from its European form. Their unequally-grouped accents fall irregularly in a one or two bar pattern:^[19] the rhythm superimposes duple and triple accents incross-rhythm (3:2) or verticalhemiola.^[20]

This pattern is heard throughout Africa, and in manydiaspora musics,^[21] known as theCongo,^[22]tango-Congo,^[23] andtango.^[24] Thompson identifies the rhythm as theKongombilu a makinu ("call to the dance").^[17][25] The syncopated rhythm may be vocalised as "boom...ba-bop-bop",^[17] and "da, ka ka kan".^[25] It may be sounded with theGhanaian beaded gourd instrumentaxatse, vocalized as: "pa ti pa pa", beginning on the second beat so that the last "pa" coincides with beatone, ending on the beginning of the cycle so that the part contributes to thecyclic nature of the rhythm, the "pa's" sounding thetresillo by striking the gourd against the knee, and the "ti" sounding the mainbeattwo by raising the gourd and striking it with the free hand.^[26]

The cinquillo pattern is sounded on a bell in the folkloric Congolese-basedmakuta as played in Havana.^[27]

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A variant of the habanera rhythm.^[28]

Carpentier states that thecinquillo was brought to Cuba in the songs of the black slaves and freedmen who emigrated to Santiago de Cuba fromHaiti in the 1790s and that composers in western Cuba remained ignorant of its existence:

In the days when a trip from Havana to Santiago was a fifteen-day adventure (or more), it was possible for two types ofcontradanza to coexist: one closer to the classical pattern, marked by the spirits of the minuet, which later would be reflected in thedanzón, by way of thedanza; the other, more popular, which followed its evolution begun in Haiti, thanks to the presence of the 'French Blacks' in eastern Cuba.

— ^[29]

Manuel disputes Carpentier's claim, mentioning "at least a half a dozen Havana counterparts whose existence refutes Carpentier's claim for the absence of the cinquillo in Havana contradanza".^[30]

The⁶
₈contradanza evolved into theclave (not to be confused with thekey pattern of the same name), thecriolla and theguajira. From thecontradanza in²
₄ came the(danza) habanera and thedanzón.^[31] According to Argeliers Léon, the worddanza was merely a contraction ofcontradanza and there are no substantial differences between the music of thecontradanza and thedanza,^[32] Both terms continued to denominate what was essentially the same thing throughout the 19th century. But although thecontradanza anddanza were musically identical, the dances were different.

Adanza entitled "El Sungambelo", dated 1813, has the same structure as thecontradanza – the four-section scheme is repeated twice, ABAB^[10] and thecinquillo rhythm can already be heard.

Thedanza dominated Cuban music in the second half of the 19th century, though not as completely as thecontradanza had in the first half. Two famous Cuban composers in particular,Ignacio Cervantes (1847–1905) andErnesto Lecuona (1895–1963), used thedanza as the basis of some of their most memorable compositions.

InCuba thedanza was supplanted by thedanzón from the 1870s onwards, though thedanza continued to be composed as dance music into the 1920s. By this time, thecharanga had replaced theorquesta típica of the 19th century.^[33] The danzón has a different but related rhythm, thebaqueteo, and the dance is quite different.

The Argentinemilonga andtango makes use of thehabanera rhythm of a dotted quarter-note followed by three eighth-notes, with an accent on the first and third notes.^[34] As the consistent rhythmic foundation of the bass line in Argentine tango thehabanera lasted for a relatively short time until a variation, noted byRoberts, began to predominate.^[35]

In 1883Ventura Lynch, a scholar of the dances and folklore ofBuenos Aires, noted themilonga dance was "so universal in the environs of the city that it is an obligatory piece at all the lower-class dances (bailecitos de medio pelo), and ... has also been taken up by the organ-grinders, who have arranged it so as to sound like thehabanera dance. It is danced in the low life clubs ..."^[36]

The contradanza remains an essential part of the tango's music.^[37] For example,Aníbal Troilo's 1951 milonga song "La trampera" (Cheating Woman) uses the samehabanera heard inGeorges Bizet's opera 1875Carmen.^[25]

African-American music began incorporating Cuban musical motifs in the 1800s^{[citation needed]}. Musicians fromHavana andNew Orleans would take the twice-daily ferry between those cities to perform^{[citation needed]}. Whether the rhythm and its variants were directly transplanted from Cuba or merely reinforced similar rhythmic tendencies already present in New Orleans is probably impossible to determine. The habanera rhythm is heard prominently inNew Orleanssecond line music, and there are examples of similar rhythms in some African-American folk music such as the foot-stamping patterns inring shout and in post-Civil War drum and fife music.^[38]John Storm Roberts states that the musical genre "reached the U.S. 20 years before the first rag was published".^[39]

For the more than quarter-century in which thecakewalk,ragtime, and proto-jazz were forming and developing, the habanera was a consistent part of African-American popular music.^[40] Early New Orleans jazz bands had habaneras in their repertoire and the tresillo/habanera figure was a rhythmic staple of jazz at the turn of the 20th century. A habanera was written and published in Butte, Montana in 1908. The song was titled "Solita" and was written by Jack Hangauer.^[41]Scott Joplin's "Solace" (1909) is considered a habanera (though it is labeled a "Mexican serenade"). "St. Louis Blues" (1914) byW. C. Handy has a habanera/tresillo bass line. Handy noted a reaction to the habanera rhythm included in Will H. Tyler's "Maori": "I observed that there was a sudden, proud and graceful reaction to the rhythm ... White dancers, as I had observed them, took the number in stride. I began to suspect that there was something Negroid in that beat." After noting a similar reaction to the same rhythm in "La Paloma", Handy included this rhythm in his "St. Louis Blues", the instrumental copy of "Memphis Blues", the chorus of "Beale Street Blues", and other compositions.^[42]

Jelly Roll Morton considered thetresillo/habanera (which he called theSpanish tinge) an essential ingredient of jazz.^[43] The rhythm can be heard in the left hand on songs such as "The Crave" (1910, recorded in 1938).

Now in one of my earliest tunes, "New Orleans Blues", you can notice the Spanish tinge. In fact, if you can't manage to put tinges of Spanish in your tunes, you will never be able to get the right seasoning, I call it, for jazz.

— Morton (1938: Library of Congress Recording)^[44]

Although the exact origins of jazz syncopation may never be known, there's evidence that the habanera/tresillo was there at its conception.Buddy Bolden, the firstknown jazz musician, is credited with creating thebig four, a habanera-based pattern. The big four (below) was the first syncopated bass drum pattern to deviate from the standard on-the-beat march.^[45] As the example below shows, the second half of the big four pattern is the habanera rhythm.^[46]

Audio playback is not supported in your browser. You candownload the audio file.

Elements of the Habanera are also incorporated into popular Japanese music calledRyūkōka. It is mixed with traditionalMin'yō. It was mainly through the influence of Milonga and Tango that this rhythm reached Japan.

Some examples are :

• Nihonbashi kara( にほんばし から) by Seki Taneko (せき たねこ) (1932)
• Matendo by Sato Chiyako (1929)
• Kamome Kanashiya by Yayoi tanaka

Yo cuando era niño – mi padre querido – José Suarez

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• Danzón
• French contredanse
• Guaracha
• La tumba francesa
• Music of Haiti
• Contra dance

Sources

• Alén, Olavo (1994).De lo Afrocubano a la Salsa. La Habana: Ediciones ARTEX.
• Baim, Jo (2007).Tango: Creation of a Cultural Icon. Indiana University Press.ISBN 978-0-253-34885-2.
• Carpentier, Alejo (2001). Timothy Brennan (ed.).Music in Cuba. Translated by Alan West-Durán. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
• Léon, Argeliers (1974). "De la Contradanza al Danzón". In Fernández, María Antonia (ed.).Bailes Populares Cubanos. La Habana: Editorial Pueblo y Educación.
• Manuel, Peter (2009).Creolizing Contradance in the Caribbean. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
• Orovio, Helio (1981).Diccionario de la Música Cubana. La Habana: Editorial Letras Cubanas.ISBN 959-10-0048-0.
• Peñalosa, David (2009).The Clave Matrix; Afro-Cuban Rhythm: Its Principles and African Origins. Redway, California: Bembe.ISBN 978-1-886502-80-2.
• Roberts, John Storm (1979).The Latin Tinge: The Impact of Latin American Music on the United States. Oxford.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
• Roberts, John Storm (1999).Latin Jazz. New York: Schirmer.
• Santos, John (1982).The Cuban Danzón: Its Ancestors and Descendants (liner notes). Folkways Records. FW04066.

• Habanera's blog from Tony Foixench.
• "3-Habanera and danzón" (Cuban Music Website).
• The Cuban Danzon: Its Ancestors and Descendants 1982. Various Artists. Folkways Records – FW04066
• Legran OrchestraLa Comisión de San Roque Habanera Mp3·Archived 2016-03-04 at theWayback Machine ISWC: T-042192386-5 2007.Published with the permission of the owner of rights

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