Elam was part of the earlyurbanization of the Near East during theChalcolithic period (Copper Age). The emergence of written records from around 3000 BC also parallelsSumerian history, where slightly earlier records have been found.[5][6] In the Old Elamite period (Middle Bronze Age), Elam consisted of kingdoms on theIranian plateau, centered inAnshan, and from the mid-2nd millennium BC, it was centered in Susa in the Khuzestan lowlands.[7] Its culture played a crucial role during thePersianAchaemenid dynasty that succeeded Elam, when theElamite language remained among those in official use. Elamite is generally considered alanguage isolate or unrelated to any other languages. According toDaniel T. Potts,Walther Hinz was less cautious in suggesting that the Elamites were‘Proto-Lurs’ — that is, ancestors of the inhabitants of modern-dayLurestan in western Iran.[8]
Exonyms included theSumerian namesELAM.MAki𒉏𒈠𒆠 andELAM, theAkkadianElamû (masculine/neuter) andElamītu (feminine) meant "resident of Susiana, Elamite".[12] The Sumerian termelam also referred to the highlands.[13]
In prehistory, Elam was centered primarily in modernKhuzestān andIlam. The name Khuzestān is derived ultimately fromOld Persian:𐎢𐎺𐎩 (hūja) meaning Susa/Elam.[14] This becameMiddle Persian:𐭧𐭥𐭰 (hūz) "Susiana", and in modernPersian:خوز (xuz), compounded with the toponymic suffix-stån "place".
In geographical terms, Susiana basically represents the Iranian province ofKhuzestan around the riverKarun. In ancient times, several names were used to describe this area. The ancient geographerPtolemy was the earliest to call the areaSusiana, referring to the country around Susa.
Another ancient geographer,Strabo, viewed Elam and Susiana as two different geographic regions. He referred to Elam ("land of the Elymaei") as primarily the highland area of Khuzestan.[15]
Disagreements over the location also exist in the Jewish historical sources says Daniel T. Potts. Some ancient sources draw a distinction between Elam as the highland area of Khuzestan, and Susiana as the lowland area. Yet in other ancient sources 'Elam' and 'Susiana' seem equivalent.[15]
The uncertainty in this area extends also to modern scholarship. Since the discovery of ancientAnshan, and the realization of its great importance in Elamite history, the definitions were changed again. Some modern scholars[16] argued that the center of Elam lay at Anshan and in the highlands around it, and not at Susa in lowland Khuzistan.
Potts disagrees suggesting that the term 'Elam' was primarily constructed by the Mesopotamians to describe the area in general terms, without referring specifically either to the lowlanders or the highlanders,
Elam is not an Iranian term and has no relationship to the conception which the peoples of highland Iran had of themselves. They were Anshanites, Marhashians, Shimashkians, Zabshalians, Sherihumians, Awanites, etc. That Anshan played a leading role in the political affairs of the various highland groups inhabiting southwestern Iran is clear. But to argue that Anshan is coterminous with Elam is to misunderstand the artificiality and indeed the alienness of Elam as a construct imposed from without on the peoples of the southwestern highlands of the Zagros mountain range, the coast of Fars and the alluvial plain drained by the Karun-Karkheh river system.[17]
Prehistorically the area was well settled during theUbaid period and shared many aspects of Ubaid cultures.
Knowledge of Elamite history remains largely fragmentary, reconstruction being based on mainlyMesopotamian (Sumerian,Akkadian,Assyrian andBabylonian) sources. The history of Elam is conventionally divided into three periods, spanning more than two millennia. The period before the first Elamite period is known as the proto-Elamite period:
Proto-Elamite: c. 3200 – c. 2700 BC (Proto-Elamite script in Susa)
Proto-Elamite civilization grew up east of theTigris andEuphrates alluvial plains; it was a combination of the lowlands and the immediate highland areas to the north and east. At least three proto-Elamite states merged to form Elam:Anshan,Awan, andShimashki. References to Awan are generally older than those to Anshan, and some scholars suggest that both states encompassed the same territory, in different eras (see Hanson, Encyclopædia Iranica). To this coreShushiana was periodically annexed and broken off. In addition, some Proto-Elamite sites are found well outside this area, spread out on theIranian plateau; such asWarakshe,Sialk (now a suburb of the modern city ofKashan) andJiroft[20] inKerman Province. The state of Elam was formed from these lesser states as a response to invasion from Sumer during the Old Elamite period. Elamite strength was based on an ability to hold these various areas together under a coordinated government that permitted the maximum interchange of the natural resources unique to each region. Traditionally, this was done through afederated governmental structure.
The Proto-Elamite city of Susa was founded around 4000 BC in the watershed of the riverKarun. It is considered to be the site of Proto-Elamite cultural formation. During its early history, it fluctuated between submission toMesopotamian and Elamite power. The earliest levels (22–17 in the excavations conducted by Le Brun, 1978) exhibit pottery that has no equivalent in Mesopotamia, but for the succeeding period, the excavated material allows identification with the culture of Sumer of theUruk period.Proto-Elamite influence from Mesopotamia in Susa becomes visible from about 3200 BC, and texts in the still undeciphered Proto-Elamite writing system continue to be present until about 2700 BC. The Proto-Elamite period ends with the establishment of theAwan dynasty. The earliest known historical figure connected with Elam is the kingEnmebaragesi ofKish (c. 2650 BC?), who subdued it, according to theSumerian king list. Elamite history can only be traced from records dating to beginning of theAkkadian Empire (2335–2154 BC) onwards.
The Proto-Elamite states inJiroft andZabol (not universally accepted), present a special case because of their great antiquity.
In ancientLuristan, bronze-making tradition goes back to the mid-3rd millennium BC, and has many Elamite connections. Bronze objects from several cemeteries in the region date to theEarly Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia) I, and toUr-III period c. 2900–2000 BC. These excavations include Kalleh Nisar,Bani Surmah, Chigha Sabz, Kamtarlan, Sardant, and Gulal-i Galbi.[21]
Polities during the Old Elamite period, and northern tribes of theLullubi,Simurrum and Hurti.Silver cup with linear-Elamite inscription on it. Late 3rd millennium BC.National Museum of Iran.
The Old Elamite period began around 2700 BC. Historical records mention the conquest of Elam byEnmebaragesi, theSumerian king ofKish inMesopotamia. Three dynasties ruled during this period. Twelve kings of each of the first two dynasties, those ofAwan (orAvan; c. 2400 – c. 2100 BC) andSimashki (c. 2100 – c. 1970 BC), are known from a list from Susa dating to theOld Babylonian period. Two Elamite dynasties said to have exercised brief control over parts of Sumer in very early times include Awan andHamazi; and likewise, several of the strongerSumerian rulers, such asEannatum ofLagash andLugal-anne-mundu ofAdab, are recorded as temporarily dominating Elam.
The Awan dynasty (2350–2150 BC)[22] was partly contemporary with that of the Mesopotamian emperorSargon of Akkad, who not only defeated the Awan kingLuh-ishan and subjectedSusa, but attempted to make theEast SemiticAkkadian the official language there. From this time, Mesopotamian sources concerning Elam become more frequent, since the Mesopotamians had developed an interest in resources (such as wood, stone, and metal) from the Iranian plateau, and military expeditions to the area became more common. With the collapse of Akkad under Sargon's great-great-grandson,Shar-kali-sharri, Elam declared independence under the last Awan king,Kutik-Inshushinak (c. 2240 – c. 2220 BC), and threw off the Akkadian language, promoting in its place the briefLinear Elamite script. Kutik-Inshushinnak conquered Susa and Anshan, and seems to have achieved some sort of political unity. Following his reign, the Awan dynasty collapsed as Elam was temporarily overrun by theGuti, another pre-Iranic people from what is now north west Iran who also spoke alanguage isolate.
About a century later, the Sumerian kingShulgi of theNeo-Sumerian Empire retook the city ofSusa and the surrounding region. During the first part of the rule of the Simashki dynasty, Elam was under intermittent attack from theSumerians ofMesopotamia and alsoGutians from northwestern Iran, alternating with periods of peace and diplomatic approaches. The Elamite state of Simashki at this time also extended into northern Iran, and possibly even as far as the Caspian Sea.Shu-Sin of Ur gave one of his daughters in marriage to a prince ofAnshan. But the power of the Sumerians was waning;Ibbi-Sin in the 21st century did not manage to penetrate far into Elam, and in 2004 BC, the Elamites, allied with the people of Susa and led by kingKindattu, the sixth king of Simashki, managed to sackUr and leadIbbi-Sin into captivity, ending thethird dynasty of Ur. TheAkkadian kings ofIsin,successor state to Ur, managed to drive the Elamites out of Ur, rebuild the city, and to return the statue ofNanna that the Elamites had plundered.
Seal impression of King Ebarat (𒂊𒁀𒊏𒀜), founder of theSukkalmah Dynasty (also calledEpartid Dynasty after his name).Louvre Museum, reference Sb 6225. King Ebarat appears enthroned. The inscription reads"Ebarat the King. Kuk Kalla, son of Kuk-Sharum, servant of Shilhaha".[23][24][25]
The succeeding dynasty, often called theSukkalmah dynasty (c. 1970 – c. 1770 BC) after "Great regents", the title borne by its members, also called the Epartid dynasty after the name of its founder Ebarat/ Eparti, was roughly contemporary with theOld Assyrian Empire, and OldBabylonian period in Mesopotamia, being younger by approximately sixty years than the Akkadian-speakingOld Assyrian Empire inUpper Mesopotamia, and almost seventy-five years older than the OldBabylonian Empire. This period is said by many to be confusing and difficult to reconstruct. It was apparently founded by Eparti I. During this time, Susa was under Elamite control, but Akkadian-speaking Mesopotamian states such asLarsa andIsin continually tried to retake the city. Around 1850 BCKudur-Mabuk, apparently king of anotherAkkadian state to the north of Larsa, managed to install his son,Warad-Sin, on the throne of Larsa, and Warad-Sin's brother,Rim-Sin, succeeded him and conquered much of southern Mesopotamia forLarsa.
Notable Eparti dynasty rulers in Elam during this time includeSuruhduh/Siruk-tuh/Sirukdukh (c. 1850 BC), who entered various military coalitions to contain the power of the south Mesopotamian states. Siruk-tuh was the king of Elam when Hammurabi first ruled,[26] he and later kings of the Elamite dynasty were referred to as "great king" and "father" by kings in Syria and Mesopotamia and were the only kings that the Mesopotamian Kings considered to be higher in status than themselves.[27][28]Siwe-Palar-Khuppak, who for some time was the most powerful person in the area, respectfully addressed as "Father" by Mesopotamian kings such asZimrilim ofMari,Shamshi-Adad I ofAssyria, and evenHammurabi of Babylon. During his reign alone, Elam interfered extensively with Mesopotamian politics, allowing messengers and envoys to travel far west toEmar andQatna in Syria.[29] His messenger reached Emar and sent his three servants to KingAmut-piʾel II of Qatna (1772–1762 BC), and the king of Qatna also sent two messengers to Elam.[30] The Elamite rulers had become increasingly involved in Mesopotamian politics during theSukkalmah dynasty. In fact,Rim-Sin ofLarsa himself was of Elamite descent, notwithstanding his Akkadian name.[31]Kudur-Nahhunte, who plundered the temples of southern Mesopotamia, the north being under the control of theOld Assyrian Empire. But Elamite influence in southern Mesopotamia did not last. Around 1760 BC, Hammurabi drove out the Elamites, overthrew Rim-Sin of Larsa, and established a short livedBabylonian Empire in Mesopotamia. Little is known about the latter part of this dynasty, since sources again become sparse with theKassite rule of Babylon (from c. 1595 BC).
Many archaeological finds suggest that maritime trade along the shores of Africa and Asia started several millennia ago.[32] Trade between theIndus Valley civilization and the cities of Mesopotamia and Elam, can be inferred from numerous find of Indus artifacts, particularly in the excavation atSusa. Various objects made with shell species that are characteristic of the Indus coast, particularlyTrubinella pyrum andFasciolaria trapezium, have been found in the archaeological sites of Mesopotamia and Susa dating from around 2500–2000 BC.[33]Carnelian beads from the Indus were found in Susa in the excavation of the tell of the citadel.[34] In particular, carnelian beads with an etched design in white were probably imported from the Indus Valley, and made according to a technique of acid-etching developed by theHarappans.[35][36][37]
Exchanges seem to have waned after 1900 BC, together with the disappearance of the Indus valley civilization.[38]
Indus round seal with impression. Elongated buffalo with Harappan symbol imported to Susa in 2600–1700 BC. Found in the tell of the Susa acropolis.Louvre Museum, reference Sb 5614[39]
Induscarnelian beads with white design, etched in white with an acid, imported to Susa in 2600–1700 BC. Found in the tell of the Susa acropolis.Louvre Museum, reference Sb 17751.[40][41][42] These beads are identical with beads found in the Indus Civilization site ofDholavira.[43]
Indus bracelet made ofFasciolaria trapezium orTurbinella pyrum imported to Susa in 2600–1700 BC. Found in the tell of the Susa acropolis. Louvre Museum, reference Sb 14473.[44] This type of bracelet was manufactured inMohenjo-daro,Lothal andBalakot.[35] It is engraved with a chevron design which is characteristic of all shell bangles of the Indus Valley, visiblehere.[45]
Indus Valley Civilization weight in veinedjasper, excavated in Susa in a 12th-century BC princely tomb. Louvre Museum Sb 17774.[46]
An ornate design on this limestone ritual vat from the Middle Elamite period depicts creatures with the heads of goats and the tails of fish (1500–1110 BC).
The Middle Elamite period began with the rise of the Anshanite dynasties around 1500 BC. Their rule was characterized by an "Elamisation" of Susa, and the kings took the title "king of Anshan and Susa". While the first of these dynasties, theKidinuids continued to use the Akkadian language frequently in their inscriptions, the succeedingIgihalkids andShutrukids used Elamite with increasing regularity. Likewise, Elamite language and culture grew in importance in Susiana. The Kidinuids (c. 1500 – 1400 BC) are a group of five rulers of uncertain affiliation. They are identified by their use of the older title, "king of Susa and of Anshan", and by calling themselves "servant ofKirwashir", an Elamite deity, thereby introducing the pantheon of the highlands to Susiana. The city of Susa itself is one of the oldest in the world dating back to around 4200 BC. Since its founding Susa was known as a central power location for the Elamites and for later Persian dynasties. Susa's power would peak during the Middle Elamite period, when it would be the region's capital.[47]
Stele of Untash Napirisha, king of Anshan and Susa. Sandstone, c. 1340–1300 BC.
Of the Igehalkids (c. 1400 – 1210 BC), ten rulers are known, though their number was possibly larger.[48] Some of them marriedKassite princesses. The Kassites were also alanguage isolate speaking people from theZagros Mountains who had takenBabylonia shortly after its sacking by theHittite Empire in 1595 BC. The Kassite king of BabylonKurigalzu II who had been installed on the throne byAshur-uballit I of theMiddle Assyrian Empire (1366–1020 BC), temporarily occupied Elam around 1320 BC, and later (c. 1230 BC) another Kassite king,Kashtiliash IV, fought Elam unsuccessfully. Kassite-Babylonian power waned, as they became dominated by the northern MesopotamianMiddle Assyrian Empire. Kiddin-Khutran of Elam repulsed the Kassites by defeatingEnlil-nadin-shumi in 1224 BC andAdad-shuma-iddina around 1222–1217 BC. Under the Igehalkids,Akkadian inscriptions were rare, and Elamite highland gods became firmly established in Susa.
Under theShutrukids (c. 1210 – 1100 BC), the Elamite empire reached the height of its power.Shutruk-Nakhkhunte and his three sons, Kutir-Nakhkhunte II, Shilhak-In-Shushinak, and Khutelutush-In-Shushinak were capable of frequent military campaigns into Kassite Babylonia (which was also being ravaged by the empire ofAssyria during this period), and at the same time were exhibiting vigorous construction activity—building and restoring luxurious temples in Susa and across their Empire. Shutruk-Nakhkhunte raided Babylonia, carrying home to Susa trophies like the statues ofMarduk andManishtushu, theManishtushu Obelisk, theStele of Hammurabi and thestele ofNaram-Sin. In 1158 BC, after much of Babylonia had been annexed byAshur-Dan I of Assyria and Shutruk-Nakhkhunte, the Elamites defeated the Kassites permanently, killing the Kassite king of Babylon,Zababa-shuma-iddin, and replacing him with his eldest son, Kutir-Nakhkhunte, who held it no more than three years before being ejected by the native Akkadian-speakingBabylonians. The Elamites then briefly came into conflict withAssyria, managing to take the Assyrian city ofArrapha (modernKirkuk) before being ultimately defeated and having a treaty forced upon them byAshur-Dan I.
Kutir-Nakhkhunte's son Khutelutush-In-Shushinak was probably born of Kutir-Nakhkhunte and his own daughter, Nakhkhunte-utu.[49][50] He was defeated byNebuchadnezzar I of Babylon, who sacked Susa and returned thestatue of Marduk, but who was then himself defeated by the Assyrian kingAshur-resh-ishi I. He fled to Anshan, but later returned to Susa, and his brotherShilhana-Hamru-Lagamar may have succeeded him as last king of the Shutrukid dynasty. Following Khutelutush-In-Shushinak, the power of the Elamite empire began to wane seriously, as after the death of this ruler, Elam disappears into obscurity for more than three centuries.
Very little is known of this period. Anshan was still at least partially Elamite. There appear to have been unsuccessful alliances of Elamites, Babylonians,Chaldeans and other peoples against the powerfulNeo Assyrian Empire (911–605 BC); the Babylonian kingMar-biti-apla-ushur (984–979 BC) was of Elamite origin, and Elamites are recorded to have fought unsuccessfully with the Babylonian kingMarduk-balassu-iqbi against theAssyrian forces underShamshi-Adad V (823–811 BC).
Elamite archer fighting against the Neo-Assyrian troops ofAshurbanipal, and protecting wounded kingTeumman (kneeling), at theBattle of Ulai, 653 BC.Ashurbanipal's campaign against Elam is triumphantly recorded in this relief showing the sack ofHamanu in 647 BC. Here, flames rise from the city asAssyrian soldiers topple it with pickaxes and crowbars and carry off the spoils.
The later Neo-Elamite period is characterized by a significant migration ofIndo-European speakingIranians to the Iranian plateau. Assyrian sources beginning around 800 BC distinguish the "powerful Medes", i.e. the actualMedes,Persians,Parthians,Sagartians, etc. Among these pressuring tribes were theParsu, first recorded in 844 BC as living on the southeastern shore ofLake Urmiah, but who by the end of this period would cause the Elamites' original home, the Iranian Plateau, to be renamed Persia proper. These newly arrivedIranian peoples were also conquered by Assyria, and largely regarded as vassals of theNeo-Assyrian Empire until the late 7th century.[citation needed]
More details are known from the late 8th century BC, when the Elamites were allied with theChaldean chieftainMerodach-baladan to defend the cause of Babylonian independence from Assyria.Humban-nikash I (743–717 BC) supported Merodach-baladan againstSargon II, apparently without success; while his successor,Shutruk-Nahhunte II (716–699 BC), was routed by Sargon's troops during an expedition in 710, and another Elamite defeat by Sargon's troops is recorded for 708. The Assyrian dominion over Babylon was underlined by Sargon's sonSennacherib, who defeated the Elamites, Chaldeans and Babylonians and dethroned Merodach-baladan for a second time, installing his own sonAshur-nadin-shumi on the Babylonian throne in 700.
Shutruk-Nakhkhunte II, the last Elamite to claim the old title "king of Anshan and Susa", was murdered by his brotherHallutash-Inshushinak I, who managed to briefly capture the Assyrian governor of Babylonia Ashur-nadin-shumi and the city of Babylon in 694 BC.Sennacherib soon responded by invading and ravaging Elam. Khallushu was in turn assassinated byKutir-Nahhunte III, who succeeded him but soon abdicated in favor ofHumban-numena III (692–689 BC). Khumma-Menanu recruited a new army to help the Babylonians and Chaldeans against the Assyrians at thebattle of Halule in 691. Both sides claimed the victory in their annals, but Babylon was destroyed bySennacherib only two years later, and its Elamite allies defeated in the process.
The reigns ofHumban-Haltash I (688–681 BC) andHumban-Haltash II (680–675 BC) saw a deterioration of Elamite-Babylonian relations, and both of them raidedSippar. At the beginning ofEsarhaddon's reign inAssyria (681–669 BC), Nabu-zer-kitti-lišir, an ethnically Elamite governor in the south of Babylonia, revolted and besiegedUr, but was routed by theAssyrians and fled to Elam where the king of Elam, fearing Assyrian repercussions, took him prisoner and put him to the sword.[51]
Urtaku (674–664 BC) for some time wisely maintained good relations with the Assyrian kingAshurbanipal (668–627 BC), who sent wheat to Susiana during a famine. But these friendly relations were only temporary, and Urtaku was killed in battle during a failed Elamite attack on Assyria.
Relief of a woman being fanned by an attendant while she holds what may be a spinning device before a table with a bowl containing a whole fish (700–550 BC).
His successorTepti-Humban-Inshushinak (664–653 BC) attacked Assyria, but was defeated and killed byAshurbanipal following the battle of theUlaï in 653 BC; andSusa itself was sacked and occupied by the Assyrians. In this same year the Assyrian vassalMedian state to the north fell to the invadingScythians andCimmerians underMadyes, and displacing another Assyrian vassal people, theParsu (Persians) toAnshan which their kingTeispes captured that same year, turning it for the first time into anIndo-Iranian kingdom underAssyrian dominance that would a century later become the nucleus of theAchaemenid dynasty. TheAssyrians successfully subjugated and drove theScythians andCimmerians from theirIranian colonies, and thePersians,Medes andParthians remained vassals of Assyria.
A brief respite to the Elamites was provided by the civil war betweenAshurbanipal and his own brotherShamash-shum-ukin, whom their fatherEsarhaddon had installed as the vassal king of Babylon. The Elamites gave support to Shamash-shum-ukin, but also engaged in fighting among themselves. Babylon was besieged in midsummer of 650 BC, and fell by 648 BC; Shamash-shum-ukin died in a fire. The Elamite kingdom was greatly weakened by rebellions and civil wars; kings from 651 to 640 had short reigns before being usurped, overthrown, or captured by the Assyrians. Having dealt with his brother, Ashurbanipal sensed an opportunity to devastate Elam. In 646 BC Ashurbanipal devastated Susiana with ease, and sacked Susa. He installed several vassal kings such asTammaritu, although these quickly broke off relations with Assyria over their pillages. The last Elamite king,Humban-Haltash III, was captured in 640 BC by Ashurbanipal, who annexed and destroyed the country.[52]
In a tablet unearthed in 1854 byAusten Henry Layard, Ashurbanipal boasts of the destruction he had wrought:
Susa, the great holy city, abode of their Gods, seat of their mysteries, I conquered. I entered its palaces, I opened their treasuries where silver and gold, goods and wealth were amassed ... I destroyed the ziggurat of Susa. I smashed its shining copper horns. I reduced the temples of Elam to naught; their gods and goddesses I scattered to the winds. The tombs of their ancient and recent kings I devastated, I exposed to the sun, and I carried away their bones toward the land of Ashur. I devastated the provinces of Elam and on their lands I sowed salt.[53]
Elamite soldier in the Achaemenid army circa 470 BC,Xerxes I tomb relief.
The devastation was a little less complete than Ashurbanipal boasted, and a weak and fragmented Elamite rule was resurrected soon after with Shuttir-Nakhkhunte, son of Humban-umena III (not to be confused with Shuttir-Nakhkhunte, son of Indada, a petty king in the first half of the 6th century). Elamite royalty in the final century preceding the Achaemenids was fragmented among different small kingdoms, the united Elamite nation having been destroyed and colonised by the Assyrians. The three kings at the close of the 7th century (Shuttir-Nakhkhunte, Khallutush-In-Shushinak and Atta-Khumma-In-Shushinak) still called themselves "king of Anzan and of Susa" or "enlarger of the kingdom of Anzan and of Susa", at a time when the Achaemenid Persians were already ruling Anshan under Assyrian dominance.[citation needed]
The variousAssyrian Empires, which had been the dominant force in theNear East,Asia Minor, theCaucasus,North Africa,Arabian peninsula andEast Mediterranean for much of the period from the first half of the 14th century BC, began to unravel after the death ofAshurbanipal in 631 BC, descending into a series of bitter internal civil wars which also spread to Babylonia. TheIranianMedes,Parthians,Persians andSagartians, who had been largely subject to Assyria since their arrival in the region around 1000 BC, quietly took full advantage of the anarchy in Assyria, and in 616 BC freed themselves from Assyrian rule.
ššina, one of the last kings of Elam circa 522 BC was toppled, enchained and killed byDarius the Great. The label over him says: "This is ššina. He lied, saying"I am king of Elam.""[55]
The prophet Ezekiel describes the status of their power in the 12th year of the HebrewBabylonian Captivity in 587 BC:
There is Elam and all her multitude, All around her grave, All of them slain, fallen by the sword, Who have gone down uncircumcised to the lower parts of the earth, Who caused their terror in the land of the living; Now they bear their shame with those who go down to the Pit. (Ezekiel 32:24)[56]
Their successors Khumma-Menanu and Shilhak-In-Shushinak II bore the simple title "king", and the final king Tempti-Khumma-In-Shushinak used no honorific at all. In 540 BC, Achaemenid rule began in Susa.
Dated to approximately the 12th century BC, gold and silver figurines of Elamite worshippers are shown carrying a sacrificial goat. These divine and royal statues were meant to assure the king of the enduring protection of the deity, well-being and a long life. Works which showed a ruler and his performance of a ritual action were intended to eternalize the effectiveness of such deeds. Found near the Temple ofInshushinak inSusa, these statuettes would have been considered charged with beneficial power.[58]
While archaeologists cannot be certain that the location where these figures were found indicates a date before or in the time of the Elamite king Shilhak-Inshushinak, stylistic features can help ground the figures in a specific time period. The hairstyle and costume of the figures which are strewn with dots and hemmed with short fringe at the bottom, and the precious metals point to a date in the latter part of the second millennium BC rather than to the first millennium.[58]
In general, any gold or silver statuettes which represent the king making a sacrifice not only served a religious function, but was also a display of wealth.[58]
Cylinder seal and modern impression- worshiper before a seated ruler or deity; seated female under a grape arbor MET DP370181
Elamite seals reached their peak of complexity in the 4th millennium BC when their shape became cylindrical rather than stamp-like. Seals were primarily used as a form of identification and were often made out of precious stones. Because seals for different time periods had different designs and themes, seals and seal impressions can be used to track the various phases of the Elamite Empire and can teach a lot about the empire in ways which other forms of documentation cannot.[59]
The seal pictured shows two seated figures holding cups with a man in front of them wearing a long robe next to a table. A man is sitting on a throne, presumably the king, and is in a wrapped robe. The second figure, perhaps his queen, is draped in a wide, flounced garment and is elevated on a platform beneath an overhanging vine. A crescent is shown in the field.[59]
This life-size votive offering of QueenNapir-Asu was commissioned around 1300 BC in Susa, Iran. It is made of copper using thelost-wax casting method and rests on a solid bronze frame that weighs 1750 kg (3760 lb). This statue is different from many other Elamite statues of women because it resembles male statues due to the wide belt on the dress and the patterns which closely resemble those on male statues.[60]
The inscription on the side of the statue curses anyone, specifically men, who attempts to destroy the statue: "I, Napir-Asu, wife ofUntash-Napirisha. He who would seize my statue, who would smash it, who would destroy its inscription, who would erase my name, may he be smitten by the curse of Napirisha, of Kiririsha, and of Inshushinka, that his name shall become extinct, that his offspring be barren, that the forces of Beltiya, the great goddess, shall sweep down on him. This is Napir-Asu's offering."[61]
The stele of the Elamite king,Untash-Napirisha was believed to have been commissioned in the 12th century BC. It was moved from the original religious capital ofChogha Zanbil to the city of Susa by the successor king,Shutruk-Nahnante. Four registers of the stele are left. The remains depict the god Inshushinak validating the legitimacy of who is thought to be Shutruk-Nahnante. In the periphery are two priestesses, deity hybrids of fish and women holding streams of water, and two half-man half-mouflon guardians of the sacred tree. The names of the two priestesses are carved on their arms.[62]
King Untash Napirisha dedicated the stele to the god Ishushinak. Like other forms of art in the ancient Near East, this one portrays a king ceremonially recognizing a deity. This stele is unique in that the acknowledgement between king and god is reciprocal.[62]
A carvedchlorite vase decorated with a relief depicting a "two-horned" figure wrestling with serpent goddesses. The Elamite artifact was discovered by Iran's border police in the possession of historical heritage traffickers, en route to Turkey, and was confiscated. Style is determined to be from "Jiroft".[citation needed]
The Elamites practisedpolytheism.[63] Due to scarcity of sources, past scholars assumed that Elamite religion must have been characterized by the "ill-defined character of the individual gods and goddesses. ...Most of them were not only ineffable beings whose real name was either not uttered or was unknown, but also sublime ideas, not to be exactly defined by the human race."[63]: 403 Worship also varied between localities.[63]: 401 However, more recent scholarship shows that Elamite deities most likely were not any less defined than these of theirSumerian,Akkadian andHurrian neighbors.[64]
Inscriptions of many Elamite kings indicate that a concept of a supreme triad consisting ofInshushinak (originally the civic protector god of Susa, eventually the leader of the triad[63]: 401 and guarantor of the monarchy[62]),Kiririsha (an earth/mother goddess in southern Elam[63]: 406 ), andNapirisha existed.[65] In the Neo-Elamite periodHumban, previously a deity of limited relevance in known sources, emerged as a divine source of royal power.[66]
Another significant deity wasPinikir, an astral goddess of love, similar toIshtar.[67] Some researchers, especially in the 1960s and 1970s, saw her as a mother goddess, and possibly originally chief deity, in northern Elam,[63]: 400 [68] later supplanted by or identified with Kiririsha, but this view is no longer supported by scholars.[69][70]
There were also imported deities, such as Beltiya,[62]Nergal orNanaya; some native Elamite deities hadAkkadian orSumerian names as well (ex.Manzat,Inshushinak and his attendants), indicating a long history of interchange. Some Elamite deities were also venerated outside Elam: Pinikir was known to the Hurrians and Hittites,[71]Simut appeared in Babylonian personal names,[72] and an Assyrian text mentions Khumban, Napirisha and Yabru (Jabru) as protectors of the king.[73][74]
Adad, under the Akkadian name and alongside his wifeShala, was himself worshiped in Elam (ex. inChogha Zanbil)[89] and none of these 3 names are attested outside Mesopotamian god lists, unless the ideogramdIM refers to more than one weather god in Elamite sources (ex. in personal names). Wouter Henkelman proposes Kunzibami, Šihhaš and Šennukušu are either locally used Elamite epithets of Adad or local (rather than national) weather gods, and notes that Šennukušu is a Sumerian rather than Elamite name.[90]
One of the supreme gods, possibly linked to water.[99]
Formerly incorrectly believed to be a "taboo name" of Humban.[100] There is some evidence that in Elam Inshushinak, rather than Napirisha, was associated with Ea, as well as with the god Enzag fromDilmun.[101]
Elamite is traditionally thought to be alanguage isolate, and completely unrelated to the neighbouringSemitic languages,Sumerian andKassite,Hurrian (also isolates), and the later arrivingIndo-EuropeanIranian languages that came to dominate the region of Elam from the 6th century BC. It was written in acuneiform adapted from the SemiticAkkadian script ofAssyria andBabylonia, although the very earliest documents were written in the quite different"Linear Elamite" script. In 2006, two even older inscriptions in a similar script were discovered atJiroft to the east of Elam, leading archaeologists to speculate that Linear Elamite had originally spread from further east toSusa. It seems to have developed from an even earlier writing known as "proto-Elamite", but scholars are not unanimous on whether or not this script was used to write Elamite or another language, as it has not yet been deciphered. Several stages of the language are attested; the earliest date back to the third millennium BC, the latest to theAchaemenid Empire.[citation needed]
While Elamite is viewed as alanguage isolate by the vast majority of linguists, a minority of scholars have proposed that the Elamite language could be related to theDravidian languages.[108] David McAlpine believes Elamite may be related to the living Dravidian languages. This hypothesis (which has been subject to serious criticism by linguists) is considered under the rubric ofElamo-Dravidian languages.[citation needed][109]
The Assyrians had utterly destroyed the Elamite nation, but new polities emerged in the area after Assyrian power faded. Among the nations that benefited from the decline of the Assyrians were the Iranian tribes, whose presence aroundLake Urmia to the north of Elam is attested from the 9th century BC in Assyrian texts. Some time after that region fell to Madius the Scythian (653 BC),Teispes, son ofAchaemenes, conquered Elamite Anshan in the mid 7th century BC, forming a nucleus that would expand into the Persian Empire. They were largely regarded as vassals of the Assyrians, and the Medes,Mannaeans, and Persians paid tribute to Assyria from the 10th century BC until the death ofAshurbanipal in 627 BC. After his death, the Medes played a major role in the destruction of the weakened Assyrian Empire in 612 BC.
The rise of the Achaemenids in the 6th century BC brought an end to the existence of Elam as an independent political power "but not as a cultural entity" (Encyclopædia Iranica,Columbia University). Indigenous Elamite traditions, such as the use of the title "king of Anshan" byCyrus the Great; the "Elamite robe" worn byCambyses I of Anshan and seen on the famous wingedgenii atPasargadae; some glyptic styles; the use of Elamite as the first of three official languages of the empire used in thousands of administrative texts found at Darius' city ofPersepolis; the continued worship of Elamite deities; and the persistence of Elamite religious personnel and cults supported by the crown, formed an essential part of the newly emerging Achaemenid culture in Persian Iran. The Elamites thus became the conduit by which achievements of the Mesopotamian civilizations were introduced to the tribes of the Iranian plateau.
Conversely, remnants of Elamite had "absorbed Iranian influences in both structure and vocabulary" by 500 BC,[110] suggesting a form of cultural continuity or fusion connecting the Elamite and the Persian periods.[111]Arab sources refer to speakers of "Xūzī" which was not "Hebrew, Aramaic, or Persian" spoken by servants and isolated rural communities in Khuzestan until the 10th century. Scholars such as "von Spiegel, Huart, Spuler, Lazard, Potts, Orsatti, and Tavernier have already suggested or assumed that the language mentioned here is a very late form of Elamite."[112]
The name of "Elam" survived into theHellenistic period and beyond. In its Greek form,Elymais, it emerges as designating a semi-independent state underParthian suzerainty during the 2nd century BC to the early 3rd century AD. InActs 2:8–9 in theNew Testament, the language of theElamitēs is one of the languages heard at thePentecost. From 410 onwardsElam (Beth Huzaye) was the senior metropolitan province of theChurch of the East, surviving into the 14th century. Indian Carmelite historian John Marshal has proposed that the root ofCarmelite history in the Indian subcontinent could be traced to the promise of restoration of Elam (Jeremiah 49:39).[113][unreliable source?]
A 4.5 inch longlapis lazulidove is studded with gold pegs. Dated 1200 BC fromSusa, a city later on shared with the Achaemenids.
Elamitereliefs atEshkaft-e Salman. The picture of a woman with dignity shows the importance of women in the Elamite era.[opinion]
^Elam: surveys of political history and archaeology, Elizabeth Carter and Matthew W. Stolper, University of California Press, 1984, p. 4
^Potts, Daniel T. (2016).The Archaeology of Elam: Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State (2nd ed.). The Cambridge University Press. p. 48.ISBN9781107476639.
^Kent, Roland (1953).Old Persian: Grammar, Texts & Lexicon. American Oriental Series. Vol. 33). American Oriental Society. p. 53.ISBN0-940490-33-1.{{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
^De Graef, Katrien. 2018. "In Taberna Quando Sumus: On Taverns, Nadītum Women, and the Cagum in Old Babylonian Sippar." In Gender and Methodology in the Ancient near East: Approaches from Assyriology and beyond, edited by Stephanie Lynn Budin et al., 136. Barcino monographica orientalia 10. Barcelona: University of Barcelona.
^Potts, Daniel T. 2012. "The Elamites." In The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History, edited by Touraj Daryaee and Tūraǧ Daryāyī, 43-44. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press.
^Charpin, Dominique. 2012a. "Ansi parle l' empereur' à propos de la correspondance des sukkal-mah." In Susa and Elam. Archaeological, Philological, Historical and Geographical Perspectives: Proceedings of the International Congress Held at Ghent University, December 14–17, 2009, edited by Katrien De Graef and Jan Tavernier, 352. Leiden: Brill.
^Kenneth Anderson Kitchen, On the Reliability of the Old Testament, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2003, p. 321
^Charpin, Dominique (2010). Writing, Law, and Kingship in Old Babylonian Mesopotamia. Translated by Todd, Jane Marie. University of Chicago Press.ISBN978-0-226-10159-0. p. 124
^Amanda H. Weavers, Scribes, and Kings: A New History of the Ancient Near East. Oxford University Press, 2022. 269.ISBN9780190059040.
^Wilson. Nigel Guy (2006).Encyclopedia of ancient Greece. Routledge. p. 58.ISBN978-0-415-97334-2.ANTIOCHUS III THE GREAT c242–187 BC Seleucid king Antiochus III the Great was the sixth king (223–187 BC) ... Antiochus landed on the mainland of Greece posing as a champion of Greek freedom against the Romans (192 BC).
^abcPorada, Edith (2017)."Art of the Elamites".www.iranchamber.com.Archived from the original on 1 March 2016. Retrieved29 June 2005.
^The Archaeology of Elam: Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State. D.T.Potts, second edition
^abcdBorne interactive du département des Antiquités orientales.Florence Malbran-Labat, Les Inscriptions de Suse : briques de l'époque paléo-élamite à l'empire néo-élamite, Paris, Éditions de la Réunion des musées nationaux, 1995, p.168–169. Miroschedji Pierre de, "Le Dieu élamite au serpent", in : Iranica antiqua, Vol.16, 1981, Gand, Ministère de l'Éducation et de la Culture, 1989, p.13–14, pl.8.
^W. M. F. Henkelman,ŠimutArchived 2 May 2021 at theWayback Machine [in:]Reallexikon der Assyriologie und vorderasiatischen Archäologie vol. 12, 2011, p. 512
^K. van der Toorn, Humbaba, [in:] K. van der Toorn, B. Becking, P. W. van der Horst, Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible, 1999, p. 431-432
^L. Murat,Goddess IšharaArchived 22 May 2021 at theWayback Machine,Ankara Üniversitesi Dil ve Tarih-Coğrafya Fakültesi Tarih Bölümü Tarih Araştırmaları Dergisi 45, 2009, p. 160
^abcW. M. F. Henkelman,RuhuraterArchived 4 May 2021 at theWayback Machine [in:]Reallexikon der Assyriologie und vorderasiatischen Archäologie vol 11, 2008, p. 449
^H. Koch,Theology and Worship in Elam and Achaemenid Iran,Civilizations of the ancient Near East 3, 1995, p. 1961
^W. M. F. Henkelman,The Other Gods who are: Studies in Elamite-Iranian Acculturation Based on the Persepolis Fortification Texts, 2008, p. 372
^W. G. Lambert,Išme-karāb [in]Reallexikon der Assyriologie und vorderasiatischen Archäologie vol 5, 1980, p. 196-197
^H. Koch,Theology and Worship in Elam and Achaemenid Iran,Civilizations of the ancient Near East 3, 1995, p. 1961
^W. G. Lambert,Jabnu [in:]Reallexikon der Assyriologie und vorderasiatischen Archäologie, vol. 5, 1980, p. 229: "Jabnu is equated with Enlil in BA 5 (1906) 655 8 (from which An = Anum 1162 may be restored)"
^W. G. Lambert,Jabnu [in:]Reallexikon der Assyriologie und vorderasiatischen Archäologie, vol. 5, 1980, p. 229
^W. M. F. Henkelman,The Other Gods who are: Studies in Elamite-Iranian Acculturation Based on the Persepolis Fortification Texts, 2008, p. 330
^W. M. F. Henkelman,The Other Gods who are: Studies in Elamite-Iranian Acculturation Based on the Persepolis Fortification Texts, 2008, p. 354, footnote 824: "In addition to Napiriša, Hinz (1976/80b) surmised that Kiririša also was a taboo-name (for Pinigir). This theory has been convincingly discredited by Grillot & Vallat 1984: 27-9."
^W. M. F. Henkelman,The Other Gods who are: Studies in Elamite-Iranian Acculturation Based on the Persepolis Fortification Texts, 2008, p. 331
^Vallat, F. (13 December 2011) [15 December 1998]."Elam vi. Elamite religion".Encyclopaedia Iranica.Archived from the original on 8 November 2023.Several divinities from the plateau can be connected to the pantheons of the principal geopolitical entities that constituted Elam (...), for example (...) Kirmašir in Awan
^Vallat, F. (13 December 2011) [15 December 1998]."Elam vi. Elamite religion".Encyclopaedia Iranica.Archived from the original on 8 November 2023.In the space between this wall and a second wall the temples of several gods were built. In order from the southeast to the northeast they were the temples of Pinikir,Adad and Šala, Šimut and Nin-ali, the Napratep gods, and after a wide interval that of Hišmitik and Ruhuratir
^W. M. F. Henkelman,The Other Gods who are: Studies in Elamite-Iranian Acculturation Based on the Persepolis Fortification Texts, 2008, p. 307-308, in particular "It seems therefore more likely that the three names (if they are not epithets) refer to deities in some of the local pantheons that must have existed in Elam but that remain virtually unknown to us."
^W. G. Lambert,Lāgamāl [in]Reallexikon der Assyriologie und vorderasiatischen Archäologie vol 6, 1983, p. 418-419
^Vallat, F. (13 December 2011) [15 December 1998]."Elam vi. Elamite religion".Encyclopaedia Iranica.Archived from the original on 8 November 2023.Kiririša and Mašti were "mothers of the gods."
^Wiggermann, F. (January 2010)."Siebengötter A (Sebettu)".Reallexikon der Assyriologie und vorderasiatischen Archäologie. Vol. 12. p. 462.Archived from the original on 8 June 2021. Retrieved8 June 2021 – via Academia.edu.
^Vallat, F. (13 December 2011) [15 December 1998]."Elam vi. Elamite religion".Encyclopaedia Iranica.Archived from the original on 8 November 2023.Ešpurm, governor of Susa for Maništusu, dedicated a statue to the goddess Narundi
^V. Haas, H.Koch,Religionen des alten Orients: Hethiter und Iran, 2011, p. 63
^W. M. F. Henkelman,The Other Gods who are: Studies in Elamite-Iranian Acculturation Based on the Persepolis Fortification Texts, 2008, p. 330, footnote 770: "In Mesopotamia, Napiriša was considered to be "the Ea of Elam" (Commentary B l.3 to Šurpu II.163 in Reiner 1958: 50). Ea or Enki ("Lord Earth") resided in the Apsû and from there controlled the waters that fertilise the lands.
^W. M. F. Henkelman,The Other Gods who are: Studies in Elamite-Iranian Acculturation Based on the Persepolis Fortification Texts, 2008, p. 215
^W. M. F. Henkelman,The Other Gods who are: Studies in Elamite-Iranian Acculturation Based on the Persepolis Fortification Texts, 2008, p. 307, footnote 702: "Inšušinak is indeed equated with a Mesopotamian god, (...) Ninurta (...); in Elam he seems to have been associated, if not equated, with Ea and the Dilmunite Enzag"
^W. M. F. Henkelman,ŠimutArchived 2 May 2021 at theWayback Machine [in:]Reallexikon der Assyriologie und vorderasiatischen Archäologie vol. 12, 2011, p. 511-512
^W. M. F. Henkelman,The Other Gods who are: Studies in Elamite-Iranian Acculturation Based on the Persepolis Fortification Texts, 2008, p. 365
^W. M. F. Henkelman,Upur-kubakArchived 7 June 2021 at theWayback Machine [in:]Reallexikon der Assyriologie und vorderasiatischen Archäologie vol 14, 2014, p. 352
^Black Athena: The linguistic evidence, by Martin Bernal, p. 701
^"There is much evidence, both archaeological and literary/epigraphic, to suggest that the rise of the Persian empire witnessed the fusion of Elamite and Persian elements already present in highland Fars".The Archaeology of Elam: Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State. Cambridge World Archaeology. Chap 9 Introduction.
^Kevin T. Van Bladel (2021). "The Language of the Xuz and the Fate of Elamite".Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society.31 (3):447–462.doi:10.1017/S1356186321000092.
^p. 185–211, The First Foundation of Carmel in India 1619–2019[part-1] Dhyanavana publications,ISBN978-81-89144-33-3
Quintana Cifuentes, E., "Historia de Elam el vecino mesopotámico", Murcia, 1997.Estudios Orientales. IPOA-Murcia.
Quintana Cifuentes, E., "Textos y Fuentes para el estudio del Elam", Murcia, 2000. Estudios Orientales. IPOA-Murcia.
Quintana Cifuentes, E., La Lengua Elamita (Irán pre-persa), Madrid, 2010. Gram Ediciones.ISBN978-84-88519-17-7
Khačikjan, Margaret:The Elamite Language, Documenta Asiana IV, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche Istituto per gli Studi Micenei ed Egeo-Anatolici, 1998ISBN88-87345-01-5
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![Indus round seal with impression. Elongated buffalo with Harappan symbol imported to Susa in 2600–1700 BC. Found in the tell of the Susa acropolis. Louvre Museum, reference Sb 5614[39]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fwww.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aIndus_round_seal_with_impression_Elongated_buffalo_with_Harappan_scrpit_imported_to_Susa_in_2600-1700_BCE_LOUVRE_Sb5614.jpg)
![Indus carnelian beads with white design, etched in white with an acid, imported to Susa in 2600–1700 BC. Found in the tell of the Susa acropolis. Louvre Museum, reference Sb 17751.[40][41][42] These beads are identical with beads found in the Indus Civilization site of Dholavira.[43]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fwww.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aIndus_carnelian_beads_with_white_design_imported_to_Susa_in_2600-1700_BCE_LOUVRE_Sb_13099.jpg)
![Indus bracelet made of Fasciolaria trapezium or Turbinella pyrum imported to Susa in 2600–1700 BC. Found in the tell of the Susa acropolis. Louvre Museum, reference Sb 14473.[44] This type of bracelet was manufactured in Mohenjo-daro, Lothal and Balakot.[35] It is engraved with a chevron design which is characteristic of all shell bangles of the Indus Valley, visible here.[45]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fwww.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aIndus_bracelet_made_of_Fasciolaria_Trapezium_or_Xandus_Pyrum_imported_to_Susa_in_2600-1700_BCE_LOUVRE_Sb14473.jpg)
![Indus Valley Civilization weight in veined jasper, excavated in Susa in a 12th-century BC princely tomb. Louvre Museum Sb 17774.[46]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fwww.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aIndus_Valley_Civilization_weight_excavated_in_Susa._Louvre_Museum_Sb_17774.jpg)
![Elamite reliefs at Eshkaft-e Salman. The picture of a woman with dignity shows the importance of women in the Elamite era.[opinion]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fwww.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aEshkaft-e_Salman_II.jpg)
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