 | |
 Philips CDI 910, the first consumer-oriented CD-i player, pictured with its "Touchpad" game controller | |
| Media type | Optical disc |
|---|---|
| Encoding | Various |
| Capacity | Up to744 MB[1] |
| Standard | Green Book |
| Developed by | Philips,Sony |
| Usage | Audio, video and data storage |
| Extended from | Compact disc |
| Released | 1990 (1990) |
| Discontinued | June 1999 (1999-06) |
TheCompact Disc-Interactive (CD-I, laterCD-i) is adigitaloptical discdata storage format as well as a hardware platform, co-developed and marketed by Dutch companyPhilips and Japanese companySony. It was created as an extension ofCDDA andCD-ROM and specified in theGreen Book specifications, co-developed by Philips andSony, to combine audio, text and graphics.[2] The two companies initially expected to impact the education/training,point of sale, and home entertainment industries,[3] but the CD-i is largely remembered today for itsvideo games.
CD-i media physically have the same dimensions as CD, but with up to744 MB of digital data storage, including up to 72 minutes offull motion video.[4] CD-i players were usually standalone boxes that connect to a standard television; some less common setups included integrated CD-i television sets and expansion modules forpersonal computers.[5] Most players were created by Philips; the format was licensed by Philips andMicroware for use by other manufacturers, notably Sony who released professional CD-i players under the "IntelligentDiscman" brand. Unlike CD-ROM drives, CD-i players are complete computer systems centered around dedicatedMotorola 68000-based microprocessors and its own operating system called CD-RTOS, which is an acronym for"Compact disc –Real Time Operating System".[6][7][8][9]
Media released on the format included video games and "edutainment" and multimedia reference titles, such as interactive encyclopedias and museum tours – which were popular before publicInternet access was widespread – as well as business software.[10] Philips's CD-i system also implementedInternet features, including subscriptions, web browsing, downloading, e-mail, and online play.[11] Philips's aim with its players was to introduce interactive multimedia content for the general public by combining features of aCD player andgame console,[4] but at a lower price than a personal computer with a CD-ROM drive.
Authoring kits for the format were released first in 1988, and the first player aimed for home consumers, Philips's CDI 910/205, was released in late 1991. It was initially priced aroundUS$1,000 (equivalent to $2,309 in 2024),[12] and was capable of playing interactive CD-i discs,Audio CDs,CD+G (CD+Graphics),Photo CDs andVideo CDs (VCDs), though the latter required an optional "Digital Video Card" to provideMPEG-1 decoding. Initially marketed to consumers as "home entertainment systems", and in later years as a "gaming platform",[2] CD-i did not manage to find enough success in the market, and was mostly abandoned by Philips in 1996.[13][14] The format continued to be supported for licensees for a few more years after.[15]
Development of the "Compact Disc-Interactive" format began in 1984 (two years after the launch of theCompact disc) and it was first publicly announced byPhilips andSony – two of the largest electronics companies of the time – atMicrosoft'sCD-ROM Conference inSeattle in March 1986.[16][17][18] Microsoft's CEOBill Gates had no idea beforehand that the format was under development.[19] TheGreen Book, formally known as the "CD-i Full Functional Specification", defined the format for interactive, multimedia compact discs designed for CD-i players. TheGreen Book specification also defines a whole hardware set built around theMotorola 68000 microprocessor family, and an operating system called CD-RTOS based onOS-9, a product ofMicroware.[20] The standard was originally not freely available and had to be licensed from Philips.[21] However, the 1994 version of the standard was eventually made available free by Philips.[22]
CD-i discs conform to theRed Book specification of audio CDs (CD-DA). Tracks on a CD-i's program area can be CD-DA tracks or CD-i tracks, but the first track must always be a CD-i track, and all CD-i tracks must be grouped together at the beginning of the area. CD-i tracks are structured according to theCD-ROM XA specification (using either Mode 2 Form 1 or Mode 2 Form 2 modes), and have different classes depending on their contents ("data", "video", "audio", "empty" and "message"). "Message" sectors contain audio data to warn users ofCD players that the track they are trying to listen to is a CD-i track and not a CD-DA track.[21] The CD-i specification also specifies afile system similar to (but not compatible with)ISO 9660 to be used on CD-i tracks, as well as certain specific files that are required to be present in a CD-i compatible disc.[21] Compared to theYellow Book (specification for CD-ROM), theGreen Book CD-i standard solves synchronisation problems by interleaving audio and video information on a single track.[23]
The format quickly gained interest from large manufacturers, and received backing from many particularlyMatsushita.[24][25] Although a joint effort, Philips eventually took over the majority of CD-i development at the expense of Sony.[26] Philips invested many millions in developing titles and players based on the CD-i specification.[27] Initially branded "CD-I", the name was changed in 1991 to "CD-i" with a lowercasei.
TheCD-i Ready format is a type of bridge format, also designed by Philips, that defines discs compatible withCD Digital audio players and CD-i players. This format puts CD-i software and data into thepregap of Track 1.
TheCD-i Bridge format, defined in Philips' White Book, is a transitional format allowing bridge discs to be played both onCD-ROM drives and on CD-i players.
TheCD-i Digital Video format was launched in 1993 containing movies that could be played on CD-i players with a Digital Video Cartridge add-on. The format was incompatible withVideo CD (VCD), although a CD-i unit with the DVC could play both formats. Only about 20 movies were released on the format and it was stopped in 1995 in favor of VCD.[28]
CD-i software was typically developed usingauthoring tools from one of two companies: OptImage, which offered the Balboa Runtime Libraries and MediaMogul, and Script Systems, which produced ABCD-I. Much of the CD-i software was promoted or published by American Interactive Media (AIM), a joint venture between Philips and its subsidiaryPolyGram, formed inLos Angeles in 1986 to publish CD-i consumer software.[29][30][31] Philips Interactive Media was similarly launched in Europe.
Philips initially marketed CD-i as a family entertainment product and avoided emphasizingvideo games to prevent competition with game consoles.[32][33] Early releases focused on educational, music, and self-improvement titles, with relatively few games, many of which were adaptations ofboard games such asConnect Four. However, the system struggled in the multimedia device market against low-costPCs,[34] and games became its best-selling software. By 1993, Philips encouragedMS-DOS and console developers to create games, introduced a $250 peripheral with expanded memory and full-motion video support, and added a second controller port to new consoles for multiplayer games.[32]
Attempts to establish a foothold in the games market were largely unsuccessful, as the system, designed primarily as a multimedia player, was underpowered compared to other gaming platforms.[35] Notable CD-i games included entries inNintendo franchises, though not developed by Nintendo:Hotel Mario and threeZelda titles:Zelda: The Wand of Gamelon,Link: The Faces of Evil, andZelda's Adventure. These were made possible by an earlier agreement between Nintendo and Philips to develop a CD-based add-on for theSuper Nintendo Entertainment System, which never progressed beyond the prototype stage.[36] However, the agreement granted Philips the right to develop games using Nintendo characters.[37][38]
As announced atCES 1992,[39] numerousfull-motion video titles appeared, includingDragon's Lair andMad Dog McCree. One,Burn:Cycle, is considered one of the stronger CD-i titles and was later ported to PC.Electronic Gaming Monthly noted that CD-i’s full-motion video capabilities were its strongest feature; however, most titles required the MPEG upgrade card to take advantage of them.[40]
Philips also released CD-i adaptations of popular TVgame shows, includingJeopardy! (hosted byAlex Trebek),Name That Tune (hosted byBob Goen), and two versions ofThe Joker's Wild (an adult version withWink Martindale and a kids' version withMarc Summers). All North American CD-i games, exceptName That Tune, featuredCharlie O'Donnell as announcer. The Netherlands released its own version ofLingo in 1994.
In 1993, American musicianTodd Rundgren created the first fully interactive music CD,No World Order, for CD-i, enabling over 15,000 points of customization. Dutch Eurodance duo2 Unlimited released a CD-i compilation album,Beyond Limits (1994), featuring standard CD tracks and CD-i-exclusive media.[41][42]
CD-i featured a range of children'sedutainment titles, includingBusytown andThe Berenstain Bears. By mid-1996, the U.S. CD-i software market had dried up, though Philips continued publishing titles in Europe.[43] Philips then shifted focus to kiosk and industrial multimedia applications.[44]
In later years,homebrew developers released new CD-i titles, includingFrog Feast (2005),Super Quartet (2018), andNobelia (2022).[45]
CD-i compatible models were released inBelgium,Canada,France,Germany,Hong Kong,Luxembourg, theNetherlands,Japan,Singapore, theUnited Kingdom, theUnited States, and the former EuropeanEastern Bloc. Shortly before it was discontinued, It was reported to be released further in Brazil, India and Australia in the "coming months", with plans to also introduce it in China, South Africa, Indonesia and the Philippines.[46][47]
 | |
 Philips CDI 220, with its game controller | |
| Type | Home video game console Media player |
|---|---|
| Generation | Fourth |
| Release date | |
| Discontinued | 1998[49] |
| Media | CD-i,Audio CD,CD+G,KaraokeCD,Video CD |
| Operating system | CD-RTOS |
| CPU | Philips SCC68070 @15.5 MHz |
| Memory | 1 MBRAM |
| Display | 384×280 to 768×560 |
| Graphics | Philips SCC66470, MCD 212 |
| Sound | MCD 221,ADPCM two channel sound |
| Predecessor | Philips Videopac + G7400 (spiritual) |
In addition to consumer models, professional and development CD-i players were marketed by Philips Interactive Media Systems and itsVARs. The first CD-i system, developed in collaboration withKyocera, was introduced in 1988 as the Philips 180/181/182 modular system.[50][51] In the United States, many players were sold rebranded under theMagnavox name, a Philips subsidiary.[40]
Philips released several CD-i player series, targeting different consumer and professional markets:[52]
Other CD-i-compatible systems included hybrid devices such as the FW380i, a mini-stereo system with a built-in CD-i player; the 21TCDi30, a television with integrated CD-i functionality; and the CD-i/PC 2.0, a CD-i module with anISA interface for IBM-compatible 486 PCs.[54][55]
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In addition to Philips, several manufacturers produced CD-i players some of which were still on sale years after Philips itself abandoned the format.[56] These included:
Before the commercial debut of the CD-i format, several other companies expressed interest in producing players or developed prototypes that were never released. These includedPanasonic (originally a major backer of the format),Pioneer,JVC,Toshiba,Epson,Ricoh,Fujitsu,Samsung, andYamaha.[63][16] Additionally,Sanyo displayed a prototype portable CD-i player in 1992.[64]
| CPU |
Display and video
|
Audio
|
| Operating System |
Other
|
CD-i accessories
|
Recognizing the growing need among marketers for networked multimedia, Philips partnered in 1992 with Amsterdam-based CDMATICS to develop TeleCD-i[69] (also TeleCD). In this concept, the CD-i player is connected to a network such asPSTN or Internet, enabling data-communication and rich media presentation. Dutch grocery chainAlbert Heijn and mail-order companyNeckermann were early adopters and introduced award-winning TeleCD-i applications for their home-shopping and home-delivery services. CDMATICS also developed the special Philips TeleCD-i Assistant and a set of software tools to help the worldwide multimedia industry to develop and implement TeleCD-i. TeleCD-i is the world's first networked multimedia application at the time of its introduction. In 1996, Philips acquired source code rights from CDMATICS.
Internet services on the CD-i devices were facilitated by the use of an additional hardware modem and "CD-Online" disc (renamed Web-i in the US[70]), which Philips initially released in Britain in 1995 for $150 US.[71][72] This service provided the CD-i with full internet access (with a 14.4kmodem[73]), including online shopping, email, and support for networked multiplayer gaming on select CD-i games.[74] The service required a CD-i player with DV cartridge, and an "Internet Starter Kit" which initially retailed for £99.99.[75] It was advertised as bringing "full Internet access to the living room on TV screens".[76] Andy Stout, a writer for the official CD-i magazine, explained CD-Online:
It is very much Internet-lite. The main advantages are that it's cheap - probably working out at a third of the cost of a PC or Mac solution - and incredibly user-friendly. The downside though is using a browser that doesn't supportNetscape, and coping with all the drawbacks of the machine's minuscule memory - you can only ever access 10 articles onUsenet at a time, it'll only support 80bookmarks maximum and for all that trouble all your saved games, preferences, and high scores will have been written over in RAM. ... It's got the full access right now but with only about 40% of the functionality, which will probably be fine for people who don't know what they're missing. But thevirtual keyboard is a complete nightmare to use ...[77]
The CD-Online service went live in the UK on October 25, 1995[78] and in March 1996 in the Netherlands (for 399guilders),[73] and also released in Belgium.[63] The system was reportedly scheduled to launch in the US as "Web-i" in August 1996.[79] The domain cd-online.co.uk, which was used for the British CD-Online service, went offline in 2000.[80] The Dutch domain cd-online.nl stopped updating too but remained online until 2007.[81]
Only one game was released that supported CD-Online, the first-person shooter gameRAM Raid. Players from any country in the world could compete against each other as long as they had a copy of the game.[82]
Philips had invested heavily in the CD-i format and system, and it was often compared with theCommodore CDTV as a single combination of computer, CD, and television.[83] The product was touted as a single machine for home entertainment connected to a standard TV and controlled by a regular remote control[84] – although the format was noted to have various non-entertainment business opportunities too, such as travel and tourism or the military. In 1990,Peugeot used CD-i for itspoint of sale application promoting its then-new605 automobile, and it was also at the time used by fellow car manufacturerRenault for staff training programmes, and in Japan by the Ministry of Trade and Industry for an exhibition there. A Philips executive, Gaston Bastiaens, quoted in 1990 "CD-I will be 'the medium' for entertainment, education and information in the 90's.".[85] Sony introduced its three portable CD-i players in June 1990, pitching them as "picture books with sound".[16]
The ambitious CD-i format had initially created much interest after its 1986 announcement, both in the west and in Japan, buoyed by the success of theCD. However, after repeated delays (hardware was first intended to be ready and shipped by Christmas 1987) interest was slowly lost.Electronic Arts for instance was enthusiastic about CD-i and formed a division for the development of video game titles on the format, but it was eventually halted with the intention of resuming when CD-i players would reach the market. The company eventually never resumed CD-i software development when it was released.[86] The delay also gave more attention to the hypedDigital Video Interactive (DVI) in 1987, which demonstrated full screen,full motion video (FMV) using a compression chip on anIBM PC/AT computer.[87] Amid the attention around its potential rival DVI,[88] Philips and Sony decided to find a way to add full screen FMV abilities to the CD-i standard, causing further delay.[87] Meanwhile, theMicrosoft-backed CD-ROM standard was improving and solved certain video playback issues that were present on the CD-i – CD-ROM format products were already on the market by 1987.[19] At the end, CD-ROM standard benefited from the CD-i and DVI mishaps,[87] and by the time CD-i players for consumers were released in 1991, CD-ROM had already become known and established.[19]Ron Gilbert commented in early 1990 "The CD-I specifications look great, but where are the machines? If they'd come out four years ago, they'd have been hot, but now they're behind the times."[89] Another reason that led to fading interest pre-launch was the fact CD-i players would not launch with FMV but instead receive it later through a purchasable add-on cartridge (it was originally expected to come built-in) – as well as the obsoleteMotorola processor,OS-9 software, and a launch price considered high.[90]
Although Philips had aggressively promoted their CD-i products in the U.S., by August 1993Computer Gaming World reported that "skepticism persists about its long-term prospects" compared to other platforms likeIBM PC compatibles,Apple Macintosh, andSega Genesis.[91] The magazine stated in January 1994 that despite Philips' new emphasis on games "CD-i is still not the answer for hardcore gamers", but the console "may yet surprise us all in the future". It recommended the CD-i with video cartridge for those needing to buy a new console as "The price is right and there is more software to support it", but3DO Interactive Multiplayer was probably better for those who could wait a few months.[32] TheElectronic Entertainment August 1994 issue noted that the CD-i, along with theAtari Jaguar, neither have an "effective, let alone innovative" game library to compete against the then newly releasedSega CD.[92]
After being outsold in the market by cheaper multimedia PCs, in 1994 Philips attempted to emphasize CD-i as a game playing machine, but this did not help the situation.[93] An early 1995 review of the system inGamePro stated that "inconsistent game quality puts the CD-i at a disadvantage against other high-powered game producers."[94] A late 1995 review inNext Generation criticized both Philips's approach to marketing the CD-i and the hardware itself ("The unit excels at practically nothing exceptFMV, and then only with the addition of a $200 digital video cartridge"). The magazine noted that while Philips had not yet officially discontinued the CD-i, it was dead for all intents and purposes, citing as evidence the fact that though Philips had a large booth at the 1995Electronic Entertainment Expo, there was no CD-i hardware or software on display.Next Generation scored the console one out of five stars.[66] Another trouble for Philips in 1995 was the formation ofDVD-Video, which promised better quality video compared toVideo CD's (VCD)MPEG-1 compression method – Philips had heavily promoted the CD-i's VCD playing capabilities.[95] Philips Media consolidated its CD-i activities from its Los Angeles office in March 1996.[96] It was reported in October 1996 that Philips was ready to "call it quits" in the American market.[97]
In October 1994, Philips claimed aninstalled base of one million units for the CD-i worldwide.[98] In 1996,The Wall Street Journal reported that total US sales amounted to 400,000 units.[99] In the Netherlands, about 60,000 CD-i players were sold by the end of December 1994.[46]
Although extensively marketed by Philips, notably viainfomercial,[66] consumer interest in CD-i titles remained low. By 1994, sales of CD-i systems had begun to slow, and in 1998 the product line was dropped. Plans for a second generation CD-i system were certainly present andArgonaut Software was even designated to design chip sets for the successor to the CD-i. However, company presidentCor Boonstra saw no interest in the media area for Philips and so Philips sold everything, including the media subsidiaryPolygram.
The Dutch half of Philips Media was sold toSoftmachine, which releasedThe Lost Ride on the CD-i as the last product for the CD-i. The French side of the company, who had purchased German publishers Bomico Entertainment Software and Laguna Video Games the year prior,[100] was sold to French publisherInfogrames in June 1997 along with the entire CD-i library as well as German publishers.[101] A CD-ROM add-on for theSuper NES, which was announced for development withNintendo in 1991, was never made.[102] The last CD-i game wasSolar Crusade, made by Infogrames and released in 1999.
After its discontinuation, the CD-i was overwhelmingly panned by critics who blasted its graphics, games, and controls.Microsoft CEOBill Gates admitted that initially he "was worried" about the CD-i due to Philips' heavy support for the device and its two-pronged attack on both the games console and PC markets, but that in retrospect, "It was a device that kind of basically got caught in the middle. It was a terrible game machine, and it was a terrible PC."[103] The CD-i's various controllers were ranked the fifth worst video game controller byIGN editor Craig Harris.[104]PC World ranked it as fourth on their list of "The 10 Worst Video Game Systems of All Time".[105] Gamepro.com listed it as number four on their list ofThe 10 Worst-Selling Consoles of All Time.[106] In 2008,CNET listed the system on its list of the worst game console(s) ever.[107] In 2007,GameTrailers ranked the Philips CD-i as the fourth worst console of all time in its Top 10 Worst Console lineup.[108]
In later retrospective years, the CD-i has become (infamously) best known for its video games, particularly those from the Nintendo-licensedThe Legend of Zelda series, considered by many to be of poor taste.[109] Games that were most heavily criticized includeHotel Mario,Link: The Faces of Evil,Zelda: The Wand of Gamelon, andZelda's Adventure. EGM'sSeanbaby ratedThe Wand of Gamelon as one of theworst video games of all time.[110] However,Burn:Cycle was positively received by critics and has often been held up as the standout title for the CD-i.[94][111][112][66]
CD-i started life as an ahead-of-its-time multimedia player, but ended up an under-powered game machine.
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