Hubble Ultra-Deep Field image of distant galaxies illustrates the challenge of defining "reality": the light from these stars was emitted billions of years ago and many of these stars have moved, merged, or evolved since then
Reality is the sum or aggregate of everything inexistence, as opposed to that which is onlyimaginary or nonexistent. Differentcultures andacademic disciplines conceptualize it in various ways.
Philosophical questions about the nature of reality, existence, or being are considered under therubric ofontology, a major branch ofmetaphysics in the Western intellectual tradition. Ontological questions also feature in diverse branches ofphilosophy, including thephilosophy of science,religion,mathematics, andlogic. These include questions about whether only physical objects are real (e.g.,physicalism), whether reality is fundamentally immaterial (e.g.,idealism), whether hypothetical unobservable entities posited by scientific theories exist (e.g.,scientific realism), whetherGod exists, whether numbers and otherabstract objects exist, and whetherpossible worlds exist.
Etymology and meaning
The wordreality is a borrowing from theMiddle Frenchrealité and thepost-Classical Latinrealitas. According to theOxford English Dictionary, it first appeared in English in 1513. The first definition given is "Real existence; what is real rather than imagined or desired; the aggregate of real things or existences; that which underlies and is the truth of appearances or phenomena". (A second sense, now obsolete, refers toreal property.)[1]
Western philosophy
Philosophy addresses two different aspects of the topic of reality: the nature of reality itself, and the relationship between themind (as well aslanguage and culture) and reality.
On the one hand,ontology is the study of being, and the central topic of the field is couched, variously, in terms of being, existence, "what is", and reality. The task in ontology is to describe the most generalcategories of reality and how they are interrelated. If a philosopher wanted to proffer a positive definition of the concept "reality", it would be done under this heading. As explained above, some philosophers draw a distinction between reality and existence. In fact, many analytic philosophers today tend to avoid the term "real" and "reality" in discussing ontological issues. But for those who would treat "is real" the same way they treat "exists", one of the leading questions ofanalytic philosophy has been whether existence (or reality) is a property of objects. It has been widely held by analytic philosophers that it isnot a property at all, though this view has lost some ground in recent decades.
On the other hand, particularly in discussions ofobjectivity that have feet in bothmetaphysics and epistemology, philosophical discussions of "reality" often concern the ways in which reality is, or is not, in some waydependent upon (or, to use fashionablejargon, "constructed" out of) mental and cultural factors such as perceptions, beliefs, and other mental states, as well as cultural artifacts, such as religions andpolitical movements, on up to the vague notion of a common culturalworld view, orWeltanschauung.
Realism
The view that there is a reality independent of any beliefs, perceptions, etc., is calledrealism. More specifically, philosophers are given to speaking about "realismabout" this and that, such as realism about universals or realism about the external world. Generally, where one can identify any class of object, the existence or essential characteristics of which is said not to depend on perceptions, beliefs, language, or any other human artifact, one can speak of "realismabout" that object.
Acorrespondence theory of knowledge about what exists claims that "true" knowledge of reality represents accurate correspondence of statements about and images of reality with the actual reality that the statements or images are attempting to represent. For example, thescientific method canverify that a statement is true based on the observable evidence that a thing exists. Many humans can point to theRocky Mountains and say that thismountain range exists, and continues to exist even if no one is observing it or making statements about it.
Anti-realism
One can also speak ofanti-realism about the same objects.Anti-realism is the latest in a long series of terms for views opposed to realism. Perhaps the first wasidealism, so called because reality was said to be in the mind, or a product of ourideas.Berkeleyan idealism is the view, propounded by the IrishempiricistGeorge Berkeley, that the objects of perception are actually ideas in the mind. In this view, one might be tempted to say that reality is a "mental construct"; this is not quite accurate, however, since, in Berkeley's view, perceptual ideas are created and coordinated by God. By the 20th century, views similar to Berkeley's were calledphenomenalism. Phenomenalism differs from Berkeleyan idealism primarily in that Berkeley believed that minds, or souls, are not merely ideas nor made up of ideas, whereas varieties of phenomenalism, such as that advocated byRussell, tended to go farther to say that the mind itself is merely a collection of perceptions, memories, etc., and that there is no mind or soul over and above suchmental events. Finally, anti-realism became a fashionable term forany view which held that the existence of some object depends upon the mind or cultural artifacts. The view that the so-called external world is really merely a social, or cultural, artifact, calledsocial constructionism, is one variety of anti-realism.Cultural relativism is the view thatsocial issues such as morality are not absolute, but at least partiallycultural artifact.
Being
The nature ofbeing is a perennial topic in metaphysics. For instance,Parmenides taught that reality was a single unchanging Being, whereasHeraclitus wrote that all things flow. The 20th-century philosopherHeidegger thought previous philosophers have lost sight of the question of Being (qua Being) in favour of the questions of beings (existing things), so he believed that a return to the Parmenidean approach was needed. Anontological catalogue is an attempt to list the fundamental constituents of reality. The question of whether or notexistence is apredicate has been discussed since the Early Modern period, not least in relation to theontological argument for the existence of God. Existence,that something is, has been contrasted withessence, the question ofwhat something is.Since existence without essence seems blank, it associated withnothingness by philosophers such as Hegel.Nihilism represents an extremely negative view of being, theabsolute a positive one.
Timothy Leary coined the influential termReality Tunnel, by which he means a kind ofrepresentative realism. The theory states that, with a subconscious set of mental filters formed from their beliefs and experiences, every individual interprets the same world differently, hence "Truth is in the eye of the beholder". His ideas influenced the work of his friendRobert Anton Wilson.
Abstract objects and mathematics
The status ofabstract entities, particularly numbers, is a topic of discussion in mathematics.
In the philosophy of mathematics, the best known form of realism about numbers isPlatonic realism, which grants them abstract, immaterial existence. Other forms of realism identify mathematics with the concrete physical universe.
The traditional debate has focused on whether an abstract (immaterial, intelligible) realm of numbers has existedin addition to the physical (sensible, concrete) world. A recent development is themathematical universe hypothesis, the theory thatonly a mathematical world exists, with the finite, physical world being an illusion within it.
An extreme form of realism about mathematics is themathematical multiverse hypothesis advanced byMax Tegmark. Tegmark's sole postulate is:All structures that exist mathematically also exist physically. That is, in the sense that "in those [worlds] complex enough to contain self-aware substructures [they] will subjectively perceive themselves as existing in a physically 'real' world".[5][6] The hypothesis suggests that worlds corresponding to different sets of initial conditions, physical constants, or altogether different equations should be considered real. The theory can be considered a form ofPlatonism in that it posits the existence of mathematical entities, but can also be considered amathematical monism in that it denies that anything exists except mathematical objects.
The problem of universals is an ancient problem in metaphysics about whetheruniversals exist. Universals are general or abstract qualities, characteristics,properties, kinds orrelations, such as being male/female, solid/liquid/gas or a certain colour,[7] that can be predicated of individuals or particulars or that individuals or particulars can be regarded as sharing or participating in. For example, Scott, Pat, and Chris have in common the universal quality ofbeing human orhumanity.
The realist school claims that universals are real – they exist and are distinct from the particulars that instantiate them. There are various forms of realism. Two major forms arePlatonic realism andAristotelian realism.[8]Platonic realism is the view that universals are real entities and they exist independent of particulars.Aristotelian realism, on the other hand, is the view that universals are real entities, but their existence is dependent on the particulars that exemplify them.
A traditional realist position in ontology is that time and space have existence apart from the human mind.Idealists deny or doubt the existence of objects independent of the mind. Someanti-realists whose ontological position is that objects outside the mind do exist, nevertheless doubt the independent existence of time and space.
Kant, in theCritique of Pure Reason, described time as ana priori notion that, together with othera priori notions such asspace, allows us to comprehendsense experience. Kant denies that either space or time aresubstance, entities in themselves, or learned by experience; he holds rather that both are elements of a systematic framework we use to structure our experience. Spatialmeasurements are used toquantify how far apartobjects are, and temporal measurements are used to quantitatively compare the interval between (or duration of)events. Although space and time are held to betranscendentally ideal in this sense, they are alsoempirically real, i.e. not mere illusions.
As well as differing about the reality of time as a whole, metaphysical theories of time can differ in their ascriptions of reality to thepast, present andfuture separately.
Presentism holds that the past and future are unreal, and only an ever-changing present is real.
Theblock universe theory, also known as Eternalism, holds that past, present and future are all real, but the passage of time is an illusion. It is often said to have a scientific basis inrelativity.
Thegrowing block universe theory holds that past and present are real, but the future is not.
The term "possible world" goes back toLeibniz's theory of possible worlds, used to analyse necessity,possibility, and similarmodal notions.Modal realism is the view, notably propounded byDavid Kellogg Lewis, that allpossible worlds are as real as the actual world. In short: the actual world is regarded as merely one among aninfiniteset oflogically possible worlds, some "nearer" to the actual world and some more remote. Other theorists may use the Possible World framework to express and explore problems without committing to it ontologically. Possible world theory is related toalethic logic: a proposition isnecessary if it is true in all possible worlds, andpossible if it is true in at least one. Themany worlds interpretation of quantum mechanics is a similar idea in science.
The philosophical implications of a physical TOE are frequently debated. For example, if philosophicalphysicalism is true, a physical TOE will coincide with a philosophical theory of everything.
The"system building" style of metaphysics attempts to answerall the important questions in a coherent way, providing a complete picture of the world.Plato andAristotle could be said to be early examples of comprehensive systems. In the early modern period (17th and 18th centuries), the system-buildingscope of philosophy is often linked to the rationalistmethod of philosophy, that is the technique of deducing the nature of the world by purea priori reason. Examples from the early modern period include theLeibniz'sMonadology,Descartes'sDualism,Spinoza'sMonism.Hegel'sAbsolute idealism andWhitehead'sProcess philosophy were later systems.
Other philosophers do not believe its techniques can aim so high. Some scientists think a more mathematical approach than philosophy is needed for a TOE, for instanceStephen Hawking wrote inA Brief History of Time that even if we had a TOE, it would necessarily be a set of equations. He wrote, "What is it that breathes fire into the equations and makes a universe for them to describe?"[9]
Phenomenology
On a much broader and more subjective level,[specify] private experiences, curiosity, inquiry, and the selectivity involved in personal interpretation of events shapes reality as seen by one and only one person[10] and hence is calledphenomenological. While thisform of reality might be common to others as well, it could at times also be so unique to oneself as to never be experienced or agreed upon by anyone else. Much of the kind of experience deemedspiritual occurs on this level of reality.[11]
Phenomenology is aphilosophical method developed in the early years of the twentieth century byEdmund Husserl (1859–1938) and a circle of followers at the universities ofGöttingen andMunich in Germany. Subsequently, phenomenological themes were taken up by philosophers in France, the United States, and elsewhere, often in contexts far removed from Husserl's work.
The wordphenomenology comes from theGreekphainómenon, meaning "that which appears", andlógos, meaning "study". In Husserl's conception, phenomenology is primarily concerned with making the structures of consciousness, and thephenomena which appear in acts of consciousness, objects of systematic reflection and analysis. Such reflection was to take place from a highly modified "first person" viewpoint, studying phenomena not as they appear to "my" consciousness, but to any consciousness whatsoever. Husserl believed that phenomenology could thus provide a firm basis for all humanknowledge, includingscientific knowledge, and could establish philosophy as a "rigorous science".[12]
Skeptical hypotheses in philosophy suggest that reality could be very different from what we think it is; or at least that we cannot prove it is not. Examples include:
The "Brain in a vat" hypothesis is cast in scientific terms. It supposes that one might be a disembodied brain kept alive in a vat, and fed false sensory signals. This hypothesis is related to the Matrix hypothesis below.
The "Dream argument" of Descartes andZhuangzi supposes reality to be indistinguishable from a dream.
Descartes'Evil demon is a being "as clever and deceitful as he is powerful, who has directed his entire effort to misleading me."
Moksha – Liberation or Salvation, i.e. the complete annihilation of all karmic matter (bound with any particular soul).
Physical sciences
Scientific realism
Scientific realism is, at the most general level, the view that the world (the universe) described by science (perhaps ideal science) is the real world, as it is, independent of what we might take it to be. Withinphilosophy of science, it is often framed as an answer to the question "how is the success of science to be explained?" The debate over what the success of science involves centers primarily on the status of entities that arenot directly observable discussed byscientific theories. Generally, those who are scientific realists state that one can make reliable claims about these entities (viz., that they have the sameontological status) as directly observable entities, as opposed toinstrumentalism. The most used and studied scientific theories today state more or less the truth.
Realism in the sense used by physicists does not equate torealism in metaphysics.[17] The latter is the claim that the world is mind-independent: that even if the results of a measurement do not pre-exist the act of measurement, that does not require that they are the creation of the observer. Furthermore, a mind-independent property does not have to be the value of some physical variable such as position ormomentum. A property can bedispositional (or potential), i.e. it can be a tendency: in the way that glass objects tend to break, or are disposed to break, even if they do notactually break. Likewise, the mind-independent properties of quantum systems could consist of a tendency to respond to particular measurements with particular values with ascertainable probability. Such an ontology would be metaphysically realistic, without being realistic in the physicist's sense of "local realism" (which would require that a single value be produced with certainty).
A closely related term iscounterfactual definiteness (CFD), used to refer to the claim that one can meaningfully speak of the definiteness of results of measurements that have not been performed (i.e. the ability to assume the existence of objects, and properties of objects, even when they have not been measured).
Local realism is a significant feature of classical mechanics, ofgeneral relativity, and of classicalelectrodynamics; but notquantum mechanics. In a work now called theEPR paradox, Einstein relied on local realism to suggest that hidden variables were missing in quantum mechanics. However,John S. Bell subsequently showed that the predictions of quantum mechanics are inconsistent with hidden variables, a result known asBell's theorem. The predictions of quantum mechanics have been verified: Bell's inequalities are violated. This means either particles have no definite positions independent of observation (no realism)or distant measurements can affect each other (no locality) or both. Differentinterpretations of quantum mechanics violate different parts of local realism.[18]: 117
The transition from "possible" to "actual" is a major topic ofquantum physics, with related theories includingquantum darwinism.
The founders of quantum mechanics debated the role of the observer, and of them,Wolfgang Pauli andWerner Heisenberg believed that quantum mechanics expressed the observers knowledge and when an experiment was completed the additional knowledge should be incorporated in the wave function, an effect that came to be called state reduction orcollapse. This point of view, which was never fully endorsed byNiels Bohr, was denounced as mystical and anti-scientific byAlbert Einstein. Pauli accepted the term, and described quantum mechanics aslucid mysticism.[19]
Heisenberg and Bohr always described quantum mechanics inlogical positivist terms. Bohr also took an active interest in the philosophical implications of quantum theories such as hiscomplementarity, for example.[20] He believed quantum theory offers a complete description of nature, albeit one that is simply ill-suited for everyday experiences – which are better described by classical mechanics and probability. Bohr famously avoided any characterization of "reality".[21]: 163
Eugene Wigner reformulated the "Schrödinger's cat"thought experiment as "Wigner's friend" and proposed that the consciousness of an observer is the demarcation line which precipitates collapse of the wave function, independent of any realist interpretation. Commonly known as "consciousness causes collapse", this controversialinterpretation of quantum mechanics states thatobservation by aconscious observer is what makes the wave function collapse. However, this is a minority view among quantum philosophers, considering it a misunderstanding.[22] There are other possible solutions to the "Wigner's friend" thought experiment, which do not require consciousness to be different from other physical processes. Moreover, Wigner shifted to those interpretations in his later years.[23]
The structure of the multiverse, the nature of each universe within it and the relationship between the various constituent universes, depend on the specific multiverse hypothesis considered. Multiverses have been hypothesized incosmology, physics,astronomy, religion, philosophy,transpersonal psychology and fiction, particularly in science fiction and fantasy. In these contexts, parallel universes are also called "alternative universes", "quantum universes", "interpenetrating dimensions", "parallel dimensions", "parallel worlds", "alternative realities", "alternative timelines", and "dimensional planes", among others.
In several theories, there is a series of, in some casesinfinite, self-sustaining cycles – typically a series ofBig Crunches (orBig Bounces). However, the respective universes do not exist at once but are forming or following in a logical order or sequence, with key natural constituents potentially varying between universes (see§ Anthropic principle).
Incosmology, theanthropic principle, also known as the observation selection effect, is the proposition that the range of possible observations that could be made about theuniverse is limited by the fact that observations are only possible in the type of universe that is capable of developing observers in the first place. Proponents of the anthropic principle argue that it explains why the universe has theage and the fundamentalphysical constants necessary to accommodate intelligent life. If either had been significantly different, no one would have been around to make observations. Anthropic reasoning has been used to address the question as to why certain measured physical constants take the values that they do, rather than some other arbitrary values, and to explain a perception that the universe appears to befinely tuned for the existence of life.
Each individual has a differentview of reality, with different memories and personal history, knowledge, personality traits and experience.[25] This system, mostly referring to thehuman brain, affectscognition and behavior and into this complex newknowledge, memories,[26] information,thoughts and experiences are continuously integrated.[27][additional citation(s) needed] Theconnectome –neural networks/wirings in brains – is thought to be a key factor inhuman variability in terms of cognition or the way we perceive the world (as a context) and related features or processes.[28][29][30]Sensemaking is the process by which people givemeaning to their experiences and make sense of the world they live in.Personal identity is relating to questions like how a unique individual is persisting through time.
Sensemaking and determination of reality also occurs collectively, which is investigated insocial epistemology and related approaches. From thecollective intelligence perspective, the intelligence of the individual human (and potentially AI entities) is substantially limited and advanced intelligence emerges when multiple entities collaborate over time.[31][additional citation(s) needed]Collective memory is an important component of the social construction of reality[32] and communication and communication-related systems, such as media systems, may also be major components (see#Technology).
Philosophy of perception raises questions based on the evolutionary history of humans' perceptual apparatuses, particularly or especially individuals'physiological senses, described as "[w]e don't see reality—we only see what was useful to see in the past", partly suggesting that "[o]ur species has been so successful not in spite of our inability to see reality but because of it".[33]
Scientific theories of everything
Atheory of everything (TOE) is a putativetheory oftheoretical physics that fully explains and links together all known physical phenomena, and predicts the outcome ofany experiment that could be carried outin principle. The theory of everything is also called thefinal theory.[34] Many candidate theories of everything have been proposed by theoretical physicists during the twentieth century, but none have been confirmed experimentally. The primary problem in producing a TOE is thatgeneral relativity and quantum mechanics are hard to unify. This is one of theunsolved problems in physics.
Initially, the term "theory of everything" was used with an ironic connotation to refer to various overgeneralized theories. For example, a great-grandfather ofIjon Tichy, a character from a cycle ofStanisław Lem's science fiction stories of the 1960s, was known to work on the "General Theory of Everything". PhysicistJohn Ellis[35] claims to have introduced the term into the technical literature in an article inNature in 1986.[36] Over time, the term stuck in popularizations ofquantum physics to describe a theory that would unify or explain through a single model the theories of allfundamental interactions and of all particles of nature: general relativity for gravitation, and thestandard model of elementary particle physics – which includes quantum mechanics – for electromagnetism, the two nuclear interactions, and the known elementary particles.
Media – such asnews media,social media, websites includingWikipedia,[37] andfiction[38] – shape individuals' and society's perception of reality (including as part of belief and attitude formation)[38] and are partly used intentionally as means tolearn about reality. Various technologies have changed society's relationship with reality such as the advent of radio and TV technologies.
Research investigates interrelations and effects, for example aspects in the social construction of reality.[39] A major component of this shaping and representation of perceived reality isagenda, selection and prioritization – not only (or primarily) the quality, tone and types of content – which influences, for instance, the public agenda.[40][41] Disproportional news attention for low-probability incidents – such as high-consequence accidents – can distort audiences'risk perceptions with harmful consequences.[42] Various biases such asfalse balance, public attention dependence reactions likesensationalism and domination by "current events",[43] as well as various interest-driven uses of media such as marketing can also have major impacts on the perception of reality.Time-use studies found that e.g. in 2018 the average U.S. American "spent around eleven hours every day looking at screens".[44]
Virtual reality and cyberspace
Virtual reality (VR) is acomputer-simulated environment that can simulate physical presence in places in the real world, as well as in imaginary worlds.
Reality-virtuality continuum
Thevirtuality continuum is a continuous scale ranging between the completely virtual, a virtuality, and the completely real: reality. The reality–virtuality continuum therefore encompasses all possible variations and compositions of real andvirtual objects. It has been described as a concept innew media andcomputer science, but in fact it could be considered a matter ofanthropology. The concept was first introduced by Paul Milgram.[45]
The area between the two extremes, where both the real and the virtual are mixed, is the so-calledmixed reality. This in turn is said to consist of bothaugmented reality, where the virtual augments the real, andaugmented virtuality, where the real augments the virtual.Cyberspace, the world's computer systems considered as an interconnected whole, can be thought of as a virtual reality; for instance, it is portrayed as such in thecyberpunk fiction ofWilliam Gibson and others.Second Life andMMORPGs such asWorld of Warcraft are examples of artificial environments orvirtual worlds (falling some way short of full virtual reality) in cyberspace.
"RL" in internet culture
On the Internet, "real life" refers to life in the real world. It generally referenceslife orconsensus reality, in contrast to an environment seen as fiction or fantasy, such as virtual reality, lifelike experience,dreams, novels, or movies. Online, theacronym "IRL" stands for "in real life", with the meaning "not on the Internet".[46]Sociologists engaged in the study of the Internet have determined that someday, a distinction between online and real-life worlds may seem "quaint", noting that certain types of online activity, such as sexual intrigues, have already made a full transition to complete legitimacy and "reality".[47] Theabbreviation "RL" stands for "real life". For example, one can speak of "meeting in RL" someone whom one has met in achat or on anInternet forum. It may also be used to express an inability to use the Internet for a time due to "RL problems".
A common colloquial usage would havereality mean "perceptions, beliefs, and attitudes toward reality", as in "My reality is not your reality." This is often used just as acolloquialism indicating that the parties to a conversation agree, or should agree, not to quibble over deeply different conceptions of what is real. For example, in a religious discussion between friends, one might say (attempting humor), "You might disagree, but in my reality, everyone goes to heaven."
Reality can be defined in a way that links it to worldviews or parts of them (conceptual frameworks): Reality is the totality of all things, structures (actual and conceptual), events (past and present) and phenomena, whether observable or not. It is what a world view (whether it be based on individual or shared human experience) ultimately attempts to describe or map.
Aworldview (also world-view) orWeltanschauung is said to be the fundamentalcognitive orientation of an individual or society encompassing the whole of the individual's or society'sknowledge,culture, andpoint of view.[48] However, when two parties view the same real world phenomenon, their worldviews may differ, one including elements that the other does not.
A worldview can includenatural philosophy; fundamental, existential, andnormative postulates; or themes, values, emotions, and ethics.[49]
Certain ideas from physics, philosophy, sociology,literary criticism, and other fields shape various theories of reality. One such theory is that there simply and literallyis no reality beyond the perceptions or beliefs we each have about reality.[citation needed] Such attitudes are summarized in popular statements, such as "Perception is reality" or "Life is how you perceive reality" or "reality is what you can get away with" (Robert Anton Wilson), and they indicateanti-realism – that is, the view that there is no objective reality, whether acknowledged explicitly or not.
^Loux, Michael J. (2001). "The Problem of Universals" inMetaphysics: Contemporary Readings, Michael J. Loux (ed.), N.Y.: Routledge, pp. 3–13, [4]
^Price, H. H. (1953). "Universals and Resemblance", Ch. 1 ofThinking and Experience, Hutchinson's University Library, among others, sometimes uses such Latin terms.
^as quoted in [Artigas,The Mind of the Universe, p.123]
^"Present-time consciousness",Francisco J. Varela,Journal of Consciousness Studies 6 (2-3):111-140 (1999)
^Crowell, Steven Galt (2001).Husserl, Heidegger, and the space of meaning: paths toward transcendental phenomenology.Northwestern University Press. p. 160.ISBN0-8101-1805-X.
^Honner, John (2005). "Niels Bohr and the Mysticism of Nature".Zygon: Journal of Religion & Science.17–3:243–253.
^Symposium On The Foundations Of Modern Physics 1987 - The Copenhagen Interpretation 60 Years After The Como Lecture. (1988). Singapore: World Scientific Publishing Company.
^James, William,The Will to Believe, 1895; and earlier in 1895, as cited inOED's new 2003 entry for "multiverse": "1895 W. JAMES in Internat. Jrnl. Ethics 6 10 Visible nature is all plasticity and indifference, a multiverse, as one might call it, and not a universe."
^Luckmann, Thomas (February 2008). "On Social Interaction and the Communicative Construction of Personal Identity, Knowledge and Reality".Organization Studies.29 (2):277–290.doi:10.1177/0170840607087260.ISSN0170-8406.S2CID145106025.
^abPrentice, D.; Gerrig, R. (1999). "Exploring the boundary between fiction and reality". In S. Chaiken; Y. Trope (eds.).Dual-process theories in social psychology. The Guilford Press. pp. 529–546.Archived from the original on 2022-11-06. Retrieved2023-09-03.
^McCombs, Maxwell E.; Shaw, Donald L. (1972). "The Agenda-Setting Function of Mass Media".Public Opinion Quarterly.36 (2): 176.doi:10.1086/267990.
^McCombs, Maxwell; Reynolds, Amy (2009). "How the news shapes our civic agenda and News Influence on Our Pictures of the World".Media Effects. Routledge. pp. 17–32.doi:10.4324/9780203877111-7.ISBN978-0203877111.Archived from the original on 2022-11-06. Retrieved2023-09-03.
^Slater, Don (2002). "Social Relationships and Identity On-line and Off-line". InLivingstone, Sonia; Lievrouw, Leah (eds.).Handbook of New Media: Social Shaping and Consequences of ICTs. Sage Publications Incorporated. pp. 533–543.ISBN0-7619-6510-6.
