The English wordfrankincense derives from theOld French expressionfranc encens, meaning 'trueincense', maybe with the sense of 'high qualityincense'.[4][2] The adjectivefranc in Old French meant 'noble, true', in this case perhaps 'pure'; althoughfranc is ultimately derived from the tribal name of theFranks, it is not a direct reference to them in the wordfrancincense.[5]
The trees start producingresin at about eight to 10 years old.[10] Tapping is done two to three times per year with the final taps producing the best tears because of their higher aromaticterpene,sesquiterpene andditerpene content. Generally speaking, the more opaque resins are the best quality. Today 90 percent of the world's production of frankincense comes from theHorn of Africa, predominantly from the border communities on theSomalia–Ethiopia border.
Boswellia occulta:[11]Somalia. For a long time Somali harvesters consideredBoswellia occulta to be the same species asBoswellia carteri even though their shapes are different, and sold resins from both species as the same thing. However in 2019, it was clear that the chemical compositions of their essential oils are completely different.[12]
Boswellia carteri (older spellingBoswellia carterii):[13]: 10 It was long considered an independent species,[15]: 138 but in the 1980s it was determined to be a synonym ofBoswellia sacra.[16][14]
Recent studies indicate that frankincense tree populations are declining, partly fromoverexploitation.[17][18] Heavily tapped trees produce seeds that germinate at only 16% while seeds of trees that had not been tapped germinate at more than 80%. In addition, burning, grazing, and attacks by thelonghorn beetle have reduced the tree population.[19] Clearing of frankincense woodlands for conversion to agriculture is also a major threat.[20]
Among various plants in the genusBoswellia, onlyBoswellia sacra,Boswellia serrata andBoswellia papyrifera have been confirmed to contain significant amounts of boswellic acids.[13]: 10 [13][25]
Indirect burning of frankincense on hot coalFrankincense olibanum resin
Frankincense has been traded on theSomali andArabian Peninsula for more than 5,000 years.[26]Greek historianHerodotus wrote inThe History that frankincense was harvested from trees in southern Arabia. He reported that the gum was dangerous to harvest because of winged snakes[27] that guard the trees and that the smoke from burningstorax would drive the snakes away.[28][29]Pliny the Elder also mentioned frankincense in hisNaturalis Historia.[30][31]
Frankincense, which was used in the Roman Empire prior to the spread of Christianity, was reintroduced toWestern Europe possibly by FrankishCrusaders[32] and other Western Europeans on their journeys to theEastern Roman Empire, where it was commonly used in church services. Although namedfrankincense, the name refers to the quality of incense brought to Western Europe, not to theFranks themselves.[2]
Southern Arabia was an exporter of frankincense in antiquity, with some of it being traded as far as China. The 13th-century Chinese writer and customs inspectorZhao Rugua wrote thatRuxiang orxunluxiang (Chinese:乳香rǔ xiāng/薰陸香xūn lù xiāng) comes from the threeDashi states (Chinese:大食dàshí –Caliphate (Arab Muslims)) ofMaloba (Murbat),Shihe (Shihr), andNufa (Dhofar), from the depths of the remotest mountains;[33] the trunk of the tree is notched with a hatchet, upon which the resin flows out, and, when hardened, turns into incense, which is gathered and made into lumps; it is transported on elephants to theDashi ports, then on ship toSanfoqi; which is why it was known as a product of Sanfoqi.[34]
Thousands of tons of frankincense are traded every year to be used in religious ceremonies as incense inthuribles and by makers of perfumes, natural medicines, andessential oils.
In Somalia, frankincense is harvested in theBari andSanaag regions: mountains lying at the northwest ofErigavo;El Afweyn District;Cal Madow mountain range, a westerly escarpment that runs parallel to the coast; Cal Miskeed, includingHantaara and Habeeno plateau and a middle segment of the frankincense-growing escarpment;Karkaar mountains or eastern escarpment, which lies at the eastern fringe of the frankinscence escarpment.[36][18]
In 1998, theInternational Union for Conservation of Nature warned that one of the primary frankincense species,Boswellia sacra, is "near threatened". Frankincense trees are not covered by theConvention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, but experts argue thatBoswellia species meet the criteria for protection. In a 2006 study, an ecologist atWageningen University & Research claimed that, by the late-1990s,Boswellia papyrifera trees in Eritrea were becoming hard to find. In 2019, a new paper predicted a 50% reduction inBoswellia papyrifera within the next two decades. This species, found mainly in Ethiopia, Eritrea, and Sudan, accounts for about two-thirds of global frankincense production. The paper warns that allBoswellia species are threatened by habitat loss and overexploitation. MostBoswellia grow in harsh, arid regions beset by poverty and conflict. Harvesting and selling the tree's resin is one of the few sources of income for the inhabitants, resulting in overtapping.[3]
Limited clinical studies have provided weak evidence for the use of frankincense resin in certain disease conditions, but the inconsistent, low quality of research remains inconclusive for determining any effect.[39][40]
Frankincense is often prepared inside acenser, such as themeerschaumdabqaad traditionally used in Horn of Africa.
The Egyptians cleansed body cavities in themummification process with frankincense andnatron. InPersian medicine, it is used for diabetes, gastritis and stomach ulcer.[41] The oil is used inAbrahamic religions to cleanse a house or building of bad or evil energy—including used in exorcisms and to bless one's being (like thebakhoor commonly found inPersian Gulf cultures by spreading the fumes towards the body).
Theincense offering occupied a prominent position in the sacrificial legislation of the ancient Hebrews.[42] TheBook of Exodus (30:34–38) prescribes frankincense, blended with equal amounts of three aromatic spices, to be ground and burnt in the sacred altar before theArk of the Covenant in the wildernessTabernacle, where it was meant to be a holy offering—not to be enjoyed for its fragrance. Scholars have identified frankincense as what theBook of Jeremiah (6:20) relates was imported fromSheba during the 6th century BCBabylonian captivity.[43] Frankincense is mentioned in theNew Testament as one of the three gifts (withgold andmyrrh) that themagi "from the East" presented to theChrist Child (Matthew 2:11).
Intraditional Chinese medicine, frankincense (Chinese:乳香rǔ xiāng) along with myrrh (沒藥mò yào) are considered to have anti-bacterial properties and blood-moving uses.[44] It can be used topically or orally, also used in surgical and internal medicine of traditional Chinese medicine. It is used to relieve pain, remove blood stasis, promote blood circulation and treat deafness, stroke, locked jaw, and abnormalities in women'smenstruation.
Theessential oil of frankincense is produced bysteam distillation of the tree resin. The oil's chemical components are 75%monoterpenes,sesquiterpenes, andketones. Contrary to some commercial claims, steam distilled frankincense oils do not contain the insufficiently volatile boswellic acids (triterpenoids), although they may be present in solvent extractions. The chemistry of the essential oil is mainly monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes, such as alpha-pinene, Limonene, alpha-Thujene, and beta-Pinene with small amounts ofditerpenoid components being the upper limit in terms of molecular weight.[45][46][47][48]
Essential oils can be diluted and applied to skin or the fragrance can be inhaled.[49]
^Cerutti-Delasalle C, Mehiri M, Cagliero C, Rubiolo P, Bicchi C, Meierhenrich UJ, Baldovini N (October 2016). "The (+)-cis- and (+)-trans-Olibanic Acids: Key Odorants of Frankincense".Angewandte Chemie International Edition in English.55 (44):13719–13723.doi:10.1002/anie.201605242.hdl:2318/1609095.PMID27699963.
^Pliny the Elder."Chapters 30–32".THE TREES THAT BEAR FRANKINCENSE.The Natural History. Vol. XII. Translated by Bostock J. Retrieved2021-07-15 – via Perseus digital library, Tufts University.
^Kauz R (2010).Aspects of the Maritime Silk Road: From the Persian Gulf to the East China Sea. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 130.ISBN978-3-447-06103-2. RetrievedDecember 26, 2011.The frankincense was first collected in theHadhramaut ports of Mirbat, Shihr, and Zufar whence Arab merchant vessels shipped it to Srivijaya, before it was then reexported to China. The term "xunluxiang" derives from the Arab word "kundur". . . According to Li Xun, frankincense originally came from Persia. Laufer refers to theXiangpu 香譜 by Hong Chu . . . Zhao Rugua notes: Ruxiang or xunluxiang comes from the three Dashi countries of Murbat (Maloba), Shihr (Shihe), and Dhofar (Nufa), from the depths of the remotest mountains. The tree which yields this drug may generally be compared to the pine tree. Its trunk is notched with a hatchet, upon which the
^Kauz R (2010). Ralph Kauz (ed.).Aspects of the Maritime Silk Road: From the Persian Gulf to the East China Sea. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 131.ISBN978-3-447-06103-2. RetrievedDecember 26, 2011.resin flows out, and, when hardened, turns into incense, which is gathered and made into lumps. It is transported on elephants to the Dashi (on the coast), who then load it upon their ships to exchange it for other commodities in Sanfoqi. This is the reason why it is commonly collected at and known as a product of Sanfoqi.
^"Biblical Magi".nga.gov. National Gallery of Art. Retrieved20 February 2024.The Gospel of Matthew (2:1–12) speaks of Magi, or wise men, who followed a star from the East to Bethlehem in search of a newborn king. There they found Mary and the baby Jesus and offered him gifts of gold, frankincense, and myrrh.
^abCoppi A, Cecchi L, Selvi F, Raffaelli M (2010-03-18). "The Frankincense tree (Boswellia sacra, Burseraceae) from Oman: ITS and ISSR analyses of genetic diversity and implications for conservation".Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution.57 (7):1041–1052.doi:10.1007/s10722-010-9546-8.ISSN0925-9864.S2CID11915388.
^Verghese J, Joy MT, Retamar JA, Malinskas GG, Catalan CA, Gros EG (1987). "A Fresh Look at the Constituents of Indian Olibanum Oil".Flavour Fragr. J.2 (3):99–102.doi:10.1002/ffj.2730020304.
^Hayashi S, Amemori H, Kameoka H, Hanafusa M, Furukawa K (1998). "Comparison of Volatile Compounds from Olibanum from Various Countries".J. Essent. Oil Res.10:25–30.doi:10.1080/10412905.1998.9700833.
^Basar S, Koch A, König WA (September 2001). "A verticillane-type diterpene from Boswellia carterii essential oil".Flavour and Fragrance Journal.16 (5):315–8.doi:10.1002/ffj.992.
^Frank A, Unger M (April 2006). "Analysis of frankincense from various Boswellia species with inhibitory activity on human drug metabolising cytochrome P450 enzymes using liquid chromatography mass spectrometry after automated on-line extraction".Journal of Chromatography A.1112 (1–2):255–62.doi:10.1016/j.chroma.2005.11.116.PMID16364338.
Woolley CL, Suhail MM, Smith BL, Boren KE, Taylor LC, Schreuder MF, et al. (October 2012). "Chemical differentiation of Boswellia sacra and Boswellia carterii essential oils by gas chromatography and chiral gas chromatography-mass spectrometry".Journal of Chromatography A.1261:158–63.doi:10.1016/j.chroma.2012.06.073.PMID22835693.
Müller WW (1978). "Weihrauch: Ein arabisches Produkt und seine Bedeutung in der Antike".Pauly-Wissowas Realencyclopädie der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft (15). Munich: Alfred Druckenmüller Verlag:700–777.
Groom N (1981).Frankincense & Myrrh: A Study of the Arabian Incense Trade. International Book Centre, Incorporated.ISBN0-86685-593-9.
Maloney GA (1997).Gold, Frankincense, and Myrrh: An Introduction to Eastern Christian Spirituality. Crossroads Publishing Company.ISBN0-8245-1616-8.
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