Futhorc ᚠᚢᚦᚩᚱᚳ
The Malton Pin displays part of the Anglo-Saxon rune order: ᚠ, ᚢ, ᚦ, ᚩ, ᚱ, ᚳ, ᚷ, ᛚ, ᚪ, ᚫ, and ᛖ ("f, u, th, o, r, c, g, l, a, æ, and e")
Script type	Alphabet
Time period	5th through 11th centuries
Direction	Left-to-right
Languages	Anglo-Frisian (Old English andOld Frisian)
Related scripts
Parent systems	Egyptian hieroglyphs[1] Proto-Sinaitic alphabet Phoenician alphabet Greek alphabet (Cumae variant) Old Italic alphabet? Elder Futhark Futhorc
Sister systems	Younger Futhark
This article containsphonetic transcriptions in theInternational Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, seeHelp:IPA. For the distinction between[ ],/ / and ⟨ ⟩, seeIPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters.

This article containsrunic characters. Without properrendering support, you may seequestion marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of runes.

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v t e

Anglo-Saxon runes orAnglo-Frisian runes arerunes that were used by theAnglo-Saxons and MedievalFrisians (collectively calledAnglo-Frisians) as analphabet in their nativewriting system, recording bothOld English andOld Frisian (Old English:rūna, ᚱᚢᚾᚪ, "rune"). Today, the characters are known collectively as thefuthorc (ᚠᚢᚦᚩᚱᚳ,fuþorc) from the sound values of the first six runes. The futhorc was a development from the olderco-Germanic 24-character runic alphabet, known today asElder Futhark, expanding to 28 characters in its older form and up to 34 characters in its younger form. In contemporary Scandinavia, the Elder Futhark developed into a shorter 16-character alphabet, today simply calledYounger Futhark.

Use of the Anglo-Frisian runes is likely to have started in the 5th century onward and they continued to see use into theHigh Middle Ages. They were later accompanied and eventually overtaken by theOld English Latin alphabet introduced toAnglo-Saxon England by missionaries. Futhorc runes were no longer in common use by the eleventh century, but MS Oxford St John's College 17^{[clarification needed]} indicates that fairly accurate understanding of them persisted into at least the twelfth century.

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Use Orthography (Runic alphabet,Latin alphabet) Grammar Phonology Phonological history
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v t e

The Anglo-Frisian runic row was a 28-type further development of the 24-typeElder Futhark (type = number of runes), introducing more runes and reworking some existing runes to fit the period language. Starting from around the 5th century, it was used inBritain andFrisia as part of diffuseAnglo-Frisian cultured sphere. Around the 8th century, runic writing disappears from Frisia, but use continues in Britain.

In the 9th century, the now Anglo-Saxon runic row, was further developed and more runes were introduced, eventually becoming a 33-type runic row with some further unstandardized examples of runes existing. In its late stage, it was largely analog to the Latin script, and disappeared in its favour during theHigh Middle Ages.

Usage and commonality is unclear. From at least five centuries of use, fewer than 200 artifacts bearing futhorc inscriptions have survived.

The origin of the Anglo-Frisian runic row is unknown. There are various theories to its creation. It could have been created in either Frisia or Britain and then exported to the other, alternatively something completely different. One theory proposes that it was developed inFrisia and from there later spread to Britain. Another holds that runes were first introduced to Britain from the mainland where they were then modified and exported to Frisia. Both theories have their inherent weaknesses, and a definitive answer may come from further archaeological evidence.

The early futhorc was nearly identical to the Elder Futhark, except for the split ofᚨa into three variantsᚪāc,ᚫæsc andᚩōs, resulting in 26 runes. This was done to account for the new phoneme produced by theIngvaeonic split of allophones of long and shorta. The earliest known instance of theᚩōs rune may be from the 5th century, on theUndley bracteate. The earliest known instances of theᚪāc rune may be from the 6th century, appearing on objects such as the Schweindorf solidus. The double-barredᚻhægl characteristic of continental inscriptions is first attested as late as 698, onSt Cuthbert's coffin; before that, the single-barred variant was used.

In England, outside of theBrittonic West Country where evidence ofLatin^[2] and evenOgham continued for several centuries, usage of the futhorc expanded.^{[citation needed]} Runic writing in England became closely associated with the Latin scriptoria from the time of Anglo-Saxon Christianization in the 7th century. In some cases, texts would be written in the Latin alphabet, andþorn andƿynn came to be used as extensions of the Latin alphabet. Additionally, in texts such asBeowulf andThe Exeter Book, Anglo-Saxon runes were sometimes used asideographic runes alongside the Latin alphabet to abbreviate words; for example, ᛗ was sometimes used to abbreviate "mann".^[3] By the time of the Norman Conquest of 1066 it was very rare, and it disappeared altogether a few centuries thereafter.

Several famous English examples mix runes and Roman script, orOld English and Latin, on the same object, including theFranks Casket andSt Cuthbert's coffin; in the latter, three of the names of theFour Evangelists are given in Latin written in runes, but "LUKAS" (Saint Luke) is in Roman script. The coffin is also an example of an object created at the heart of the Anglo-Saxon church that uses runes. A leading expert,Raymond Ian Page, rejects the assumption often made in non-scholarly literature that runes were especially associated inpost-conversion Anglo-Saxon England withAnglo-Saxon paganism or magic.^[4]

The letter sequence and letter inventory of futhorc, along with the actual sounds indicated by those letters, could vary depending on location and time. That being so, an authentic and unified list of runes is not possible.

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Image	Unicode	Name	Name meaning	Transliteration	IPA
	ᚠ	feh (feoh)	wealth, cattle	f	/f/, [v] (word-medial allophone of /f/)
	ᚢ	ur (ūr)	aurochs	u	/u(:)/
	ᚦ	ðorn (þorn)	thorn	th	/θ/,[ð] (word-medial allophone of /θ/)
	ᚩ	os (ōs)	heathen god (mouth in rune poem?[5](p 68))	o	/o(:)/[6]
	ᚱ	rada (rād)	riding	r	/r/
	ᚳ	cen (cēn)	torch	c	/k/, /kʲ/,/tʃ/
	ᚷ	geofu (gyfu)	gift	g	/ɡ/,[ɣ] (word-medial allophone of /ɡ/), /j/
	ᚹ	wyn (wynn)	joy	w	/w/
	ᚻ	hægil (hægl)	hail	h	/h/,[x],[ç]
	ᚾ	næd (nēod)	plight	n	/n/
	ᛁ	is (īs)	ice	i	/i(:)/
	ᛡ /ᛄ	gær (gēar)	year	j	/j/
	ᛇ	ih (īw)	yew tree	ï	/i(:)/[x],[ç][6]
	ᛈ	peord (peorð)	(unknown[5](pp 70–71))	p	/p/
	ᛉ	ilcs (eolh?)	(unknown, perhaps a derivative ofelk[5](p 71))	x	(otiose as a sound[6](p 41) but still used to transliterate the Latin letter 'X' into runes)
	ᛋ /ᚴ	sygil (sigel)	sun (sail in rune poem?)	s	/s/, [z] (word-medial allophone of /s/)
	ᛏ	ti (Tīw)	(unknown, originallygod,[5](p 72)Planet Mars in rune poem?[7])	t	/t/
	ᛒ	berc (beorc)	birch tree	b	/b/
	ᛖ	eh (eh)	steed	e	/e(:)/
	ᛗ	mon (mann)	man	m	/m/
	ᛚ	lagu (lagu)	body of water (lake)	l	/l/
	ᛝ	ing (ing)	Ing (Ingui-Frea?)	ŋ	/ŋg/,/ŋ/
	ᛟ	oedil (ēðel)	inherited land, native country	œ	/ø(:)/[6]
	ᛞ	dæg (dæg)	day	d	/d/
	ᚪ	ac (āc)	oak tree	a	/ɑ(:)/[6]
	ᚫ	æsc (æsc)	ash tree	æ	/æ(:)/[6]
	ᛠ	ear (ēar)	(unknown, perhapsearth[5](p 76))	ea	/æ(:)ɑ/[6]
	ᚣ	yr (ȳr)	(unknown, perhapsbow[5](p 75))	y	/y(:)/[6]

The sequence of the runes above is based onCodex Vindobonensis 795. The first 24 of these runes directly continue the elder futhark letters, and do not deviate in sequence (thoughᛞᛟ rather thanᛟᛞ is an attested sequence in both elder futhark and futhorc). The manuscriptsCodex Sangallensis 878 andCotton MSDomitian A IX haveᚣ precedeᛠ.

The names of the runes above are based on Codex Vindobonensis 795, besides the namesing andæsc which come from The Byrhtferth's Manuscript and replace the seemingly corrupted nameslug andæs found in Codex Vindobonensis 795.Ti is sometimes namedtir ortyr in other manuscripts. The words in parentheses in the name column are standardized spellings.

Image	UCS	Name	Name meaning	Transliteration	IPA
	ᛣ	calc	chalk? chalice? sandal?	k	/k/
	ᚸ	gar	spear	ḡ	/g/, [ɣ] (word-medial allophone of /g/)[6]
	ᛢ	cweorð	(unknown)	q	/k/? (for writingLatin?)
	ᛥ	stan	stone	N/A	/st/
	N/A	(unknown)	(unknown)	ę, ᴇ	/ǝ/?
	N/A	(unknown)	(unknown)	į	/e(:)o/? /i(:)o/?
	ᛡ	īor	beaver?[8] eel?	N/A	/i(:)o/?
	ᛤ	(unknown)	(unknown)	c̄, k̄	/k/

The runes in the second table, above, were not included in Codex Vindobonensis 795:Calc appears in manuscripts, and epigraphically on theRuthwell Cross, theBramham Moor Ring, theKingmoor Ring, and elsewhere. Gar appears in manuscripts, and epigraphically on the Ruthwell Cross and probably on theBewcastle Cross.^[9] The unnamedᛤ rune only appears on the Ruthwell Cross, where it seems to takecalc's place as /k/ where that consonant is followed by a secondary fronted vowel.Cweorð andstan only appear in manuscripts. The unnamed ę rune only appears on the Baconsthorpe Grip. The unnamed į rune only appears on the Sedgeford Handle. While the rune poem and Cotton MSDomitian A IX presentᛡ asior, andᛄ asger, epigraphically both are variants ofger (althoughᛄ is only attested once outside of manuscripts (on the Brandon Pin).R.I. Page designated ior apseudo-rune.^{[5](pp 45–47)}

There is little doubt thatcalc andgar are modified forms ofcen andgyfu, and that they were invented to address the ambiguity which arose from /k/ and /g/ spawning palatalized offshoots.^{[5](pp 41–42)}R.I. Page designatedcweorð andstan "pseudo-runes" because they appear pointless, and speculated thatcweorð was invented merely to give futhorc an equivalent to 'Q'.^{[5](pp 41–42)} The ę rune is likely a local innovation, possibly representing an unstressed vowel, and may derive its shape fromᛠ}.^{[10][full citation needed]} The unnamed į rune is found in a personal name (bįrnferþ), where it stands for a vowel ordiphthong. Anglo-Saxon expert Gaby Waxenberger speculates that į may not be a true rune, but rather a bindrune ofᛁ andᚩ, or the result of a mistake.^{[11][full citation needed]}

Various runic combinations are found in the futhorc corpus. For example, the sequence ᚫᚪ appears on the Mortain Casket where ᛠ could theoretically have been used.

A rune in Old English could be called arūnstæf (perhaps meaning something along the lines of "mystery letter" or "whisper letter"), or simplyrūn.

Futhorc inscriptions hold diverse styles and contents.Ochre has been detected on at least one Englishrunestone, implying its runes were once painted.Bind runes are common in futhorc (relative to its small corpus), and were seemingly used most often to ensure the runes would fit in a limited space.^[12] Futhorclogography is attested to in a few manuscripts. This was done by having a rune stand for its name, or a similar sounding word. In the sole extant manuscript of the poemBeowulf, the ēðel rune was used as a logogram for the word ēðel (meaning "homeland", or "estate").^[13] Both the Hackness Stone andCodex Vindobonensis 795 attest to futhorcCipher runes.^[14] In one manuscript (Corpus Christi College, MS 041) a writer seems to have used futhorc runes likeRoman numerals, writing ᛉᛁᛁ⁊ᛉᛉᛉᛋᚹᛁᚦᚩᚱ, which likely means "12&30 more".^[15]

There is some evidence of futhorc rune magic. The possibly magicalalu sequence seems to appear on an urn found atSpong Hill inspiegelrunes (runes whose shapes are mirrored). In a tale fromBede'sEcclesiastical History (written in Latin), a man named Imma cannot be bound by his captors and is asked if he is using "litteras solutorias" (loosening letters) to break his binds. In one Old English translation of the passage, Imma is asked if he is using "drycraft" (magic, druidcraft) or "runestaves" to break his binds.^[16] Furthermore, futhorcrings have been found with what appear to be enchanted inscriptions for the stanching of blood.^[17]

The Old English and Old Frisian Runic Inscriptions database project at theCatholic University of Eichstätt-Ingolstadt,Germany aims at collecting the genuine corpus of Old English inscriptions containing more than two runes in its paper edition, while the electronic edition aims at including both genuine and doubtful inscriptions down to single-rune inscriptions.

The corpus of the paper edition encompasses about one hundred objects (including stone slabs, stone crosses, bones, rings, brooches, weapons, urns, a writing tablet, tweezers, a sun-dial,^{[clarification needed]} comb,bracteates, caskets, a font, dishes, and graffiti).The database includes, in addition, 16 inscriptions containing a single rune, several runic coins, and 8 cases of dubious runic characters (runelike signs, possible Latin characters, weathered characters). Comprising fewer than 200 inscriptions, the corpus is slightly larger than that of Continental Elder Futhark (about 80 inscriptions, c. 400–700), but slightly smaller than that of the Scandinavian Elder Futhark (about 260 inscriptions, c. 200–800).

Runic finds in England cluster along the east coast with a few finds scattered further inland in Southern England. Frisian finds cluster inWest Frisia. Looijenga (1997) lists 23 English (including two 7th-century Christian inscriptions) and 21 Frisian inscriptions predating the 9th century.

Currently known inscriptions in Anglo-Frisian runes include:

• Codex Sangallensis 270 — lists runes with their names, and explains how to use certain rune ciphers
• Codex Sangallensis 878 — contains a presentation of Anglo-Saxon runes
• Codex Vindobonensis 795 — contains a description of Anglo-Saxon runes
• Cotton Domitian A.IX — lists runes with their names
• Cotton Otho B.x.165 — contained theOld English rune poem before being destroyed in a fire
• Cotton Vitellius A.XII — lists runes in alphabetical order
• MS Oxford St. John's College 17 — contains a"table of runic, cryptographic, and exotic alphabets".

• Elder Futhark
• List of runestones
• Ogham
• Old English Latin alphabet
• Runic alphabet
• Younger Futhark

• Bammesberger, A, ed. (1991), "Old English Runes and their Continental Background",Anglistische Forschungen,217, Heidelberg.
• ——— (2006), "Das Futhark und seine Weiterentwicklung in der anglo-friesischen Überlieferung", in Bammesberger, A; Waxenberger (eds.),Dasfuþark und seine einzelsprachlichen Weiterentwicklungen, Walter de Gruyter, pp. 171–87,ISBN 978-3-11-019008-3.
• Hines, J (1990), "The Runic Inscriptions of Early Anglo-Saxon England", in Bammesberger, A (ed.),Britain 400–600: Language and History, Heidelberg: C. Winter, pp. 437–56.
• Kilpatrick, K (2013),Latin, Runes and Pseudo-Ogham: The Enigma of the Hackness Stone, pp. 1–13
• J. H. Looijenga,Runes around the North Sea and on the Continent AD 150–700, dissertation, Groningen University (1997).
• Odenstedt, Bengt,On the Origin and Early History of the Runic Script, Uppsala (1990),ISBN 91-85352-20-9; chapter 20: 'The position of continental and Anglo-Frisian runic forms in the history of the olderfuthark '
• Page, Raymond Ian (1999).An Introduction to English Runes. Woodbridge:Boydell Press.ISBN 978-0-85115-768-9.
• Middleton & Tum, Andrew & Julia (2006).Radiography of Cultural Material. Elsevier.ISBN 978-0-7506-6347-2.
• Robinson, Orrin W (1992).Old English and its Closest Relatives: A Survey of the Earliest Germanic Languages. Stanford University Press.ISBN 978-0-8047-1454-9.
• Frisian runes and neighbouring traditions, Amsterdamer Beiträge zur älteren Germanistik 45 (1996).
• H. Marquardt,Die Runeninschriften der Britischen Inseln (Bibliographie der Runeninschriften nach Fundorten, Bd. I), Abhandlungen der Akademie der Wissenschaften in Göttingen, Phil.-hist. Klasse, dritte Folge, Nr. 48, Göttingen 1961, pp. 10–16.

• Looijenga, Tineke (September 2003).Texts & Contexts of the Oldest Runic Inscriptions (Northern World, 4). Brill.ISBN 978-9004123960.

• Frisia Coast Trail (2023),Scratching runes was not much different from spraying tags
• Anglo-Saxon Runic Texts at Georgetown Univ
• Early Runic Inscriptions in England
• Portable Antiquities Scheme (has information on runic artefacts from England)
• Presenter: The Ruthwell Cross (3D rendering of the Ruthwell Cross)
• The Byrhtferth's Manuscript

• Anglo-Saxon runes
• Old English

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